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Email: email@uc-bcf.edu.ph; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph Education 104

Age of Revolutions, REPORTERS:

Industrialization, & Acosta, Pamela; Biteng, WORLD HISTORY 2
Imperialism Glaiza; & Malao, Wyers

The American Revolution

“Give me Liberty or give me Death!”

BRIEF BACKGROUND

The American Revolution, otherwise known as the United States War of

Independence or American Revolutionary War, that transpired from 1775 to 1783
as a war when 13 of Britain’s North American colonies rejected its imperial rule.
The protests began in opposition to taxes levied without colonial representation
by the British monarchy and Parliament. As the political disagreements grew,
they triggered a perpetual cycle of defiant acts and punitive laws that led to
open rebellion. With the assistance of France, the American colonies were able
to defeat the British, achieve independence and form the United States of
America. The war followed more than a decade of growing estrangement
between the British crown and a large and influential segment of its
North American colonies that was caused by British attempts to assert greater
control over colonial affairs after having long adhered to a policy of salutary
neglect.

Summarized Timeline:

1754 – 1776: Prelude to Independence

 From 1754 until 1763, the British colonies and France fought an expensive land war on
the North American continent known as “The French and Indian War.” To recoup these
expenses and raise funds to replenish their coffers, the British government enacted a
series of new taxes. Until the Stamp Act of 1765, some taxes were proposed, and
others were enacted and withdrawn. This was the first tax imposed directly on the 13
American colonies. Benjamin Franklin testified before Parliament that the tax was too
high and that the colonies had already done more than enough to support the French
and Indian War.
 The Tea Act was passed in 1773 to financially assist the struggling British East India
Company (EIC) by placing a small tax on tea. Many colonists opposed the tax and
continued to support James Otis Jr.’s position of “taxation without representation is
tyranny.” Citizens climbed aboard ships, which was bound for Great Britain, and threw
340 tea chests overboard as an act of defiance, it was known as the Boston Tea Party.

 The British responded to the Boston Tea Party by passing the Coercive, or Intolerable
Acts, as they were known in the American colonies. Not everyone agreed with
Boston’s actions, causing the other colonies to rally in defense. Patrick Henry would
give a speech in Spring of 1774 in the Virginia House of Burgesses supporting the cause
of freedom, which included the oft-quoted passage, “Give me liberty or give me
death.”
1776-1780: Independence
 As war broke out, the governments of each colony formally declared their
independence. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee made a motion for independence
before the Second Continental Congress. Four days later, a committee was selected
to write a document explaining the reasons for separating from Britain. Congress voted
to ratify the Declaration of Independence that was drafted primarily by Thomas
Jefferson and prominently signed by John Hancock, president of Congress, on July 4,
1776. The new country was called the United States of America. In April 30, 1789,
General George Washington formally took his oath as the first formal president of the
United States of America under a formal constitution.

1780-1783: Final Victory

 In 1780, a 5,500-man French expeditionary force under Comte de Rochambeau
landed at Newport, Rhode Island. Washington devised a plan to feign an attack on
New York, which would enable Rochambeau to join forces with the Continental Army.
The combined force would join with troops commanded by the Marquis de Lafayette
and attack Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis had maneuvered his forces into
the Tidewater Region expecting to be evacuated by the British Navy. The evacuation
did not happen because Comte de Grasse’s naval forces defeated the British fleet
sent for relief during the Battle of the Chesapeake. Washington then led his combined
force in laying siege to Yorktown in late September 1781. The surrender of Cornwallis
and his army in October of that year convinced the British government to negotiate
an end to the war and recognize America’s independence. The Treaty of Paris was
signed on September 3, 1783, which marked the end of the Revolutionary War.

CAUSES
A) Economic
 ‘Taxation without representation is tyranny’
 No taxation without representation
 Unjust taxation of goods
B) Political
 British Empire had no grounds for concessions refusing reforms
 Forced imposition of greater control
 Self-determination of the Americans
C) Social
 Wars
 The notion of Americans to be free from external control
 American establishment of their own independent country

REASON AND ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS THAT INFLUENCED THE REVOLUTION

A) Republicanism/Liberalism/Democracy
- Basic human rights (inalienable and inviolable)
- The right to life, liberty, and property
- General will of the people (people as the sovereign)
- Separation of Church and State
- Freedom from external control (sovereignty)
 B) Nationalism
-Liberty (Freedom)
-Right to Self-Identity and Self-Determination
C) Reforms
-Government system overhaul
-Rule of law; Due process of law; Equal protection of the laws

EFFECTS
A) Birth of the United States of America
B) World first formal blueprint of modern democracy (U.S.A. Constitution)
C) British colonial hold in America is shattered

The French Revolution

“Libertè, Egalitè, Fraternitè!”

BRIEF BACKGROUND

The French Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1789, was a period of
revolutionary movement and sociopolitical upheaval that shook France and
even Europe in the late 18th Century (1789-1799). During this period, French
citizens radically altered their political landscape, uprooting centuries-
old institutions such as the monarchy and the feudal system. The
upheaval was caused by disgust with the French aristocracy and the
economic policies of King Louis XVI, who met his death by guillotine, as
did his wife Marie Antoinette. Though it degenerated into a bloodbath
during the Reign of Terror, the French Revolution helped to shape
modern democracies by showing the power inherent in the will of the
people.

Throughout the Revolution, different phases were observed namely (timeline):

A) National Assembly Phase (1789-1791)
 In 1789, the French people were not happy. Due to war and King Louis
XVI’s spending habits, the country was utterly broke. On top of that, the
peasants had been through droughts and disease, making the harvest
inadequate. These poor, hungry peasants had enough. So, they started to
revolt. A political party, known as the Third Estate, called for a change in
the government. Therefore, several things happened in rapid succession,
which led to France becoming a constitutional monarchy.
  On June 20th, the Third Estate became the National Assembly and
protested on the tennis court of the Estate General building after a failed
attempt to take it over.
 King Louis XVI tried to take back absolute power by building up
ammunition and supplies. However, on July 14th, a Parisian mob stormed
the Bastille and an ammunition depot, defeating his attempt.
 The National Assembly nobles renounced feudalism, and the Declaration
of Man was issued. The Declaration of Man and of the Citizens was the first
attempt at setting up democratic principles.
 In Paris on October 5th, peasant women marched to protest the famine.
The King, Marie Antoinette and their children went into hiding after Marie
Antoinette allegedly uttered her famous words, “Let them eat cake,” riling
up the mob.
 After several months of questioning what they wanted their government
to look like, the Legislative Assembly was created along with a constitution
on July 12th. In addition to creating a limited monarchy, it also worked to
separate the government from the church.
 King Louis knew his reign was over. Therefore, the family tried to get out of
France by escaping to Austria. But they were caught. Austria wanted
France to support their King and became a bit angry when they didn’t.
You know what that means: war.

B) Reign of Terror Phase (1792-1794)

 After the King and Marie tried to escape, things became a bit heated in
France. Since the French didn't want to listen to Austria, France declared
war. Since the people saw King Louis XVI as a traitor for escaping, he was
removed as king, and France became a republic. But that wasn’t enough
to appease the people, so the king was executed using the new
invention, the guillotine. Then the true Reign of Terror unfolded.
 The monarchies around Europe weren’t happy about the way that France
overthrew Louis. However, they weren’t going to unite in war either.
France didn’t need them to declare war. Instead, on April 20th, they
declared war themselves on Austria, starting the French Revolutionary
Wars.
 While the Legislative Assembly did succeed in getting rid of the king and
starting a war, they didn’t succeed in staying in power. On September
20th, a new leader, the National Convention, took the stage after an
insurrection in August.
 For the National Convention, just being a constitutional monarchy wasn’t
enough. They wanted freedom. Therefore, they abolished the monarchy
and became a republic on September 21, 1792.
 With the Republic’s establishment in France, King Louis XVI was brought to
court for his crimes. On January 21st, the king was executed using the
guillotine. Nine months later, on October 16th, Marie Antoinette also met
the same fate.
 While the first phase of the French Revolution had sort of de-escalated
with the fall of the Assembly, it ramped up again in 1793. The cornerstone
of this was the Declaration of War on Great Britain and the Netherlands on
February 1st.
 In March of 1793, the National Convention created the Committee of
Public Safety. This witch-hunt committee headed by Maximilien de
Robespierre worked to find and eliminate those who might attack the
new nation. From September 5th, 1793, to July 28th, 1794, around 27,000
people died by execution or imprisonment, with about 500,000 arrested.
 Not surprisingly, France realized that de Robespierre wasn’t a good guy,
using fear and hate to kill innocent people. On July 28th, they executed
de Robespierre ending his reign of terror.
 C) Directory Phase (1795-1799)

 Some might see the end of the Reign of Terror as the end of the French
Revolution. However, revolutionary things were still happening within the
government. And one particular Corsican played a large part in the final
two phases of the French Revolution; Napoleone Buonaparte (Napoleon
Bonaparte). See how the country established a new constitution and ruler
in just a few years.
 After the Reign of Terror, France needed to have a constitution for the
republic. The Constitution of the Year III was signed into legislation on
August 22nd. However, this “new” constitution put the power in a
directory of only five wealthy directory members.
 The Directory wasn’t doing that great of a job, and people were furious.
Therefore, a royalist mob took to the streets to bring down The Directory.
On September 21st, Napoleon Bonaparte saved the Directory, starting his
rise to power.
 Napoleon was pivotal in the French Revolutionary Wars, and The Directory
needed him on the battlefield. Therefore, they give him military accolades
and merits to defeat the armies of Austria. He also went on to claim
Switzerland, Rome and Naples in 1798. His defeat of these oppressors
made him a hero in the hearts of the people.

CAUSES
A) Economic
 Financial crisis in the 1780’s (inflation)
-Careless spending of the king and queen
-Cost of war (King decided to aid U.S. in their war)
-Unjust taxation
B) Political
 Despotic rule of Louis XVI (absolutism)
 Role of the middle classes (bourgeoisie)
 Rampant graft and corruption of the monarchy
C) Social
 Food shortages
 Low and poor yield of harvests & high prices of bread
 Inspiration from the Age of Reason and Enlightenment philosophers (Locke,
Rousseau, & Montesquieu)

REASON AND ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS THAT INFLUENCED THE REVOLUTION

A) Republicanism/Liberalism/Democracy
-Basic human rights (inalienable and inviolable)
- The right to life, liberty, and property
-General will of the people (people as the sovereign)
- Separation of Church and State
- Justification of Glorious Revolution
B) Nationalism
-Liberty (Freedom), Egality (Equality), Fraternity (Brotherhood)
C) Reforms
-Government system overhaul
-Hierarchy reconditioning
-Rule of law; Due process of law; Equal protection of the laws

EFFECTS
A) Napoleonic Wars
B) Republican Liberalism
C) Fall/revision of monarchies and establishment of democracy
 The Latin American Revolution
“When tyranny becomes a law, rebellion is a right!”

BRIEF BACKGROUND

The Latin Americas, countries in the South American continent, also had a
period of revolutions. After three centuries of colonial rule, independence came
rather suddenly to most of Spanish and Portuguese America. Between 1808 and
1833, all of Latin America slipped out of the hands of the Spanish and
Portuguese powers who had ruled the region since they were conquered. The
rapidity and timing of that dramatic change were the result of a combination of
long-building tensions in colonial rule and a series of external events. Headed by
Simon Jose Antonio de la Santisima Trinidad Bolivar, commonly known as Simon
Bolivar, who was known as “El Libertador” or ‘The Liberator’ and “Father of Latin
American Independence”, the final victory of Latin American patriots over Spain
and the fading loyalist factions began in 1808 with the political crisis in Spain.

Brief Timeline

 1791-1804: Slave revolt on French island of Saint-Dominigue (Haiti) leads to

independence.
 1793-1815: Napoleonic Wars disrupt political rule in Europe.
 1810: Creoles establish ruling juntas in Carcas, Venezuela, Santiago, Chile,
Buenos Aires, Argentina; the priest Miguel Hidalgo issues the "Grito de Dolores" or
‘Cry of Dolores’ in Mexico which begins the War of Independence against
Spain.
 1811: Venezuela and Paraguay were liberated and declares independence
from Spain.
 1816: Argentina declares independence.
 1818: Chile declares independence.
 1819: Colombian and Venezuelan independence, establishment of Gran
Colombia or Greater Columbia.
 1824: Last victories against the Spaniards and Peru gains independence.
 1825: Bolivia declares independence.
 1830: Gran Colombia splits into the separate countries of Colombia, Venezuela,
and Ecuador.
 CAUSES

A) Economic
 Trade restrictions
 Spanish economic downfall
 Poverty among locals
B) Political
 Napoleon’s conquest of Spain
 Father Miguel Hidalgo’s Mexican rebellion & successful Haitian rebellion
 Influence of American and French Revolution
C) Social
 Oppression, repression, and injustices against locals
 Rampant violence by the military
 Discrimination

REASON AND ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS THAT INFLUENCED THE REVOLUTION

A) Republicanism/Liberalism/Democracy
- Basic human rights (inalienable and inviolable)
- The right to life, liberty, and property
- General will of the people (people as the sovereign)
- Separation of Church and State
- Freedom from external control (sovereignty)
B) Nationalism
-Liberty (Freedom)
-Right to Self-Identity and Self-Determination
-Independence
C) Reforms
-Government system overhaul
-Hierarchy reconditioning
-Rule of law; Due process of law; Equal protection of the laws

EFFECTS
A) New countries were born as independence was declared
B) Democracy became a dominant political system in South America
C) Spanish colonial hold in South America is shattered

Overall Conclusion
The Age of Reasoned Revolutions saw the rise and fall of monarchies and colonial
rulers from the hands of the colonized or their own citizens, as integrally and majorly
influenced by the political and philosophical ideas of the Enlightenment. In the egalitarian
spirit of the age, new states were born as a result of hard-won victories from revolts against
oppressive governments and colonial rulers, as result, the ideals of modern democracy was
conceived as it became dominant most especially in the Northern and Southern Americas,
democracy in Europe would prove far to be achieved as it was despised by monarchies at
the time. Revolutions at the time were gloriously justified, as modern democracy was
dawning, ideals on governmental power were now concentrated on the people being the
sovereign authority from which the power of democratic governments emanate from, and
human rights were also introduced and secured through the ratification of different
democratic constitutions.
 Industrialization
The process by which an economy transitions from primarily agrarian production to mass-
produced and technologically advanced goods and services. This stage is distinguished by
exponential increases in productivity, shifts from rural to urban labor, and higher living
standards. By conventional measures, such as income per capita or labor productivity,
industrialization is the most significant economic development in human history.

● Industrialization has been critical to the world's economic development.

● The process increased productivity and allowed for mass production, which raised
living standards.

● From the beginning of the agricultural age around 8000 to 5000 B.C., human
productivity and living standards remained relatively unchanged. until the first
industrialization in Great Britain began in 1760.

● More goods have been produced in a shorter amount of time as a result of

industrialization, along with more leisure time and higher real incomes.

Industrial Revolution

In the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of scientific and technological
development that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies into industrialized, urban ones.
Due to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making, and other
industries, goods that were previously painstakingly crafted by hand began to be produced
in mass quantities by machines in factories.

The Industrial Revolution was one of the most significant events in human history,
dramatically altering people's lives all over the world. While it began in Britain, its effects
eventually spread to other parts of Europe, the Americas, and now parts of Asia. In general,
the Industrial Revolution unfolded in two stages:

First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, was primarily concerned
with textile manufacturing and steam power. Inventors in Europe and the United States
created devices and machines that mechanized production during this time period.

Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, took place
between 1870 and 1914, or the start of World War I, and was characterized by rapid
industrialization, technological growth, scientific discovery, and mass production, which
resulted in the growth of cities and factories. Steel, chemicals, and electricity were among
the technological advances. Trains, automobiles, bicycles, and aircraft, the latter of which
people used for military combat, were made more accessible to the general public. New
ideas were spread via newspapers, telegraphs, and radio.

The Impact of Industrialization in Economic Growth (Economic/Political Effect)

Through increased productivity, job creation, innovation, and efficient resource use,
industrialization helps to fuel economic growth. Trade openness boosts FDI, global market
integration, technological advancement, and a country's productive capacity. Access to
credit and financial services is facilitated by financial development, as is capital
accumulation for future investment. Energy consumption is one of the most important
productive factors that contribute to economic growth. Furthermore, energy consumption
harms the environment by increasing carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), which have an
indirect impact on economic growth.
 How did the Industrial Revolution create the world market?

The Industrial Revolution transformed the economy from an agrarian to a manufacturing

economy in which products were no longer made solely by hand but also by machines. This
resulted in increased output and efficiency, lower prices, more goods, higher wages, and a
shift from rural to urban areas.

Industrialization, combined with significant advances in transportation, fueled the growth of

American cities and a rapidly expanding market economy.

The Spread of Industrial Revolution (Social Effect)

The Industrial Revolution had the greatest impact on the world since the Renaissance and
the Age of Exploration. The Industrial Revolution improved manufacturing and production
practices in America and around the world in the same way that the rebirth of knowledge
and the Age of Exploration led to improved maps and navigation, among other scientific
advances. Entrepreneurs and inventors played a critical role in the advancement of
technological progress during the Industrial Age, as they sought to improve the quality and
efficiency of new and time-tested products. The Gilded Age, also known as the Industrial
Revolution, had a profound impact on humankind because it shifted the world toward the
machine-based world we know today.

England entered the Industrial Age in the late 18th century, when it embraced a new
invention, the steam engine. Although there is no precise date, historians have identified
1820 as the year when the Industrial Revolution began to fundamentally transform human
civilization from an agrarian to a manufacturing-focused one. "What industrialization, and
particularly the steam engine, did was to substitute inanimate sources for animate sources of
power; by converting heat into work through the use of machines 'rapid, regular, precise,
tireless machines, mankind was thus able to exploit vast new sources of energy," writes
historian Paul Kennedy.

Changes in Patterns of World Trade

The societies that embraced industrialization greatly increased their economic, military,
and political strength. In general, the countries that benefited from industrialization had the
necessary components of land, labor, and capital, as well as government support. Despite
the fact that many other countries attempted to industrialize, few were successful. For
example, India attempted to develop the jute and steel industries, but entrepreneurs failed
due to a lack of government support and investment capital. As a result, there was an
international division of labor: people in industrialized countries produced manufactured
goods, while people in less industrialized countries produced the raw materials required for
that production. Industrial England, for example, required cotton and turned to India, Egypt,
and the American south to supply it. This division of labor often resulted in the colonization of
non-industrialized areas. As industrialization progressed, more iron and coal, as well as other
fibers for the textile industry, were required, and the British Empire expanded rapidly to meet
these demands.

Many countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia
became overly reliant on a single cash crop, such as sugar, cotton, or rubber, earning them
the moniker "Banana Republics," and their economies became extremely vulnerable to
changes in the international market. Foreign investors owned and controlled the plantations
that produced these crops, and they received the majority of the profits. Very little of the
profits improved people's living conditions in those areas, and because they had little money
to spend, a market economy could not develop.

Despite inequalities, the division of labor between people in countries producing raw
materials and those producing manufactured goods increased the total volume of global
trade. As a result of the increased volume, better technology was developed, which
reinforced and fed the trade. Traveling by sea became much more efficient, with journeys
that used to take months or years being reduced to days or weeks. By 1914, two massive
canals had cut sea journeys by thousands of miles. The Suez Canal, built by the British and
French in the 1850s, connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, eliminating the need
to travel around the tip of Africa by sea to get from Europe to Asia. In the western
hemisphere, the Panama Canal, completed in 1913, did a similar thing, cutting a swath
through Central America that encouraged trade and transportation between the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans.

Roots of Imperialism
Imperialism – also called “empire building”. It is the expansion of a nation’s authority
over other nations through the acquisition of land and/or the imposition of economic and
political domination.

The Age of Imperialism is typified by the colonization of the Americas between the 15th
and 19th centuries, as well as the expansion of the United States, Japan, and the
European powers during the late 19th and early 20th century.

Old Imperialism – began around the 11th century. Nations that played a major role in
Old Imperialism were Spain, Portugal, Netherlands, France, Britain. Spain and Portugal
played a predominant role in the 1500’s, whereas in 1600’s major roles were played by
France, Britain and Netherlands

Old Imperialism was driven with 3 objectives. These 3 objectives were 3G’s – God, Glory,
Gold. Gold – With the discovery of America, Christopher Columbus was richly rewarded,
Glory – the fame it brings to the explorer and his nation, God – Europeans believed they
have to spread Christianity everywhere.

Old Imperialism sought different goods like spices and cash crops from Asia, land from
North America etc.

New Imperialism - began in the 1870s and 19th century. Also, this period witnessed
the major roles played by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, USA, Russia, Belgium. Under
New Imperialism, Empires were established in Africa and Asia and there were
political and social reforms in those colonies.

Under New Imperialism, colonies are both producers and markets for goods, for
example the oil produced in Africa was taken to Europe for refining the Oil. After refining
the Oil in Europe, it was sold back in the African Market.

Under New Imperialism, colonies served as an outlet for larger populations, for example
people from the Netherlands were settled in huge numbers in South Africa.

Political Roots of Imperialism

During the 18th and 19th century nationalism was a major political force in Europe.
Nationalism is extreme pride in one's nation or ethnic group. With increased levels of
nationalism came rivalry and competition between nations. Great Britain, France,
Belgium, and other western nations had imperial desires of being the greatest nation in the
world.

Economic Roots of Imperialism

Industrialization was the major economic factor that led nations to take over weaker
nations. The Industrial Revolution, that started in Great Britain and eventually spread to
other parts of the western world, led to the need for additional raw materials, markets and
cheap labor. Those three things could be gained by economically exploiting weaker
nations.

By gaining colonies, industrialized nations could bring in more raw materials to use in its
factories and create new places (markets) to sell goods.
 Social Roots of Imperialism

Ethnocentrism, as a result of nationalism, was another growing force in Europe.

Ethnocentrism is the belief of superiority of one's ethnic group. Europeans believed that their
race was far more superior than the races of the conquered land. They believed they were
doing a favor to the colonized people by taking them over and showing them "civilized"
ways of life.

Christian churches sent missionaries to colonized regions to spread Christianity. The

missionaries brought humanitarian aid and the word of God to try and convert regions of the
world that were not typically Christian.

Social Darwinism

a loose set of ideologies that emerged in the late 1800s in which Charles Darwin’s theory of
evolution by natural selection was used to justify certain political, social, or economic views.
Social Darwinists believe in “survival of the fittest”—the idea that certain people become
powerful in society because they are innately better. Social Darwinism has been used to
justify imperialism, racism, eugenics and social inequality at various times over the past
century and a half.

The White Man’s Burden

In February 1899, British novelist and poet Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem entitled “The White
Man’s Burden: The United States and The Philippine Islands.” In this poem, Kipling urged the
U.S. to take up the “burden” of the empire, as had Britain and other European nations.
Published in the February, 1899 issue of McClure’s Magazine, the poem coincided with the
beginning of the Philippine-American War and U.S. Senate ratification of the treaty that
placed Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba, and the Philippines under American control.
Some events that happened during the Age of Imperialism

Imperialism in Africa

Africa was known as the Dark Continent and remained unknown to the outside world until
the late nineteenth century because its interior—desert, mountains, plateaus, and jungles—
discouraged exploration. Britain’s occupation of Egypt and Belgium’s penetration of the
Congo started the race for colonial possessions in Africa.

Imperialism in Asia

India - The British took control of India in 1763, after defeating the French in the Seven Years’
War (1756–1763). The British controlled India through the British East India Company, which
ruled with an iron hand. In 1857, an Indian revolt, led by native soldiers called sepoys, led to
an uprising known as the Sepoy Mutiny. After suppressing the rebellion, the British
government made India part of the empire in 1858, as mentioned previously. The British
introduced social reforms, advocated education, and promoted technology. Britain profited
greatly from India,

which was called the “Crown Jewel of the British Empire.”

China - Imperialism in China began with the First Opium War (1839–1842), when the Chinese
government tried to halt the British from importing opium. This resulted in a war in which
Britain’s

superior military and industrial might easily destroyed the Chinese military forces. The Treaty
of Nanking (1842). opened up five ports to the British, gave Britain the island of Hong Kong,
and forced China to pay a large indemnity. In 1858, China was forced to open up eleven
more treaty ports that granted special privileges, such as the right to trade with the interior of
China and the right to supervise the Chinese custom offices. Foreigners also received the
right of extraterritoriality, which meant that Western nations maintained their own courts in
China and Westerners were tried in their own courts.

Japan - In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry (1866–1925), an American naval officer, led an
expedition to Japan. He convinced the shogun, a medieval-type ruler, to open ports for
trade

with the United States. Fearful of domination by foreign countries, Japan, unlike China,
reversed its policy of isolation and began to modernize by borrowing from the West. The Meiji
Restoration, which began in 1867, sought to replace the feudal rulers, or the shogun, and
increase the power of the emperor. The goal was to make Japan strong enough to
compete with the West. The new leaders strengthened the military and transformed Japan
into an industrial society.

Imperialism in the Middle East

The importance of the Middle East to the new imperialists was its strategic location (the
crossroads of three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa), vital waterways (canals and the
Dardanelles), and valuable oil resources. The Europeans divided up the Middle East in the
following manner:

■ Great Britain: Britain’s control of the Suez Canal forced her to take an active role in Egypt
as well as to acquire the militarily valuable island of Cyprus to secure oil resources for
industrial and military needs. The British also secured concessions in Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar,
and Bahrain. Pipelines were built to the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf.

■ Russia: Traditionally, Russia sought to gain control of the Dardanelles as an outlet to the
Mediterranean Sea and an area of expansion. Russia helped to dismember the Ottoman
Empire and gain independence for several Balkan states.

■ Germany: In 1899, German bankers obtained the Ottoman Empire’s consent to complete
the Berlin Baghdad Railroad.
REFERENCES:

Websites

Bushnell, D. (2022). History of Latin America. Britannica.com. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/place/Latin-America

Cottle, L. (2022). The Second Industrial Revolution Inventions and Effects. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-second-industrial-revolution-timeline-
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Encyclopedia Britannica (2022). French Revolution. Britannica.com. Retrieved from

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HISTORY.COM EDITORS. (2018). Social Darwinism. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-

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Books

Head, T. (2017). The French Revolution and Its Aftermath; & Manifest Destiny and the Americas. World History
101: From Ancient Mesopotamia and the Viking Conquests to NATO and WikiLeaks, An Essential Primer on World
History (pp. 148 – 157). Adams Media.

Isbouts, J. (2021). The Age of Reason and Revolution. Ultimate Visual History of the World (pp. 484 – 502).
National Geographic.