Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No.

Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil

disturbance
D. Basu1 and M. Prezzi2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut,
261 Glenbrook Road, Unit 2037, CT 06269, USA, Telephone: +1 860 486 5023, Telefax: 860 486 2298,
E-mail: basu.dipan@gmail.com, dbasu@engr.uconn.edu
2
Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, IN
47907, USA, Telephone: +1 765 494 5034, Telefax: +1 765 494 0395, E-mail: mprezzi@purdue.edu

Received 7 October 2008, revised 1 February 2009, accepted 1 February 2009

ABSTRACT: In the present study, the effect of soil disturbance on prefabricated vertical drain
(PVD)-enhanced soft soil consolidation was studied using finite element (FE) analysis. Both square
and triangular PVD installation arrangements were considered. The actual shapes of the PVD,
disturbed zone and unit cell were preserved in the FE analysis. A parametric study for a wide
range of possible hydraulic conductivity profiles with a sigmoidal shape indicated that the degree
of disturbance in the immediate vicinity of the PVD and the extent of the disturbed zone are the
two factors that significantly affect the consolidation rate. Proper evaluation of these factors is
therefore necessary for satisfactory PVD design. A comparison was made between the degree of
consolidation calculated using an analytical solution assuming a bilinear hydraulic conductivity
profile and FE analysis assuming a sigmoidal hydraulic conductivity profile in the disturbed zone
surrounding the PVD. The curves of degree of consolidation plotted against time factor that were
obtained from these solutions were in reasonably good agreement. Based on the analytical solution,
design charts for a variety of conditions and hydraulic conductivity profiles were developed. They
can be easily used in practice to determine the required PVD spacing for the desired degree of
consolidation and specified time. The design charts can also be used for conditions in which
overlapping of disturbed zones occurs.

KEYWORDS: Geosynthetics, Prefabricated vertical drain, Consolidation, Smear, Soil disturbance,

Design, Finite element analysis

REFERENCE: Basu, D. and Prezzi, M. (2009). Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil
disturbance. Geosynthetics International, 16, No. 3, 147–157. [doi: 10.1680/gein.2009.16.3.147]

Notwithstanding their wide use, PVDs have some

1. INTRODUCTION
Thick alluvial deposits of soft clayey soils are charac-
terised by low shear strength, high compressibility and
low hydraulic conductivity. Pre-treatment of these deposits
by preloading combined with the installation of prefabri-
cated vertical drains (PVDs) is often the ground improve-
ment technique selected in practice (Holtz 1987; Bergado
et al. 1993). PVDs are installed in the ground with a
centre-to-centre distance of about 1 to 3 m (Holtz 1987).
The closely spaced PVDs act as vertical drainage channels
with hydraulic conductivity much greater than that of the
in situ soil. Pore water flows horizontally into the PVDs,
then vertically through the PVDs until it is finally expelled
from the soil deposit through a drainage blanket. Since the
water drainage path within the soil is greatly reduced,
consolidation occurs much faster than it would if no drains
were installed. Owing to the reduction in the soil void
ratio, a rapid gain in soil strength and stiffness occurs.
1072-6349 # 2009 Thomas Telford Ltd
operational problems (Basu and Madhav 2000; Miura and
Chai 2000; Welker et al. 2000; Müller et al. 2008). A
major problem is soil disturbance caused during the
installation of the PVDs by closed-ended mandrels (Holtz
1987, Bergado et al. 1993; Hansbo 1997; Welker et al.
2004). As the hydraulic conductivity of the disturbed soil
surrounding the PVDs is reduced significantly from the
initial in situ value, the consolidation process is delayed in
comparison with the ideal case of no soil disturbance.
Several research studies have attempted to account for
soil disturbance in PVD design (Barron 1948; Hansbo
1981; Indraratna and Redana 1997). Most of these studies
assumed that the hydraulic conductivity is spatially invar-
iant within the disturbed zone (also called the smear
zone). Recent studies, however, show that the hydraulic
conductivity is not constant within the disturbed zone and
that its spatial variation needs to be considered in design
for proper estimation of soil consolidation (Onoue et al.
147
148 Basu and Prezzi

1991; Madhav et al. 1993; Indraratna and Redana 1998;
Sharma and Xiao 2000; Basu et al. 2006, 2007; Walker
and Indratarna 2006; Basu and Prezzi 2007).
In the present study, the effect of soil disturbance on the
consolidation process was investigated by considering the
spatial variability of the hydraulic conductivity in the
disturbed zone surrounding a PVD. Soil disturbance is
first characterised and quantified using recently published
experimental studies. Based on this assessment, the effect
of soil disturbance on the rate of consolidation was studied
using finite element (FE) analysis. Analytical solutions
that calculate the degree of consolidation by taking into
account the gradual variation of the hydraulic conductivity
in the disturbed zone were identified. These analytical
solutions were further modified to take into account the
overlap of the disturbed zones. Based on the analytical
solutions, easy-to-use design charts that can be used in
practice to obtain the required PVD spacing for a given
time and degree of consolidation are provided.
2. DISTURBED ZONE
CHARACTERISATION
2.1. Variation of hydraulic conductivity
Traditionally, the hydraulic conductivity khd within the
disturbed zone is assumed to be spatially constant at a
value khs that is typically 0.1–0.3 times the in situ
undisturbed hydraulic conductivity kho (Bergado et al.
1993; Hansbo 1997). However, recent experimental studies
(Onoue et al. 1991; Madhav et al. 1993; Indraratna and
Redana 1998; Sharma and Xiao 2000) show that, within
the disturbed zone, the hydraulic conductivity varies
spatially around PVDs. The spatial variation can be
approximated by a sigmoidal curve (Figure 1):

 r


k hd k hs k hs
Æ r
¼ þ 1
1
e m,eq (1)
k ho k ho k ho
where khd is the hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed
zone; khs is the hydraulic conductivity adjacent to the
PVD; r is the radial distance from the PVD centre (after
converting the PVD cross-section and the disturbed zone
into equivalent circles), rm,eq is the equivalent mandrel
radius (obtained by equating the actual mandrel cross
sectional area to a circular area); and Æ and
are fitting
parameters. Hydraulic conductivity profiles with
Æ ¼ 0.45–2.0 and
¼ 30 and with khs /kho ¼ 0.1, 0.2 and
0.3 have been found to match the experimental data well.
Profiles 1 to 6 in Figure 1(a) correspond to Æ ¼ 2.0, 1.4,
1.05, 0.85, 0.65 and 0.45, respectively (
¼ 30 and khs /
kho ¼ 0.2 are constants for these profiles). Figure 1(b) and
(c) show profiles 7 to 12 and 13 to 18 corresponding to
khs /kho ¼ 0.1 and 0.3, respectively, with identical values of
Æ and
as those of Figure 1(a).
Information about the actual variation of hydraulic
conductivity at a field site is generally not available.
However, Figure 1(a) to (c) give an indication of how the
variation is likely to be in the field. The advantage of
representing the variation of the hydraulic conductivity
with distance from the drain by Equation 1 is that, by
changing the parameters Æ and
, different S-shaped
curves can be produced. Thus, a designer can choose
values covering the range of possible distributions at a site
and decide on the optimal PVD spacing.

(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

khd /kho

khd /kho
khd /kho

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 β ⫽ 30 0.2 β ⫽ 30

khs /kho ⫽ 0.1 khs /kho ⫽ 0.3

0 0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
Normalised distance, r /rm,eq Normalised distance, r /rm,eq Normalised distance, r /rm,eq

Onoue et al. (1991)

Madhav et al. (1993) Profile 7; α ⫽ 2.0 Profile 13; α ⫽ 2.0
Indraratna & Redana (1998) Profile 8; α ⫽ 1.4 Profile 14; α ⫽ 1.4
Sharma & Xiao (2000)
Profile 9; α ⫽ 1.05 Profile 15; α ⫽ 1.05
Profile 1; α ⫽ 2.0
Profile 10; α ⫽ 0.85 Profile 16; α ⫽ 0.85
Profile 2; α ⫽ 1.4
Profile 11; α ⫽ 0.65 Profile 17; α ⫽ 0.65
Profile 3; α ⫽ 1.05
Profile 12; α ⫽ 0.45 Profile 18; α ⫽ 0.45
Profile 4; α ⫽ 0.85
Profile 5; α ⫽ 0.65
Profile 6; α ⫽ 0.45

Figure 1. Experimental and theoretical profiles of normalised hydraulic conductivity

Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil disturbance
2.2. Size and shape of the disturbed zone
The size and shape of the disturbed zone surrounding the
PVD is not known with certainty. According to Figure 1,
the location of the outer boundary of the disturbed zone
(as measured from the centre of the drain) can vary from
four to 18 times the equivalent mandrel radius.
The shape of the disturbed zone is most likely governed
by the mandrel shape. If a square or circular mandrel is
used for PVD installation, the disturbed zone shape is
likely to be a square or a circle in plan, whereas, for
rectangular or diamond-shaped mandrels, it is likely to be
an ellipse (Chai and Miura 1999). In the present study,
both circular and elliptical disturbed zones were consid-
ered. For the elliptical disturbed zone, the ratio adz of the
semi-major axis a to the semi-minor axis b of the ellipse
was assumed to be the same as the aspect ratio amn ¼ m x /
m y of the mandrel cross-section (m x and m y are the width
and thickness of the mandrel cross-section).
In order to determine the hydraulic conductivity khd in
the disturbed zone using Equation 1 in calculations, it was
assumed that the contours of hydraulic conductivity in
plan follow the shape of the disturbed zone. Thus, for a
circular disturbed zone, the hydraulic conductivity con-
tours are circular in shape, whereas, for an elliptical
disturbed zone, the contours are elliptical. For circular
contours, Equation 1 can be directly used to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiat
ffi a point (x, y), which is at a radial
distance r ¼ x 2 þ y 2 from the centre of the drain. In
the case of elliptical contours, each contour is converted
into an equivalent circular contour that has the same area
as that of the elliptical contour (Figure 2). If an elliptical
contour has a semi-minor axis b and an aspect ratio adz
(¼ a/b), the coordinates of a point P (x, y) lying on the
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
contour is related to b as b ¼ x 2 =a2dz þ y 2 . Equating the
area of the elliptical pffiffiffiffiffi contour to the area of a circular
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
contour then req ¼ ab ¼ b adz where req is the radius
of the equivalent circular contour. The above equations
yield:
2a
req P⬘
Mapping of point P(x, y)
P(x, y)
2b
An elliptical
hydraulic
conductivity
PVD
contour
Equivalent
Corresponding
circular drain
equivalent circular
khd /kho
hydraulic
req ⫽ ab ⫽ b a conductivity
dz
2 contour
⫽ x ⫹ y 2adz
adz
khs /kho
req /rm,eq
Figure 2. Mapping of elliptical hydraulic conductivity
contours into equivalent circles
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
149
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x2
req ¼ þ y 2 adz (2)
adz
Therefore, a point P (x, y) on an elliptical contour with
aspect ratio adz is mapped to a point P9 on the circular
contour with radius req (note that req is the geometric
mean of the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the
elliptical contour). The equivalent radius req is used as r in
Equation 1 to determine the hydraulic conductivity of
point P (x, y) in the elliptical contour.
2.3. Overlap of disturbed zones
Measured hydraulic conductivity profiles (from field or
laboratory studies) for the case in which overlap of
disturbed zones occurs are not available in the literature.
In the absence of any experimental data, it was assumed
that, if an overlap zone (i.e. the zone in which the
disturbed zones of adjacent unit cells overlap) exists, then
the gradual increase of the hydraulic conductivity with
increasing radial distance from the PVD occurs only up to
the point (L in Figure 3) where the overlap of the
disturbed zones begins. Beyond that point (i.e. within the
overlap zone), the hydraulic conductivity remains constant
at khl (, kho ), which is equal to the corresponding value
of the hydraulic conductivity at the boundary of the
disturbed zone and the overlap zone (Figure 3).
3. ANALYSIS PROBLEM
For the analysis, PVDs with a typical cross-section of
100 mm 3 4 mm (Holtz 1987) installed into a soft ground
in a triangular or square pattern with a centre-to-centre
spacing equal to s were considered. For the triangular
installation pattern, the zone of influence (unit cell) of a
PVD
pffiffiffi is a regular hexagon in plan with each side equal to
s= 3, whereas, for the square installation pattern, the
zone of influence is a square in plan with each side equal
khd khd
Smear
Overlap
Transition
kho
L
khl
khs
Distance from rl Distance from
PVD surface PVD surface
Unit cell boundary
Figure 3. Variation of hydraulic conductivity with overlap of
disturbed zones
150 Basu and Prezzi

to s (Figure 4). Two such unit cells (one for the triangular
and one for the square arrangement) were considered in
order to study the effect of soil disturbance on PVD
performance. It was assumed that the hydraulic conductiv-
ity profiles surrounding the PVDs were approximately
similar to those shown in Figure 1. Flow of water in the
vertical direction was neglected and the Terzaghi–Rendu-
lic theory of two-dimensional consolidation was used for
the FE analysis (the details of the FE analysis are outlined
in Basu and Prezzi (2007)).
4. COMPARISON OF FINITE ELEMENT
AND ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
The accuracy of the FE analysis was checked against
analytical solutions developed by Barron (1948) and Basu
et al. (2006). For the ideal case of no soil disturbance, the
solution of Barron (1948) is used in the comparison,
(a) y
Undisturbed zone
Transition zone
Smear zone
s/√3
x
while, for the case with disturbance, the solution of Basu
et al. (2006) is used instead. The solution of Basu et al.
(2006) is valid for a bilinear hydraulic conductivity profile
(see Figure 5) in the transition zone that closely resembles
the sigmoidal hydraulic conductivity profiles shown in
Figure 1 (note that the disturbed zone is assumed to be
comprised of a smear zone immediately surrounding the
drain in which the hydraulic conductivity remains constant
at khs and a transition zone in which the hydraulic
conductivity follows a bilinear variation). In both these
analytical solutions, which were developed for circular
unit cell and drain with or without circular disturbed
zones, the degree of consolidation U is given by:
8T


U ¼1
e (3)
In the above equation, T (¼ ch t=4r2c,eq ) is the time
factor (ch is the coefficient of consolidation for flow in
the horizontal direction, and rc,eq is the radius of an
equivalent circular unit cell which has the same area as
the actual unit cell; rc,eq ¼ 0.525s and 0.564s for triangular
and square PVD installation arrangements, respectively,
(a) khd
kho
Smear zone

Unit cell Transition Undisturbed

boundary zone zone
1.0
ηp ⫽ khp /kho Sigmoid variation
for FE solution
PVD khd

kho

khs khs Bilinear variation

ηs ⫽
kho for analytical solution
x
0
0 rs rp rt req
(b) y rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq

(b)
Undisturbed zone Circular
Transition zone transition
Circular drain zone
Smear zone
s
x

rs
Unit cell boundary Circular rt
undisturbed
zone

rc
PVD khd

Circular Circular
kho
smear zone unit cell
khs
x Figure 5. (a) Matching of S-shaped hydraulic conductivity
profile with the bilinear profile, and (b) circular unit cell
Figure 4. (a) Hexagonal and (b) square unit cells with with smear and transition zones used in the analytical
elliptical disturbed zones solution
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil disturbance
where s is the PVD spacing) and the parameter  is equal
to:
8
> 3
>
> ln n
(no disturbance)
>
> 4
>
>


>
< n 1 ð p
mÞ s p
¼ ln þ ln ð Þ
m þ ln
> q s ðs p
p mÞ p m
>
>

>
> þ ð q
pÞ ln p q
3 (with disturbance)
>
>
>
:
ðp q
pÞ p 4
(4)
with n . q . p . m and p . s . The above parameters
are defined as n ¼ rc =rd , m ¼ rs =rd , q ¼ rt =rd , p ¼
rp =rd , s ¼ k hs =k ho , p ¼ k hp =k ho . In the foregoing equa-
tions, rd, rs, rt and rc are the radii of the drain, outer
boundary of the smear zone, outer boundary of the
transition zone, and circular unit cell, respectively; rp is
the radius at which a change in slope occurs in the bilinear
hydraulic conductivity profile; and khp is the hydraulic
conductivity at rp (see Figure 5).
In order to compare the results, the square and hexago-
nal unit cells were converted to circles of equal area. The
band-shaped PVD was converted to a circle with the same
perimeter as the PVD perimeter (Hansbo 1981, Welker
and Herdin 2003); hence rd,eq ¼ (d w þ d t )= is the
equivalent circular drain radius, where dw and dt are the
PVD width and thickness, respectively (rd,eq was taken
equal to rd in the analytical equations). For a
100 mm 3 4 mm PVD, rd,eq ¼ rd ¼ 33.1 mm.
The results obtained using the analytical solutions and
the FE analyses were compared for square and triangular
PVD arrangements, both with and without disturbance. In
particular, two cases were considered: (1) spacing s ¼ 1 m
and a mandrel of 125 mm 3 50 mm and (2) spacing
s ¼ 3 m and a mandrel of 150 mm 3 150 mm. Profile 1
(Æ ¼ 2.0,
¼ 30 and khs /kho ¼ 0.2) of Figure 1(a) was
chosen as the hydraulic conductivity profile for these two
cases. Figure 6 shows the curves of U plotted against T
for case 1. The results of the FE analyses compare
reasonably well with the analytical solutions. For the
triangular arrangement with no disturbance, the time
factor T90 corresponding to U ¼ 90% was 0.58 and 0.66
for the analytical and FE solutions, respectively, whereas,
for the case with disturbance, the corresponding values
were 1.43 and 1.67. For the square arrangement,
T90 ¼ 0.60 (analytical) and 0.68 (FE) for the case with no
disturbance, whereas T90 ¼ 1.44 (analytical) and 1.69 (FE)
for the case with disturbance. The difference in the
estimation of T90 was approximately 13–17% between the
analytical and FE solutions.
For case 2 (not plotted) with triangular arrangement,
T90 ¼ 0.90 (analytical) and 0.96 (FE) for the case with no
disturbance, and T90 ¼ 2.48 (analytical) and 2.73 (FE) for
the case with disturbance. For the square arrangement,
T90 ¼ 0.92 (analytical) and 0.99 (FE) for the case with no
disturbance, whereas T90 ¼ 2.50 (analytical) and 2.75 (FE)
for the case with disturbance. In this case, the difference
in the estimation of T90 between the analytical and FE
solutions was approximately 7–10%.
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
151
100
Spacing ⫽ 1 m
80
No disturbance
Degree of consolidation, U (%)
60
40
α ⫽ 2.0
β ⫽ 30
khs /kho ⫽ 0.2
20
Mandrel ⫽
125 mm ⫻ 25 mm
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Time factor, T
FE triangular
Analytical triangular
FE square
Analytical square
Figure 6. Comparison of analytical and finite element
solutions
The difference between the analytical and FE results
occurred partly due to the difference in the shape of the
unit cells and disturbed zones and partly due to the fact
that equal-strain analytical solutions (in which the vertical
settlement was assumed uniform throughout the unit cell)
and free-strain FE solutions (in which no restriction on
settlement was imposed) yielded different results (Richart
1959). It is interesting to note that, for U . 50%, the
curves of U plotted against T for the FE analysis lie always
to the right of the corresponding analytical curves of U
plotted against T, and that the curves of U plotted against
T corresponding to a square arrangement lie slightly to the
right of the corresponding curves of U plotted against T
for a triangular-arrangement (see Figure 6).
5. PARAMETRIC STUDY ON SOIL
DISTURBANCE
The relative effects of the different parameters governing
soil disturbance on the consolidation rate can be deter-
mined through a parametric study. A parametric study was
performed using FE analysis for both square and triangu-
lar arrangements and two PVD spacings (s ¼ 1 and 3 m).
Two mandrels 125 mm 3 50 mm (rm,eq ¼ 44.60 mm,
amn ¼ 2.5) and 150 mm 3 150 mm (rm,eq ¼ 84.63 mm,
amn ¼ 1.0) that have widely different values of rm,eq and
amn are considered. These mandrels have been used for
PVD installation in practice. Two hydraulic conductivity
profiles are considered: profile 1 (Æ ¼ 2.0,
¼ 30, khs /
kho ¼ 0.2) and profile 5 (Æ ¼ 0.65,
¼ 30, khs /kho ¼ 0.2)
of Figure 1(a). Additionally, the khs /kho ratio (with
Æ ¼ 2.0,
¼ 30) was varied to study the effect of the
152 Basu and Prezzi

degree of disturbance in the immediate vicinity of the
drain.
The effect of mandrel shoe/anchor on consolidation has
not been taken into account in any study available in the
literature. It is difficult to determine with certainty how
the anchor affects the disturbed zone. Most probably, the
anchor changes the aspect ratio adz of the disturbed zone.
Making the assumption that the anchor only increases the
aspect ratio of the disturbed zone but does not
affect the total area of disturbance, the effect of the
mandrel anchor for the 125 mm 3 50 mm mandrel (i.e.
for rm,eq ¼ 44.60 mm) was studied by forcing the aspect
ratio adz of the disturbed zone to be greater than the aspect
ratio amn of the mandrel. In addition, the hypothetical case
of a circular disturbed zone was considered (i.e. adz was
set to 1) with rm,eq ¼ 44.60 mm.
Table 1 provides a summary of the parametric study.
The degree of disturbance (khs /kho ), the extent of the
disturbed zone, the mandrel size, and PVD spacing had
moderate to large effects on the consolidation rate. For the
cases considered, the effect of the disturbed zone aspect
ratio (i.e. of the mandrel shoe) on consolidation is margin-
al. The degree of soil disturbance in the vicinity of the
PVD (i.e. the khs /kho ratio) and the extent of the disturbed
zone were the two most important factors that signifi-
cantly affected consolidation. Thus, it is important to
properly establish the hydraulic conductivity profile in the
field for accurate prediction of the consolidation rate.
6. DESIGN CONSIDERING SOIL
DISTURBANCE
6.1. No overlap of disturbed zones
Designers prefer using analytical solutions to calculate the
PVD spacing required for a given field site condition
because calculations can be done rather efficiently. Typi-
cally, the equal-strain analytical solution by Hansbo
(1981) is used, which is valid for the only-smear-zone case
(i.e. the gradual variation of hydraulic conductivity values
with distance from the drain is neglected). To account for
the effect of the transition zone in design, the analytical
solution of Basu et al. (2006) for bilinear hydraulic
conductivity profiles, as described above, may be used.
However, as noted previously, the time factors predicted
by the equal-strain analytical solution may be 7–17% less

Table 1. Parametric study for triangular and square PVD installation arrangements

Description Constant inputs Varying inputs Outputs Conclusion

a a
T50 T90

Effect of s¼1m khs /kho ¼ 0.05 1.36 (1.36)b 4.62 (4.62)b The degree of disturbance has a significant
degree of soil Mandrel: khs /kho ¼ 0.1 0.81 (0.82)b 2.72 (2.74)b effect on consolidation rate. For a particular
disturbance 125 mm 3 50 mm khs /kho ¼ 0.2 0.50 (0.51)b 1.67 (1.69)b degree of consolidation U (¼ p%, say), T
Æ ¼ 2.0 khs /kho ¼ 0.3 0.38 (0.39)b 1.27 (1.29)b can be expressed


C2 as:

¼ 30 khs /kho ¼ 0.4 0.32 (0.33)b 1.06 (1.08)b k hs
Tp ¼ C1
khs /kho ¼ 0.5 0.28 (0.29)b 0.95 (0.97)b k ho
khs /kho ¼ 1.0 0.19 (0.20)b 0.66 (0.68)b where C1 and C2 are constants.

Effect of extent s¼1m Æ ¼ 2.0 0.50 (0.51)b 1.67 (1.69)b Dimension of the disturbed zone has a large
of disturbed Mandrel: Æ ¼ 0.65 0.79 (0.80)b 2.68 (2.72)b effect on the consolidation rate.
zone 125 mm 3 50 mm
khs /kho ¼ 0.2

¼ 30

Effect of s¼3m Mandrel: 0.60 (0.61)b 1.99 (2.00)b Mandrel dimensions have a large effect on
mandrel khs /kho ¼ 0.2 125 mm 3 50 mm 0.81 (0.82)b 2.73 (2.75)b the consolidation rate.
Ƽ 2.0 Mandrel:

¼ 30 150 mm 3 150 mm

Effect of PVD Mandrel: s¼1m 0.50 (0.51)b 1.67 (1.69)b PVD spacing has a moderate effect on the
spacing 125 mm 3 50 mm s¼3m 0.60 (0.61)b 1.99 (2.00)b U–T relation.
khs /kho ¼ 0.2
Æ ¼ 2.0

¼ 30

Effect of Mandrel: adz ¼ amn ¼ 2.5 0.50 (0.51)b 1.67 (1.69)b Aspect ratio of disturbed zone has marginal
mandrel shoe/ 125 mm 3 50 mm adz ¼ 1.5amn ¼ 3.75 0.48 (0.48)b 1.58 (1.60)b effect on soil consolidation.
anchor amn ¼ 2.5 adz ¼ 2amn ¼ 5 0.45 (0.46)b 1.51 (1.53)b
khs /kho ¼ 0.2 adz ¼ 1.0 0.48 (0.49)b 1.60 (1.62)b
Æ ¼ 2.0

¼ 30
s¼1m

a
T50 and T90 represent time factor corresponding to U ¼ 50% and 90%, respectively.
b
The numbers in parentheses are applicable to a square PVD arrangement while the other numbers are applicable to a triangular arrangement.

Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3

Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil disturbance 153

than those obtained from the free-strain FE solution. It where

was noted that a similar difference between the FE results "


n 1 ( p
m)  p
occurred also for the analytical solution of Hansbo (1981). 9 ¼ n  ¼ n ln
2 2
þ ln ð mÞ þ ln s
To demonstrate these, FE analyses including only a smear q s (s p
p m) p m
zone were performed and the results compared with those #


of Hansbo (1981)). It is worth noting that actual consoli- ð q
pÞ p q 3
þ ln

dation in the field did not strictly follow the equal-strain ð p q
p Þ p 4
or the free-strain condition, but is likely to be closer to the
(7)
equal-strain condition for closely spaced PVDs (Fox et al.
2005). The FE solutions have the advantage that the actual In the above equation for 9,  is taken as Equation 4
shape of the PVD, disturbed zone and unit cell can be for the case with soil disturbance (note that n ¼ rc =rd ). If
simulated in the analysis. On the other hand, analytical the new time factor T9 is normalised with respect to 9:
solutions are more convenient to use in practice, and
perhaps produce more accurate results for closely spaced T 9 ¼ T 9=9 (8)
PVDs. then T 9 has a unique relationship with the degree of
In the calculation of the PVD spacing required for a consolidation U:
given soil condition using analytical solutions, an initial
1
guess for the PVD spacing (which determines n in T 9 ¼
ln ð1
U Þ (9)
Equation 4) has to be made first, based on which the time 8
factor corresponding to the desired degree of consolidation Equation 7 can be used to develop curves relating n
can be calculated. Consequently, iterations are required to and 9 for different hydraulic conductivity profiles. In
determine the PVD spacing corresponding to the desired order to develop the 9 versus n charts, it was assumed
degree of consolidation within a certain time. Yeung that the hydraulic conductivity profiles in the field follow
(1997) developed a method by which this iteration the trends shown in Figure 1. Three equivalent mandrel
procedure can be avoided. The present study utilised the radii, rm,eq ¼ 46.0, 68.7 and 84.6 mm that were representa-
method of Yeung (1997), and, as outlined below, applied it tive of the dimensions of the mandrels used in practice
to the analytical solution for the bilinear hydraulic con- were chosen. PVD spacings within a 0.9–3.5 m range and
ductivity profile. a PVD dimension of 100 mm 3 4 mm (rd,eq ¼ 33.1 mm),
A modified time factor T9 can be defined as: which gave n in the 15–60 range were also assumed.
T9 ¼ 2
ch t
(5) Based on these inputs, the possible ranges for m, p, q, s
4rd and p (i.e. parameters related to the degree of disturbance
and extent of the disturbed zone) were calculated for the
Using the above definition, the degree of consolidation different hydraulic conductivity profiles (Figure 1) and
U in Equation 3 can be rewritten as: mandrel radii. Using these values, the charts of 9 plotted
8T 9 against n , shown in Figures 7 to 9, were generated for all

9
U ¼1
e (6) the hydraulic conductivity profiles. Following the proce-

(a) 60 (b) 60 (c) 60

rm ⫽ 46.0 mm rm ⫽ 46.0 mm rm ⫽ 46.0 mm
khs /kho ⫽ 0.2 khs /kho ⫽ 0.1 khs /kho ⫽ 0.3
50 50 50

40 40 40
n

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10
1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000
µ⬘ µ⬘ µ⬘

Profile 1 Profile 7 Profile 13

Profile 2 Profile 8 Profile 14
Profile 3 Profile 9 Profile 15
Profile 4 Profile 10 Profile 16
Profile 5 Profile 11 Profile 17
Profile 6 Profile 12 Profile 18

Figure 7. Curves of ì9 plotted against n for rm 46.0 mm

Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
154 Basu and Prezzi
(a) 60 (b) 60 (c) 60
rm ⫽ 68.7 mm rm ⫽ 68.7 mm rm ⫽ 68.7 mm
khs /kho ⫽ 0.2 khs /kho ⫽ 0.1 khs /kho ⫽ 0.3
50 50 50

40 40 40
n

n
30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10
1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000
µ⬘ µ⬘ µ⬘

Profile 1 Profile 7 Profile 13

Profile 2 Profile 8 Profile 14
Profile 3 Profile 9 Profile 15
Profile 4 Profile 10 Profile 16
Profile 5 Profile 11 Profile 17
Profile 6 Profile 12 Profile 18

Figure 8. Curves of ì9 plotted against n for rm 68.7 mm

(a) 60 (b) 60 (c) 60

rm ⫽ 84.6 mm rm ⫽ 84.6 mm rm ⫽ 84.6 mm
khs /kho ⫽ 0.2 khs /kho ⫽ 0.1 khs /kho ⫽ 0.3
50 50 50

40 40 40
n

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10
1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000 1000 10 000 100 000
µ⬘ µ⬘ µ⬘

Profile 1 Profile 7 Profile 13

Profile 2 Profile 8 Profile 14
Profile 3 Profile 9 Profile 15
Profile 4 Profile 10 Profile 16
Profile 5 Profile 11 Profile 17
Profile 6 Profile 12 Profile 18

Figure 9. Curves of ì9 plotted against n for rm 84.6 mm

dure described above, site specific curves of 9 plotted

against n can also be developed if the actual hydraulic
conductivity profile is known.
In design, the drain geometry (rd ), soil properties (ch ),
time available t (within which a certain percentage of
consolidation has to be completed) and the desired degree
of consolidation U are required as input. Using these
inputs, T9 and T 9 can be calculated from Equations 5 and
9, respectively, from which 9 can be calculated using
Equation 8. With the calculated value of 9, n can then be
determined from the charts of 9 plotted against n
(Figures 7 to 9), from which the desired PVD spacing can
be calculated without any iteration.
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
6.2. Overlapping disturbed zones
The hydraulic conductivity profiles considered in Figure 1
cause overlap of disturbed zones for some combinations of
unit cell dimensions and mandrel size. In order to produce
charts of 9 plotted against n that considered overlap, it
was assumed that the actual zones of overlap can be
replaced by axisymmetric overlap zones (an assumption
also made by Walker and Indraratna (2007)) and the
hydraulic conductivity profiles were modified following
the procedure described before (Figure 3). Mathematically,
the modified (overlapped) hydraulic conductivity profiles
can be defined by the following ratios:
Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil disturbance 155
rl (although not desirable) that the overlap zone is very large
l¼ (10)
rd (i.e. rl , rs ) in which case the entire unit cell may be
k hl assumed to have a constant hydraulic conductivity equal
l ¼ (11)
k ho to that within the smear zone (case C).
The parameters l and l are related to the parameters m,
p, q, p and s as:
where rl is the distance from the centre of the drain to
the point at which the zone of overlap starts; khl is the l ¼ 2n
q (12)
constant hydraulic conductivity in the overlap zone. The 8
> l
p 
modified (overlapped) hydraulic conductivity profiles can >
> 1
 p þ p (case A)
>
> q
p
be approximated by linear or bilinear variations (similar to <
l ¼ l
m (13)
those shown in Figure 5(a)) so that existing analytical > 
s Þ þ s (case B)
solutions (Barron 1948; Basu et al. 2006) can be used. >
>
> p
mð p
>
:
Depending on the extent of the overlap zone, there can be s (case C)
three different ways of matching the S-shaped profiles
with linear or bilinear profiles (Figure 10). If the zone of
overlap is limited in extent (i.e. if rl . rp ), then the For case A, the analytical solution (Basu et al. 2006)
modified (overlapped) hydraulic conductivity profile may described above can be used after modifications. For case
be approximated by a bilinear variation of the hydraulic B, an analytical solution developed by Basu et al. (2006)
conductivity in the transition zone, similar to that shown for a linear variation of the hydraulic conductivity in the
in Figure 5(a) (case A). If the zone of overlap increases unit cell can be used after modifications. For case C, the
(i.e. if rs , rl , rp ), the bilinear variation does not prop- analytical solution by Barron (1948) can be used after
erly match the overlapped hydraulic conductivity profile, modifications. Therefore, Equation 3 can be used to
and a linear variation of the hydraulic conductivity in the describe U versus T relationships for all the cases A, B
transition zone has to be assumed (case B). It is possible and C, where  is given by:

(b)
khd khd
Transition
(a) Smear
Overlap
Circular
Circular drain overlap zone
kho
khl
rs khp
rl

rc khs

Circular smear rs rp rc rt
zone Circular unit cell rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq

rl
rm,eq

(c)
khd khd (d) khd Overlap khd
Transition
Transition
Smear Smear
Overlap

kho kho
khp
khl

khs khs

rs rt
rp rc rt rc
rl rl rs rm,eq
rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq
rm,eq rm,eq rm,eq

Figure 10. Overlap of disturbed zones: (a) axisymmetric overlap zone, (b) modified hydraulic conductivity profiles for overlap
case A, (c) for overlap case B, and (d) for overlap case C
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
156 Basu and Prezzi
8 "


>
> 1 n  ð p
mÞl  p between triangular PVD arrangements and rectangular
>
> ln þ l ln ð mÞ þ ln s
> l s ðs p
p mÞ p m
>
> l PVD arrangements was made assuming a gradual increase
>
> in the hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed zone. Such
>
> ! #
>
> gradual increase in hydraulic conductivity with increasing
>
> ð l
pÞl p l 3
>
> þ  ln
distance from the PVD has been confirmed by recent
>
> p l
l p l p 4
>
> experimental studies. Therefore, instead of accounting
>
>
>
> only for a smear zone, a transition zone, in which the
>
< (case A)
¼ "

 # hydraulic conductivity increased with increasing radial
>
> 1 n l ð l
mÞl  s l 3 distance from the PVD, was also considered in the FE
>
> ln þ ln ð mÞ þ ln

>
> l l s ðs l
l mÞ l m 4 analysis.
>
>
>
> It was shown that the in situ hydraulic conductivity
>
> (case B)
>
> profile can be approximated by a sigmoidal curve. An
>
> 
>
> 1 3 equation for such a variation was proposed and a range of
>
>
>
> ln n
possible hydraulic conductivity profiles delineated, based
> 
> s 4
>
> on experimental data available in the literature. Based on
:
(case C) these profiles, a parametric study was performed using FE
(14) analysis to identify the variables that affected the con-
solidation process the most. It was found that the degree
The corresponding equations of 9, obtained by multi- of disturbance in the immediate vicinity of the PVD and
plying  by n2 , were used for the cases in which overlap the extent of the disturbed zone affect the consolidation
of disturbed zones occurred (i.e. for q . n) to generate 9 rate significantly. Proper quantification of the hydraulic
versus n curves (also shown in Figures 7 to 9). Note that, conductivity profile in the disturbed zone was essential for
in these figures, only a slight change in the curvature of an accurate prediction of the consolidation rate.
the design curves due to overlap of disturbed zones The results of the FE analyses were compared with an
occurred. The curves towards the right gradually merged, analytical solution for PVD-enhanced consolidation that
indicating the overlaps. assumed a bilinear variation for the hydraulic conductivity
in the transition zone. The results of the finite element
6.3. Numerical example analysis with sigmoidal hydraulic conductivity profiles
A simple example problem is presented to show how the and the analytical solution with bilinear hydraulic con-
design charts can be used in practice. A site with ductivity profiles matched reasonably well. Therefore, the
ch ¼ 2 m2 /year is considered, in which a 125 mm 3 analytical solution may be used in routine design. Based
50 mm mandrel (rm,eq ¼ 44.6 mm) is to be used for on the analytical solution, design charts were developed
installation of PVDs in a triangular pattern. The PVD that can be used to obtain the PVD spacing, without any
cross-section dimensions are 100 mm 3 4 mm (rd,eq ¼ iteration, for a desired degree of consolidation within a
33.1 mm). The hydraulic conductivity profile at the site is specified time. The design charts can also be used for
assumed to be profile 3 shown in Figure 1(a). The conditions in which overlapping of disturbed zones occurs.
requirement is that 90% consolidation should be attained
within 1.5 years. Therefore, for U ¼ 0.9, T 9 was found to
be 0.288 (Equation 9). Furthermore, for rd,eq ¼ 33.1 mm,
NOTATIONS
t ¼ 1.5 years and ch ¼ 2 m2 /year, then T9 ¼ 684.55 (Equa- Basic SI units are given in parentheses.
tion 5) and using T 9 and T9, 9 ¼ 2377 (Equation 8). As
the equivalent mandrel radius rm,eq is close to 46.0 mm, khd khs , kho hydraulic conductivity in the disturbed,
Figure 8(a) (the curve corresponding to profile 3) is used smear, undisturbed zones, respectively
to obtain n ¼ 17.5. This gave rc,eq ¼ 0.58 m, from which (m/s)
the required spacing, s ¼ 1.1 m, was derived. If, instead of Æ,
curve-fitted parameters (dimensionless)
a 125 mm 3 50 mm mandrel, a 150 mm 3 150 mm man- r radial distance from the centre of the
drel (rm,eq ¼ 84.63 mm) is used for the installation of drain (m)
PVDs, then Figure 9(a) (the curve corresponding to profile rm,eq equivalent mandrel radius (m)
3) is used to obtain n ¼ 15.7. Note that, in this case, an adz , amn aspect ratios of disturbed zone and
overlap of disturbed zones occurred because q (¼ 20.96) mandrel, respectively (dimensionless)
was greater than n. The equivalent unit cell radius rc,eq mx , m y dimensions of mandrel in x and y
corresponding to n ¼ 15.7 is 0.52 m, which yields a directions (m)
spacing s ¼ 1.0 m. a, b semi-major and semi-minor axes of
elliptical disturbed zone (m)
s PVD spacing (m)
7. CONCLUSIONS
U degree of consolidation (dimensionless)
The effect of soil disturbance on the rate of consolidation T time factor (dimensionless)
aided by PVDs was studied using finite element analysis. t time (s)
The actual shape of the PVD, disturbed zone and unit cell ch coefficient of consolidation in the
was maintained in the analysis. A comparative study horizontal direction (m2 /s)
Geosynthetics International, 2009, 16, No. 3
Design of prefabricated vertical drains considering soil disturbance
rc,eq equivalent radius of unit cell (m)
 parameter that depends on the unit cell
geometry and soil disturbance, and
governs the degree of consolidation
(dimensionless)
n, q, p, m ratios of parameters describing dimensions
of unit cell, PVD and disturbed zone
(dimensionless)
p , s ratios describing degree of soil disturbance
(dimensionless)
rd, rs, rt rc radii of the drain, smear zone, transition
zone, and unit cell, respectively (m)
rp radius at the point of slope change in the
bilinear hydraulic conductivity profile (m)
khp hydraulic conductivity at r ¼ rp (m/s)
rd,eq equivalent circular drain radius (m)
dw, dt PVD width and thickness, respectively (m)
T9 modified time factor (dimensionless)
9 modified  (dimensionless)
T9 normalised modified time factor
(dimensionless)
l ratio describing the spatial extent of
disturbed-zone overlap (dimensionless)
khl hydraulic conductivity in the overlap
zone (m)
rl radial distance at which overlap of
disturbed zone starts (m)
l ratio of hydraulic conductivities in overlap
and undisturbed zones (dimensionless)
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