University of Abra, Main Campus

Lagangilang, Abra
SY 2022-2023
SHS-Physical Science
(Lesson 1)
Core Subject Description:
Evolution of our understanding of matter, motion, electricity, magnetism, light, and the
universe from ancient times to the present; applications of physics and chemistry concepts
in contexts such as atmospheric phenomena, cosmology, astronomy, vision, medical
instrumentation, space technology, drugs, sources of energy, pollution and recycling,
fitness and health, and cosmetics.

Physical Science- any of the sciences concerned with nonliving matter, energy, and the
physical properties of the universe, such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, and geology. It
is the study of the nature and properties of energy and nonliving matter.

The formation of the elements during the Big Bang and during stellar evolution
Science brings forth a cosmological theory, not from belief, but from scientific evidence that
the universe once began to expand and continues to expand until today. This theory was
eventually called the Big Bang theory or Big Bang model. Astronomers George Lemaître
and Edwin Hubble were some of its first proponents.

Cosmology-the scientific study of the origin and structure of the universe.

The key stages of the Big Bang model

a. The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a point
with all of space, time, matter and energy. This means that there was no where, when or
what. There is no space around the singularity – just nothingness.
b. All of it then began to rapidly expand in a process known as inflation. Space itself
expanded faster than the speed of light (3.0 x 108 m/s). In this still hot and dense mass of
the universe, pairs of matter and antimatter (quarks and antiquarks) were formed from
energy, but these pairs cancelled each other back into energy (annihilation). (annihilate-
to destroy a substance or force)
c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of matter (electrons, protons,
neutrons and other particles) somehow came to be in a highly energetic “plasma soup.”
Photons (light particles) were being scattered everywhere in this “soup”. Protons and
neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei by nucleosynthesis or nuclear
fusion.
d. Much later on, electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei forming neutral
atoms in a process called recombination. The bound particles no longer scattered photons
so light and energy moved freely across space. The period was hence known as the “dark
ages”.
e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and galaxies and
eventually, other matter. This still happens until today. Space also continues to expand at
an accelerating rate, thus increasing the distance between the matters inside it.

1
During nucleosynthesis free protons and neutrons would routinely combine and separate
from each other due to the high energies at the time:

Because of the rapid cooling due to expansion, nucleosynthesis ground to a halt about three
minutes after the Big Bang occurred. This left us with mostly H isotopes (P, D and T), He
isotopes and a very tiny bit of other elements like Li. The relative abundance of He and H
did not change much until today.

Isotope- any of two or more species of atoms of a chemical element with the same atomic
umber and nearly identical chemical behaviour but with differing atomic mass or mass
number and different physical properties. (Nuclide)

The ordinary isotope of hydrogen, H, is known as Protium; the other two isotopes are
Deuterium (a proton and a neutron) and Tritium (a proton and two neutrons).
Hydrogen is the only element whose isotopes have been given different names. Deuterium
and Tritium are both used as fuel in nuclear fusion reactors.

The relative abundance of light elements in the universe is the second piece of evidence to
prove that the Big Bang occurred.
Through measurements, we find that around 24% of the universe’s ordinary matter is
currently comprised of helium, about 74% hydrogen, and 2% of other elements.

Another evidence for the Big Bang model: Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), or the
energy (thermal radiation) that was left as a result of recombination. Atoms became
neutral due to the binding of nuclei and electrons. The remaining radiation then began to
scatter. This is seen by scientists as a faint microwave glow not emitted by any object in
space.

Formation of the Heavy Elements

Once hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of gravity, the hydrogen and
helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion reactions that release a
tremendous amount of light, heat, and radioactive energy.
Fusion resulted in the formation of nuclei of new elements, so these reactions inside stars
are known as stellar nucleosynthesis.

The first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars with a temperature of less than
15 million K, such as the Sun. These kinds of stars are called main-sequence stars. The
three steps of the process is known as the main-branch proton-proton chain.

Deuterium (D or 2H) forms from proton fusion, with one proton turning into a neutron via
1
beta-plus decay, giving off a neutrino and a positron: H + 1H → 2H + ν + e+

2
3
He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as deuterium burning. This
immediately consumes all deuterium produced. 2H + 1H → 3He + γ
4
He formation from 3He fusion. 3
He + 3He → 4He + 2 1H

Neutrino (ν) is a particle that is smaller than an atom and that has no electric charge
Positron (e+) is a very small particle of matter that has a positive charge of electricity and
that travels around the nucleus of an atom.
Gamma ray (γ) is a type of electromagnetic radiation that results from a redistribution of
electric charge within a nucleus. Gamma rays are essentially very energetic X rays.

The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV (megaelectronvolts) of energy. The
energy released is responsible for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity, and for
the light, heat and radiation emitted by the star. A different process facilitates hydrogen
fusion in main-sequence stars with temperature greater than 15 million K.

As H is depleted, the core of a star becomes comprised of He instead, while H fusion only
occurs in a shell around it. Due to this process, the temperature and density of the core of
the star increases, up to 100 million K (Kelvin), and the star’s thermal pressure causes it to
push out H gas. The star balloons into a red giant.
Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red giant aside from hydrogen fusion, the first
of which is the triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer to 4He, so this reaction involves the
fusion of three 4He atoms in the following steps:
4
He + 4He → 8Be
8
Be + 4He → 12C + γ
8
Be intermediate is unstable, so either it decays or forms 12C.

Gamma ray – photon emitted spontaneously by a radioactive substance; a photon of higher

energy than that of an x-ray.
As it accumulates mass, the star can keep growing into a supergiant, where alpha fusion
processes continue in the core via the alpha ladder. More and more alpha particles are
fused to create heavier elements all the way until iron, making the core and star itself more
massive.

alpha particle- positively charged particle, identical to the nucleus of the helium-4 atom,

spontaneously emitted by some radioactive substances, consisting of two protons and
two neutrons bound together, thus having a mass of four units and a positive charge of two;
discovered and named (1899) by Ernest Rutherford.

Alpha ladder:
12 4 16
6C + 2 He 8 O
16 4 20
8 O + 2 He 10 Ne
20
10 Ne + 42 He 24
12 Mg

3
24
Mg + 42 He
12
28
14 Si
28
Si + 42 He
14
32
16 S
32 4 36
S+
16 2 He 18 Ar
36
Ar + 42 He
18
40
20 Ca
40
Ca + 42 He
20
44
22 Ti
44
Ti + 42 He
22
48
24 Cr
48
Cr + 42 He
24
52
26 Fe

Once carbon was present from alpha processes, main-sequence stars hotter than 15 million
K could facilitate the production of helium through a process where 12C is used as a catalyst:
the carbon fusion cycle or the CNO cycle (Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen cycle). Go through the
cycle briefly, demonstrating that this process involves repeated proton capture and beta-
plus decay.

This way that accounts for the number of protons and neutrons in each step:

p+ n Next step:
12
C 6 6 Add a proton
13
N 7 6 Convert a proton
13
C 6 7 Add a proton
14
N 7 7 Add a proton
15
O 8 7 Convert a proton
15
N 7 8 Add a proton
12
C 6 6

Due to the formation of heavier elements, a star will eventually be unable to generate
energy to push against gravity, causing it to collapse on itself. It then undergoes a
supernova explosion . This releases a tremendous amount of energy, enough to
synthesize elements heavier than iron, including some of the heaviest elements known
(uranium, thorium). This is done through the r-process, which involves rapid capture of
neutrons by the atom. Other heavy elements are also synthesized through s-process,
which involves slow neutron capture in red giants.

…..vgv…..