INDIRA PRIYADARSHINI HR. SEC.

SCHOOL

SESSION 2022-23

PROJECT
ON
CHEMISTRY

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY
NAZISH MAM YASIR KHAN
CLASS :- 11TH (PCM)
 CERTIFICATE
This is certify that YASIR KHAN of class
11th science has made this project during
the academic year. Under my supervision
and according to the requirement of the
board.
I wish him/her good luck for the future.

Signature of Principal Signature of

teacher

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my gratitude towards my Chemistry
teacher Nazish Mam for guiding and
supervising me in completing this project.
I am also thankful to my priniciple for
providing the support and environment in the
school.

Without the guidance and suport, project

would not have been done .

I am also thankful to my friend who guided

and encourage me in this project.

Yasir khan

CLASSIFICATION OF ELMENTS
AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Introduction :-
CLASSIFICATION OF ELMENTS :- The
arrangement of elements into different
groups on basis of similarities into their
properties is called classification of elements

Why do we need to classify elements:-

There is large number of elements it is very
difficult to study to case this problem ,
scientist classy elements. So, only 31
elements had more than that douvled to 63,
In present 118 elements have ben identified.
DOEBEREINER’S TRAID :- The first attempt
towards dlassification of elements was made
by johan wolfgang doebereiner a german
scientist in 1817
He arranged similar elements in group of
three and showed that their atomic weights
were either nearly the same or atomic weight
of middle element was mean of other two.
These group of three elements were called
doebereiner traid.
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES :- In 1865
English chemist , John Alexander Newland
observed that
When the lighter elements were
arranged in order of their increacing atomic
weight the properties of every eighth element
is simalar to first one like eighth notes of
musical scale. This is known as “NEWLAND’S
LAW OF OCTAVES”.

Limitations :-
1. All the elements and elments
discovered later could not be correctly
arranged into octaves.
2. Same elements having different
properties were placed in same rows
like cobalt and nickel having different
properties were placed along with
flourine, clorine.

Mendeleev's periodic law :-

The physical and chemical properties of
the elements are the periodic functions of
their atomic weights (atomic masses) i.e.,
when the elements are arranged in order
of their increasing atomic weights,
elements with similar properties are
repeated after certain regular intervals.

MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE :-

The first meaningful and remarkable

contribution in the field of classification of
elements was made by a Russian chemist,
Dmitri I. Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev
arranged all the known elements (56 at that
time) in horizontal rows and vertical columns
in the order of their increasing atomic
weights. The elements with similar properties
were arranged beneath each other. To
achieve this Mendeleev left certain gaps in his
table and predicted that new elements would
be discovered to fill these gaps. By this
scheme of arrangement, a table was
constructed which was referred to as
Mendeleev's periodic table.
While arranging the elements in order of
increasing atomic weights, Mendeleev
observed that elements with similar
properties recurred after regular intervals.
This led him to make a generalization, now
known as Mendeleev's periodic law.
IMPORTANCE OF MANDELEEV’S TABLE :-
 Systematic Study of the elements
Mendeleev’s periodic table was developed in
accordance to-
(a) increasing atomic masses.
(b) grouping of similar elements together.
 Prediction of new elements and their
properties
In Mendeleev’s periodic table, some vacant
spaces were left with strong prediction for
their discovery later on.
 Correction of doubtful atomic masses
Mendeleev’s periodic table helped in
correction of atomic weights of certain
elements such as Beryllium (Be, group IIA) ,
gold (Au, group IB) and platinum (Pt, group
VIII), based on their position in periodic table.

DEFECTS IN Mendeleev’s periodic table :-

 Certainly, no fixed position can be given to
hydrogen in the Periodic table.
 Isotopes were discovered long after
Mendeléev had proposed his periodic
classification of elements.
 The periodic table cannot accommodate
the presently known 118 elements.
 The elements present in Lanthanides and
actinides that were discovered later, can
not be placed in his periodic table.
 DIVISION OF PERIODIC TABLE INTO S,
p, d AND f-BLOCK

The elements in the periodic table are

divided into four blocks known as s. p. d
and blocks. The classification depends
upon the type of the orbital (s, p, d and f)
into which the last electron of an atom to
the elements enters.

1. s-block elements: The elements in

which the last electron enters the s-orbital
are known as block elements. Since an s-
orbital can accommodate a maximum
number of two electrons,

General electronic configuration of s-block

elements = ns1-2
characteristics of s-block elements.
1. They are soft metals.
2. They are highly electropositive.
3. They are good . reducing agents.
4. They have low melting and boiling points.
5. They impart specific colour to the flame.

2. p-block elements: Those elements (except

He) in which last electrons enters into the p-
subshell of the outermost main energy shell,
are called p-block elements. For example,

2
17Cl=1s ,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p5
This block is situated on the right-hand side
of periodic table. It contains 31 elements.
General electronic configuration of p-block
elements = ns², np¹-6

Characteristics of p-Block Elements:

(a) P - Block elements include both metals
and non-metals but the number of non-
metals is much higher than that of metals,
Further, the metallic character increases from
top to bottom within a group and the non-
metallic character increases from left to right
along a period in this block.
(b) their ionisation enthalpies are relatively
higher as compared to s- block elements.
(c) They mostly form covalent compounds.

(d) some of them show more than one

(variable) oxidation state in their compound.
Their oxidizing character increases from left
to right in a period and reducing character
increases from top to bottom in a group.
3. d-Block elements: Those elements in which
last electrons enters into the d-subshell of the
penultimate main energy shell (last but one)
are called d-block elements, for example,

Fe26=1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6,4s2,3d6
The general electronic configuration of d-
block elements = (n-1)d1-10 ns1-2

Characteristic of d-block elements:

(i) All these elements are metals and have
high melting boiling points
(ii) Most of them form coloured compounds.
(iii) They have a good tendency to form
complex compounds.
(iv) Their compounds are generally
paramagnetic in nature.
4. f-block elements: The elements in which
last electron enters into the f-subshell
presence c ntipehultimate (third from the
outermost). Main energy shells are called f-
block elements.
General electronic configuration of f-block
elements = (n-2)1-14 (n-1)d0-1 ns2

Characteristics of f-block elements:

(i) These are heavy metals having high melting
and boiling points.
(ii) They show variable valence.
(iii) They form coloured ions.
(iv) They have tendency to form complex
compounds.

PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENT

The properties which are directly or indirectly

related to their electronic configuration and
which show a regular gradation when we
move left to right in a period or from top to
bottom in a group are called periodic
properties. Some important periodic
properties of are atomic radius , ionization
enthalpy, valency, density, etc.

IONNIZATION ENTHALPY
The minimum amount of energy which is
needed to remove the most loosely bound
electron from a neutral isolated gaseous atom
in its ground state to form a gaseous cation.

This process can be represented as,

M(g)+ energy --------- > Mg+ (G) + e(g)-

It is represented by H .

ELECTRONEGATIVITY:-

Electronecativity of an element is the

tendancy of its atom to attract shared pair of
electron towards itself in a covatent bond itI
is represented by sumbol, k.

Electron gain enthalpy

Electron gain enthalpy is equal to the change
in enthalpy when an isolated gaseous at
accepts an electron to form a monovalent
anion. It is denoted by delta H.
The process may be represented as
X(g) +e- -------> X(g) + energy or delta H =
deltaegH.

Units: Electron gain enthalpy like ionization

potential is expressed in electrons volts or
kcal/mol or kj/mol

VALENCY

Valency is the combining capacity of an

element with hydrogen or double the number
of oxygen atoma when it combines with these
elements.