1. Word meaning; the difference between forms and expressions..........................

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2. Homonymy and it’s classification...........................................................................2
3. The polysemy and give examples for illustration, the criteria for distinction
between homonymy and polysemy.............................................................................3
4. Synonymy? Classify synonymy, examples.............................................................4
5. Antonymy? types of antonymy, examples..............................................................5
6. Meaning change (semantic change)? Main causes of semantic change..............6
7. Metaphor? The differences between metaphor and simile..................................6
8. Metonymy? The cases of metonymy, examples.....................................................7
9. Hyperbole, litotes, irony and euphemism, examples.............................................9
10. Sense relations, the type of sense relations...........................................................9
11. Hyponymy? Features of hyponymy....................................................................10
12. Semantic field or lexical field, paraphrase and contradiction.........................11

1. Entailment and the truth of sentences?................................................................12

2. Meaning of the sentence? Sentence vs. utterance................................................13
3. The terms “grammaticality, acceptability and meaningfulness”......................14
4. Explain some kinds of variables in the function of sentence meaning..............15
5. What are the types of processes? Examples?......................................................16
6. Types of circumstances? Examples?....................................................................17
7. The difference between context and cotext? Examples?....................................18
8. Definition of speech acts. Classify speech acts.....................................................19

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1. Word meaning; the difference between forms and expressions.
*Word meaning: Words are regarded as the smallest indivisible meaningful units of a
language which can operate independently.
* Forms and Expressions:
- Words are also considered expressions.
- Words and word forms are distinguished from each other in terms of the distinction
between lexical and grammatical meanings.
- Forms of one and the same word have the same lexical meaning whereas different words
have different lexical meanings.

2. Homonymy and it’s classification

*Definition: Homonymy is a word that is written and/or pronounced the same way
as another, but has a different meaning.
* Classification:

Types of homonyms Definition Examples

Absolute homonyms Satisfy 3 conditions (1) Air (n) Oxygen - Air (n)
- Will be unrelated in a lilting tune or voice
meanings (2) Ball (n) a sphere; any
- All their forms will be spherical body - Ball (n) a
identical large dancing party

- The ideantical forms will be

grammatically equivalent

Partial Full - Same spelling (1) Pound (n) unit of weight

homonyms homonyms - Same pronunciation - Pound (v) to beat
(2) Current (n) flow of water
- Different word forms - Current (a) up to date
- Different meaning

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 Homophones - Same pronunciation (1) great – grate // break –
- Different spellings and brake
different meanings (2) wait – weight  //whole –
hole

Homographs - Same spelling (1) Entrance (ENtrance) an

- Different in sound-form and entryway; act of entering –
in meaning or – (enTRANCE) filled
with wonder or delight
(2) Record (n) [ˈRekɔːd] the
best or fastest ever done -
Record (v) [rɪˈkɔːd] to store
sounds or moving picture
using electronic equipment

3. The polysemy and give examples for illustration, the criteria for distinction between
homonymy and polysemy.
 Polysemy is the state or phenomenon in which the words that have more than one
meaning. In other words, it can be described as multiple meanings of words.
 Examples:
 (1) “key”. The noun key has the 2 following meanings:
1. The key was in my bedroom
2. The key to success is preparation.
In each case, key carries a different meaning:
1. The key in the first sentence explains something that is the real object. It is something that
can open and ulock the home, door or car
2. The key in the second sentence is an abstract word. It means a thing that makes you able
to understand or achieve something.
Although these words are different, they actually have a related sense.
(2) The verb “break” has the two following meanings: 
1. Separate into two or more parts as a result of force or strain (but not cutting): He broke
that cup. 

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2. Become unusable by being damaged; make (something) unusable by damaging: My
watch is broken.  
The two meanings are closely related because both contain the semantic feature which
means it can no longer be used.  
 The criteria for distinction between homonymy and polysemy:
- Relatedness of meanings
- Etymology (historical source of the world)

4. Synonymy? Classify synonymy, examples

 Synonymy is the state or phenomenon in which the words that sound different
(different in pronunciation) but have the same or identical meaning as another word
or phrase.
 Classify synonymy and examples:

Types of Definition Example

synonymy

Absolute Rare
synonyms

Semantic They are those which differ in terms (1) glance - look
synonyms of their denotation (2) nice, pretty, good.

Stylistic They are those which differ in terms (1) Father - Dad - Daddy
synonyms (2) Die - pass away

Semantic-stylistic They are words differing both in (1) cry - weep - scream
synonyms shades of meaning & stylistic aspects. (2) dismiss - fire - lay off

Territorial They are words employed in different (1) sidewalk - pavement

synonyms regions including Britain, Canada, pub – bar ; autumn - fall
Australia or the United States.
(2) holiday - vacation
biscuit - cookie
petrol- gas/gasoline

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 Euphemisms They are words allowing for someone
to say what they mean indirectly,
without using literal language, as a
way of softening the impact of what is
being said.
(1) rich – well-off, wealthy
die – pass away, lost, be
gone, rest in peace, six feet
under
(2) overweight – big-boned
unemployed – between jobs

Phraseological They are words which are different in
synonyms their collocations (combinability;
ability to be combined with different
words).
(1) supply – provide (supply
someone’s place but provide
information)
(2) arrive – reach (arrive at
school but reach a speed of
80 kph)

5. Antonymy? types of antonymy, examples

 Antonymy: is the state or phenomenon in which the words have the sense relation
which involve the opposite of meaning.
 Types of antonymy, examples:
- Antonyms proper (Gradable antonym): are easily gradable, based on the operation of
gradation. They are opposite ends of a continuous scale of values.
E.g. (1) small – (medium-sized) – large
good – (so-so) – bad
(2) always – (usually – often – sometimes) – never
cold – (cool – warm) – hot
- Complementary: involve two items: the assertion of one is the negation of the other.
E.g. (1) awake – asleep // pass – fail  (2) yes – no // same – different
- Conversives: denote the same situation but from different points of view, with a reversal of
the order of participants and their roles.
E.g. (1) borrow – lend // sell – buy (2) servant – master // ask – answer
- Directional antonyms: present opposite directions of motion.
E.g. (1) come – go // up – down (2) arrive – depart // back – forward 

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6. Meaning change (semantic change)? Main causes of semantic change, examples
 Meaning change:
- New meanings of the words appear:
E.g. (1) Bead: prayer → prayer beads → beads
(2) Immoral: not customary → unethical
- Old meanings drop out of the language or co-exist with the new ones
E.g. (1) Wench: girls → wanton (easy-virtue) woman → prostitutes
(2) Silly: happy, prosperous → foolish
 Main causes of semantic change: (3 types)
- Extra linguistic causes: connected with the development of society, changes in social,
political, economic, and cultural life, science, and technology.
E.g. Word “space” meant “extension,” and now it means “the limitless expanses, outer
space, cosmos”
- Linguistic causes: factors acting within the language, connected with the system of
language.
E.g. (1) catch (understand) → grasp/get (understand)
(2) propose marriage → propose; daily newspaper → daily
- Psychological reasons: The avoidance of expressing problematic concepts such as death,
sex... It helps to make meanings more slightly or more positive.
E.g. (1) curvy/big-boned/chubby = overweight
(2) disadvantaged/under-privileged/vulnerable people = poor people

7. Metaphor? The differences between metaphor and simile, some basis of metaphor
transference

 Definition
Metaphor is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on the similarity
between these two.
In other words, we call one object by the name of another because we compare these objects
and find some common features between them.

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E.g. (1) The snow is a white blanket. // (2) Laughter is the best medicine.
 Differences between metaphor and simile

Criteria Metaphor Simile

Feature Implicit comparison Explicit comparison

Form Direct: having no elements of Indirect: having elements of

comparison comparison (like, as)

Example (1) The eyes are the windows to the (1) My friend is as quiet as a mouse.
soul. (2) The kids were fighting like cats
(2) The world is your oyster. and dogs.

 The metaphor transference may be based on similarity of:

✓Shape: the head of a cabbage, the eye of a needle // the bow of a boat, the tip of a knife
✓ Position: foot of a page // head of a procession
✓Movement: caterpillar of tank // to worm
✓ Function: finger of the instrument // the key to the mystery
✓ Colour: rose, orange // carrot, hazel
✓ Size: midget // elephantine

8. Metonymy? The cases of metonymy, examples

 Definition: Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is
associated. In other words, instead of the name of one object or notion, we use the
name of another because these objects are associated and closely related.
E.g. (1) The pen is mightier than the sword.
This phrase means that the written word and the sharing of ideas are more powerful than
fighting or physical force.
(2) The White House released a statement last week.
In this example, an individual or set of individuals speaking on behalf of the White House
released a statement.

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  The cases of metonymy, examples
In classic tradition, the following cases of metonymy are often presented.

 Name of the container instead of the thing contained

E.g. (1) He drank the cup (= the coffee or the tea in the cup)
(2) The conquerors smote the city (= the inhabitants of the city)

 Parts of the human body as symbols

E.g. (1) She has an ear for music (= She possesses a remarkable talent for learning,
imitating, and appreciating music.)
(2) John has a good head of business (= John is gifted in/is clever at dealing with
business.)

 The concrete instead of the abstract

E.g. (1) His Holiness (= the Pope) has just come back to Rome
(2) Can you protect your children from the cradle to the grave? (= from childhood to
death)

 Materials instead of the things made of the materials

E.g. (1) All our glass is kept in the cupboard (= vessels and articles made of glass)
(2) He was buried under this stone (= this tomb made of stone, this tombstone)

 Name of the author instead of his works

E.g. (1) He bought a Ford. (a Ford car).

(2) Have you ever read Nam Cao? (= the works of Nam Cao)

 Part versus the whole

E.g. (1) We all live under the same roof.

(2) I have three mouths to feed.

 Controller for controlled

E.g. (1) Napoleon lost at Waterloo. (Napoleon’s army)

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 (2) Nixon bombed Hanoi. (Nixon’s army)

 Institution for people responsible

E.g. (1) I disapprove of the Government’s actions.

(2) Vinamilk has raised its prices again. (Vietnam Milk Joint Stock Company)

9. Hyperbole, litotes, irony and euphemism, examples

 Hyperbole: Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood
literally but with powerful effect.
E.g. (1) I can’t live without you. // (2) That runner’s faster than the speed of lightning.
(3) It’s so hot you could fry an egg on the sidewalk. // (4) New York is the city that
never sleeps.
 Litotes: Litotes is an understatement expressing something in the affirmative by the
negative of its contrary
E.g. (1) She is not the brightest bulb in the box. (i.e., She is not intelligent.)
(2) Large crowds of people are not my cup of tea. (i.e., I dislike them.)
 Irony: Irony expresses meaning by words of the opposite sense. Intonation plays an
essential role in getting the message across.
E.g. (1) Entering a child’s messy room and saying “nice place you have here”
(2) After looking at a student’s poor test score, the teacher says, “You will surely
finish the year with highest honors”.
 Euphemisms: Euphemism is the use of a milder expression for sth unpleasant.
E.g. (1) We have to let you go, Tyler.
To “let someone go” is to fire someone. This is a euphemism that sounds much nicer than
the harsh truth of the situation.
(2) She’s a curvy woman.
“Curvy” is often used as a euphemism for “overweight.”

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10. Sense relations, the type of sense relations
 Definition: Sense relations: A relation between two or more words that concerns their
meaning
E.g. (1) cry/weep/yell/sob // (2) smile/grin/laugh/giggle/smirk
 The types of sense relations
1. Coordination
a. Substitutional (paradigmatic): Are those existing between members of the same
grammatical categories
E.g. (1) “narrow” & “wide” & “old” & “new” are interchangeable and belong to the
same category of adjective
(2) “wise” & “foolish” & “good” & “bad” are interchangeable and belong to the
same category of adjective
b. Combinatorial (syntagmatic): Are those existing between items of different
grammatical categories
E.g. (1) “the young man” is a combination between a noun and an adjective
(2) “the big house” is a combination between a noun and an adjective
2. Superordination
a. Hyponymy is the relationship between two words in which the meaning of one of the
words includes the meaning of the other.
E.g. (1) Cat/Rabbit/Dog – Pet & Car/Truck/Bicycle – Vehicle
(2) White/Pink/Blue – Color & Maths/Music/Physics – Subject
b. Meronymy is the opposite of hyponymy.

E.g. (1) “Head” = “face” + “hair” + “ears”

(2) “Body” = “head” + “trunk” + “arms” + “legs”

11. Hyponymy? Features of hyponymy

 Definition: Hyponymy is the relationship between two words in which the meaning
of one of the words includes the meaning of the other.
E.g. (1) The lexical representation of bake, boil, grill, fry, steam, roast,...

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The sense of “bake” includes the sense of “cook.” Thus, we can say that: “bake” is a
hyponymy of “cook.”
(2) The lexical representation of apple, orange, pear, grape, banana,…
The sense of “apple” includes the sense of “fruit.” Thus, we can say that: “apple” is a
hyponymy of “fruit.”
 Features of hyponymy

 The relation of hyponym is decided based on the viewpoint of intension and

extension.
E.g. (1) “color” and “blue”
“color” - superordinate; “blue” - hyponym
White, pink, and black,... are co-hyponyms of “blue”
(2) “sport” and “football”
“sport” - superordinate; “football” - hyponym
Basketball, badminton, tennis,… are co-hyponyms of “football”

 Hyponymy makes substitution possible.

E.g. (1) Have you planted some flowers? – Yes, I’ve planted some daisies.
(2) Did you buy a new toy for your sister? – Yes, I bought a barbie doll.

 Hyponymy is a transitive relation.

x is Hyponymy of y ; y is Hyponymy of z  x is Hyponymy of z

E.g. (1) scarlet – red – color
(2) Corgi – dog – pet – animal

 Hyponymy is related to synonym. Synonymy is a special case of hyponymy:

SYMMETRICAL hyponymy.
x is Hyponymy of y ; y is Hyponymy of x  x and y are synonyms
E.g. “mercury” & “quicksilver”

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12. Semantic field or lexical field, paraphrase and contradiction, examples
 Semantic field or lexical field
A lexical/semantic field is the organization of related words and expressions into a system
that shows their relationships with one another.
E.g. (1) + Jewelry: ring, watch, necklace, earrings, crown,…
+ Vehicle: car, bike, truck, bus, airplain, boat,…
(2) + Clothing: t-shirt, dress, sweater, jacket, socks, belt, cap,…
+ Food: meat, beef, tomato, bean, cheese, apple, grape,…
 Paraphrase and contradiction

 Paraphrase: A sentence that expresses the same proposition as another sentence is a

paraphrase of that sentence (assuming the same referents for any referring
expressions involved).
E.g. (1) I am trying hard to be successful. & I am making an effort to succeed.
(2) Education is equal for all children. & All children receive the same education.
Paraphrase is the relationship where two propositions have the same truth conditions.

 Contradiction is a relationship where a proposition must be false because of the

meanings of the words involved.
E.g. (1) Fish live in the forest. & Cats are vegetable.
(2) Tigers aren’t animals. & My sis is jealous of me as I’m an only child.

1. Entailment and the truth of sentences? Types of the truth of sentences, examples

 Entailment: is a relationship that applies between two propositions, where the truth
of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved.
- It is a relationship between two or more sentences (strictly speaking propositions). If
knowing that one sentence is true gives us certain knowledge of the truth of the
second sentence, then the first sentence entails the second.
E.g. (1)  Ben has been murdered, entails Ben is dead.
(2) Alan lives in Toronto, entails Alan lives in Canada. 

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- Entailment is concerned with the meaning of the sentence itself (not utterance meaning). It
does not depend on the context in which the sentence is used.
 The truth of sentences:
- A sentence can be either necessarily true or contingently true.

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  Types of the truth of sentences, examples
- A necessarily (analytically) true sentence (an ANALYTIC sentence) is one that is
necessarily true as a result of the senses of the words in it.
E.g. (1) Elephants are animals. // (2) Cats are not fish.   
(3) My brother is male. // (4) Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam.
- A contingently (synthetically) true sentence (a SYNTHETIC sentence) is one which may
be either true or false, depending on the way the world is.
E.g. (1) Mary is from Canada. // (2) My oldest cousin is female.  
(3) My brother is tall. // (4) Some cats eat wool.

2. Meaning of the sentence? The difference between sentence and utterance.

 The meaning of the sentence:
- A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech
(e.g. nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives...) and grammatical classes (e.g. word, phrase, clause)
are said to function. In English a sentence normally contains one independent clause.
- The meaning of a sentence is not the sum of the meanings of the words used in the
sentence.
- It is more correct to regard it as a function of the meanings of the words used in the
sentence, modality, and structural meaning signalled by the way words are organized into
sentences.
 The difference between sentence and utterance:
- An utterance is often regarded as any stretch of speech before which and after which there
is a pause.
- An utterance may be any piece of language such as a sequence of sentences, or a sentence,
or just a phrase, or even a single word, used on a particular occasion.
- An utterance may be seen as a product of the process of uttering.
- A sentence, on the other hand, may be defined as the ideal underlying structure behind an
utterance, expressing a complete thought.

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3. How do you understand the terms “grammaticality, acceptability and
meaningfulness” when talking about sentence meaning? Give examples
 Grammaticality: A grammatical sentence is one which is formed according to the
rules of grammar.
- Grammatical sentence:
E.g. (1) Jay is tall, isn’t he? // (2) Did you enjoy the view?
- Ungrammatical sentence:
E.g. (1) Jay is tall, doesn’t he? // (2) Did you enjoying the view?
 Meaningfulness: The meaningfulness of a sentence is conditioned by how well-
informed that sentence is semantically.
- Meaningful sentence:
E.g. (1) The Everest is the highest peak in the world. // (2) English is the key to success.
- Meaningless sentence
E.g. (1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. // (2) Thursday is in bed with Friday.
 Grammaticality vs. Meaningfulness
- Most sentences we produce are grammatical and meaningful
E.g. (1) Mark bought a new car last week. // (2) They are building a new school here.
- A sentence which is grammatically correct is not necessarily meaningful
E.g. (1) It asks a pile of rubbish to clean the ant. // (2) My sister wants some books to wash
clothes.
 Acceptability: In grammatical sense and In semantic sense
- In grammatical sense: Some sentences are unacceptable because it is not grammatically
possible.
E.g. (1) Because the traffic jam, I came home late. // (2) My friends & me went Thailand.
+ Suitability to social etiquette:
E.g. (1) After the battle, the enemies all passed away. => Unacceptable
(2) You are my dog. => Unacceptable in Vietnam => Acceptable in Britain
+ Rationality/logical coherence:
E.g. (1) She died even though she fell down from the 100th floor => Unacceptable
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 (2) Despite being killed, John is still alive. => Unacceptable

4. Explain some kinds of variables in the function of sentence meaning.

 Kinds of variables in the function of sentence meaning
- Structural meaning ; Representational meaning ; Interpersonal meaning and Textual
meaning sentence meaning.
 Structural meaning: Structural meaning is the kind of meaning that results from a
particular arrangement of the parts of the sentence.
E.g. (1) My freimnds wernnt to treaval all adroumd the woarl.
(2) I lieku waechtign Koeran dranfas.
 Representational meaning: Can be defined in terms of experiential and logical
functions.
- The experiential function: is to communicate ideas.
E.g. (1) John invited Susan to go to the cinema with him last night.
(2) I asked my brother to help me do the chores.
- The logical function: relates ideas to each other on an equal or subordinate basis
E.g. (1) The bus was crowded and I had to stand all the way (equal)
(2) Thanks to your help, we’ll be done on time.
 Interpersonal function:
- To establish and maintain social relations.This function can be manifested in various forms
indicating functions such as:
+ Good morning / Have a nice day / Thank you very much / I am sorry
- To influence people behaviour and get things done. This function may be called the
instrumental function, that is influencing people’s behaviour and getting things done.
E.g. + (1) Could you pass me the wine? // (2) Can you help me? (Request)
+ (1) Why do you think so? // (2) What do you mean? (Enquiry)
+ (1) Don’t do that again. // (2) Don’t mess with me. (Warning)
- To express the speaker's feelings, attitudes and opinions towards, or the assessment of the
representational content of the sentence via the use of modal verbs and adverbs.

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E.g. (1) What she said may be right. // (2) This is probably wrong.

5. What are the types of processes? Examples for each type?

There are 6 types of processes.

 Material processes: express our outer experiences.

A material process usually involves an actor and a goal.

E.g. (1) John sang a song.
(2)Actor
I Material process
played Goal
pingpong yesterday.
Actor Material process Goal Cir. time

 Mental processes: express our inner experiences.

A mental process involves a senser and a phenomenon.

E.g. (1) I hate my curly hair.
(2)Senser
No one Mental process
believes Phenomenon
his story.
Senser Mental process Phenomenon

 Relational processes: connect our experiences. They are processes of being.

+ the identification of an entity with another one (the identifier and identified)
+ an entity is characterized by a quality
+ belongs to somebody
E.g. (1) Tom is handsome.
(2)Carrier
Ahn Relational
hasprocess aAttribute
new bike.
Possessor Relational process Possession

 Behavioral processes: (between material processes and mental processes): represent

outer manifestations of our inner workings.
A behavioral process usually involves one participant called the behaver.
E.g. (1) She laughed.
Behaver Behavioral process

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 (2) My mom is sleeping.
Behaver Behavioral process

 Verbal processes: (between mental and relational processes): represent symbolic

relationship constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language.
E.g. (1) Mom told me the truth yesterday.
(2)Sayer
Mary Verbalexpressed
process Receiver Verbiageabout new
some concern Cir. time
policy.
Sayer Verbal process Verbiage Cir. matter

 Existential processes: (between the material and relational processes): concerning

with existence.
E.g. (1) There is a book on the table.
(2) TheyExistential process
lived Existent in rural
Cir.area.
Place
Existent Existential process Cir. place

6. Types of circumstances? Examples?

This component is related to the process. They can occur in all types of processes. Most are
realized by prepositional phrases; however, they can be clauses as well. The main types of
circumstances are:

 Time:  Concession:
(1) I’ll be checking out tomorrow. (1) In spite of effort, he failed the exam.
(2) I’m not feeling well today. (2) Despite being poor, Mary is still optimistic.

 Place:  Result:
(1) I met him at my aunt’s house. (1) I got up late, so I missed the breakfast.
(2) She will pick me to the cinema. (2) I broke the new vase, so my mom got angry.

 Condition:  Manner:
(1) If it rains, I’ll stay at home. She beat her son with a ruler.
(2) If I were you, I’ll do it.

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  Cause:  Reason:
(1) Because of the rain, the tennis match She is out for lunch.
was stopped.
(2) Due to the traffic jam, I came home late.

7. The difference between context and cotext? Examples?

In Linguistics, the term “context” may be said to consist of two components: the linguistic
context (cotext) and the situational or extralinguistic context.
Cotext refers to the text surrounding a message. This includes the textual elements that occur
before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The cotext often
helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.
E.g. (1) The word “watch” is a noun in: My brother bought a new watch for me.
and a verb in: I watched my favorite TV shows last night.
(2) The word “record” is a verb in: Remember to record the show.
and a noun in: I’ll keep a record of the request.
Situational Context concerns the physical context in which a message is conveyed. It is the
broader social situation in which a linguistic item used.
E.g. In ordinary usage, “spinster” refers to an older unmarried woman, in a legal context in
refers to any unmarried woman.
Context: not only cotext but also the relevant features of the situation in which a sentence is
uttered.
Context can determine utterance meanings in 3 ways:
+ what sentence is uttered?
+ what proposition has been actually expressed?
+ what kind of illocutionary force has been assigned to the proposition?

8. Definition of speech acts. Classify speech acts according to J.L.Austin.

 A Speech act is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance.

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  Classify speech acts: According to J.L Austin, there are 3 different types of act
involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence: Locutionary Act ; Illocutionary
Act and Periocutionary Act
 A locutionary act: is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be
understood.
E.g. (1) The dog is on the floor. // (2) Do you want some coffee?
To perform a locutionary act is to produce an utterance with a particular form and a more or
less determinate meaning according to the rules of a given language. The locutionary act into
three sub-types: Phonic act ; Phatic act and Rhetic act

 An illocuttionary act: is any speech act that amounts to stating, questioning,

commanding, promising and so on. It is an act performed in saying something, as
contracted with a locutionary act, the act of saying something, the location. In short,
an illocationary act is using a sentence to perform a function.
E.g. (1) I will see you later. // (2) I promise you to do all the housework.

 A perlocutionary act carried out by a speaker making an utterance is the act of

causing a certain effect on the hearer and others.
E.g. (1) Would you mind not smoking here? // (2) Would you mind lending me your bike?
If communication is successful, the illocution and the perlocution are alike or nearly alike.

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