Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

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Gas mass derived by infrasound and UV cameras: Implications for mass

flow rate
D. Delle Donne a,b,⁎, M. Ripepe b, G. Lacanna b, G. Tamburello a, M. Bitetto a, A. Aiuppa a,c
a
DiSTeM, Università di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Firenze, Firenze, Italy
c
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Palermo, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mass Flow Rate is one of the most crucial eruption source parameter used to define magnitude of eruption and to
Received 23 February 2016 quantify the ash dispersal in the atmosphere. However, this parameter is in general difficult to be derived and no
Received in revised form 20 June 2016 valid technique has been developed yet to measure it in real time with sufficient accuracy. Linear acoustics has
Accepted 20 June 2016
been applied to infrasonic pressure waves generated by explosive eruptions to indirectly estimate the gas
Available online 02 July 2016
mass erupted and then the mass flow rate. Here, we test on Stromboli volcano (Italy) the performance of such
Keywords:
methodology by comparing the acoustic derived results with independent gas mass estimates obtained with
Volcano acoustics UV cameras, and constraining the acoustic source by thermal imagery. We show that different acoustic methods
Sulphur dioxide camera give comparable total gas masses in the 2 to 1425 kg range, which are fully consistent with the gas masses
Thermal imagery derived by UV cameras and previous direct SO2 measurements.
Mass flow rate We show that total erupted gas mass, estimated by infrasound is not simply a function of the initial pressure, but
rather the full infrasonic waveform should be considered. Thermal imagery provides evidence that infrasound is
generated during the entire gas thrust phase. We provide examples to show how total gas masses derived by in-
frasonic signals can be affected by large uncertainties if duration of the signal is neglected. Only when duration of
infrasound is included, the best correlation (0.8) with UV cameras and the 1:1 direct linear proportionality is ob-
tained. Our results open new perspective for remotely derived gas mass and mass flow rates from acoustic
signals.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The real-time assessment of the Mass Flow Rate (MFR) during an
eruption may have strong implications for the forecasting of the ash-
cloud spreading in the atmosphere, and therefore is essential to reduce
the impact on population and on the air-traffic infrastructure. However,
MFR is difficult to derive during an eruption in real time with sufficient
accuracy (Mastin et al., 2009; Degruyter and Bonadonna, 2012). In this
paper, we explore the reliability of using the infrasonic wave-field to
provide in real time the MFR of small volcanic eruptions.
According to the linear theory of sound, the infrasonic pressure field
can be directly related to the mass rate of gas and fine particles ejected
at the volcanic vent (see Johnson and Ripepe, 2011 for a review). From a
volcano monitoring point of view, this will have a strong potential be-
cause acoustic waves can travel for long distances without any signifi-
cant signal distortion due to propagation and thus the information on
⁎ Corresponding author at: DiSTeM, Università di Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
E-mail address: dario.delledonne@unipa.it (D. Delle Donne).
the explosive source process could be transported far away from the
source with strong implications for monitoring volcanic activity from
remote and safe locations.
The infrasonic signal associated with volcanic explosions are typical-
ly characterized by an initial low frequency (b5 Hz) high amplitude
sharp onset, followed by a longer lasting (N10 s) higher frequency
(N 10 Hz) coda (Vergniolle and Brandeis, 1996; Ripepe and Marchetti,
2002). While the initial low frequency infrasonic wave is believed to
be generated within the conduit by oscillation and/or by the bulging
of the magma-free surface (Vergniolle and Brandeis, 1996; Ripepe
et al., 2001; Johnson, 2007; Gerst et al., 2008; Delle Donne & Ripepe,
2012; Goto et al., 2014), the high frequency phase is explained as the
turbulence of the gas leaving the conduit outside the vent and associat-
ed with volcanic jet dynamics (Matoza et al., 2013; Taddeucci et al.,
2014; Goto et al., 2014). Several evidences indicate that both processes
can simultaneously be active during the same explosive process (Goto
et al., 2014; Genco et al., 2014). This makes the origin of infrasound
more complex than what previously thought and probably linked to
multiple sources acting in different places and at different time. For

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.06.015
0377-0273/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
170 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178

larger eruptions, infrasonic jet noise radiation within the plume is sug-
gested to be predominant as the result of large scale turbulence mecha-
nisms (Matoza et al., 2013) while for small-medium size eruptions, such
as strombolian explosions, the jet noise mechanisms is likely to be less
significant.
Here we consider volcano infrasound as explained by the linear
acoustic theory and we look for the possible link with total erupted
gas mass by comparing infrasonic waveforms with thermal and SO2
measurements associated with 71 explosions recorded at Stromboli vol-
cano, Italy. The recent advent of UV cameras is paving the way to direct
observations and quantification of gas fluxes from individual gas
explosions (see Burton et al., 2015, for a review), and may thus provide
key constraints to interpret volcano infrasound. Although no clear
correlation has been found in previous attempts (McGonigle et al.,
2009; Pering et al., 2015) to compare gas masses derived from
infrasound with those derived from UV cameras, a similar approach re-
sulted into an overall good match at Pacaya volcano (Guatemala)
(Dalton et al., 2010). For each explosion, we also estimated duration
and thermal energy of the gas thrust phase from infrared thermometry
(Delle Donne & Ripepe, 2012). These parameters were then compared
to infrasonic waves, and different methods based on the acoustic theory
to derive gas mass (see Johnson, 2003; Woulff and McGetchin, 1976;
Delle Donne & Ripepe, 2012; Lane et al., 2013, among others) were
applied. We show that the gas masses estimated by acoustics are linear-
ly correlated with UV-based and/or thermal camera-based masses only Fig. 1. Map of Stromboli volcano indicating the position of active SW and NE craters, and
when the full wave-field is used to derive the velocity of the atmospher- the location of the experiment setup at Pizzo Sopra La Fossa (PZZ), and Roccette (ROC).
ic parcels displaced by the injection of gas and fragments mixture in the
atmosphere. 2007), we then converted SO2 in total gas mass involved in each
Strombolian explosion.
2. Instrument setup
3. Volcanic activity and infrasonic signals
The persistent, low-energy strombolian explosive activity makes
Stromboli volcano (Italy) the ideal site for calibrated test experiments, During data acquisition, explosive activity was relatively powerful,
where mass flow rates are also reported in previous work using being characterized by scoria-rich and ash-rich explosions from the
spectroscopic and imaging approaches (McGonigle et al., 2009; NE and SW crater, respectively, ejecting ballistics at ~200 m above the
Tamburello et al., 2012). Infrasound was recorded using an iTem prs- vents. Explosions from the NE crater generally consisted of highly ener-
0100a differential pressure transducer with a sensitivity of 25 mV/Pa getic blasts with large amounts of scoria, whereas explosions at the SW
and flat frequency response between 0.01 and 100 Hz at a full scale crater consisted of sustained emissions of ash, with relatively small
range of 250 Pa. amounts of scoria (Table 1).
Thermal images were recorded with a FLIR-A20 thermal camera The infrasonic waveforms associated with both craters show an ini-
fitted with a 34° × 25° optical lens (9.2 mm), and 0.1 °C thermal resolu- tial sharp positive onset with a first pulse lasting 0.1–0.5 s reaching am-
tion. The thermal sensor is an un-cooled micro-bolometer with focal plitude between 5 and 140 Pa, followed by a higher frequency coda with
plane array of 160 × 120 pixels, which is electronically oversampled at duration between 1 and 12 s (Fig. 2a). Acoustic waveforms were auto-
320 × 240 pixels, and sensitive in the 7.5–13 μm spectral range. Thermal matically extracted using the long term average LTA (30 s) and the
images and infrasound were synchronized using the same GPS clock short term average STA (1 s) amplitude ratio of 2 (Fig. 2b). For each ex-
with an accuracy of ~ 5 ms. The thermal camera was located at PZZ plosion we thus calculated the acoustic peak pressure and the duration
(Fig. 1) in direct line of sight to the NE and SW craters and at a slant of the signal (Table 1).
distance of 345 m and 327 m, respectively, and thus with field of
views of 218 × 153 m and 206 × 145 m. 4. Mass flux and infrasonic pressure
The SO2 flux was measured at ROC (Fig. 1) using a stand-alone UV
camera system, based on UV-absorption techniques (Tamburello et al., Many authors have suggested that infrasound can be used to calcu-
2012), and installed in June 2014 within the framework of ERC project late gas overpressure and/or to estimate the MFR associated with the
“BRIDGE”. The UV camera system is composed of two JAI CM-140GE- eruptive dynamics (Caplan-Auerbach et al., 2010; Ripepe et al., 2013)
UV cameras sensitive to UV-radiation, and one Ocean-Optics using an acoustic source model based on the linear theory of sound
USB2000+ UV spectrometer. These cameras employ a UV sensitive sen- (Lighthill, 1978; Woulff and McGetchin, 1976). For a point source, the
sor for covering UV wavelengths and are equipped with two different acoustic pressure p(t) in a half-space at a distance r is given by
band-pass optical filters with Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) of (Lighthill, 1978):
10 nm, and a central wavelength of 310 and 330 nm, respectively. Si-
multaneous image acquisition from these two cameras allows a direct 1
pðt Þ ¼ po ðt Þ−patm ¼ q_ ðt Þ ð1Þ
measure of UV absorption associated with SO2 concentration in the 2πr
plume. UV absorption measurements using UV cameras are calibrated
using an Ocean-Optics USB2000 + UV spectrometer (Lübcke et al., where q(t) is the outflow mass rate from a point source. When the
2012), that allows to get one absolute measurement of the UV spectrum magma surface deforms and expands, it produces an equivalent dis-
of the SO2 slant column densities averaged over a portion of the UV placement of the atmosphere, inducing a volumetric compression and
cameras field of view every ~ 5 s. Considering that SO2 makes up for generating an excess of pressure that mimics the rate of volumetric
Stromboli about 4.2 wt% of the total magmatic gas mass (Burton et al. change of the atmosphere displaced (e.g. Gerst et al., 2008).
 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178 171

Table 1
Infrasound amplitude and duration associated with the analyzed strombolian explosions, gas mass estimates using mass outflow (Method #1, par. 4.1), bulging of the magma free surface
(Method #2, par. 4.2), and gas flow velocity (Method #3, par. 4.3) methods, compared with thermal energy, thrust duration, and gas mass estimated using UV camera.

a) Experiment from PZZ site

Time GMT Infrasonic parameters Gas mass estimates from infrasound [kg] Thermal parameters

Peak pressure [pa] Duration [s] Method #1 Method #2 Method #3 Radiated energy [MJ] Thrust duration [s] Source vent

05-May-2008 16:38:22 136.82 5.48 867 1425 553 16.25 5.42 NE

05-May-2008 17:00:46 40.6 5.13 197 264 335 7.33 4.58 NE
05-May-2008 17:13:03 76.47 6.63 258 609 450 11.57 6.20 NE
05-May-2008 17:26:08 66.67 3.76 304 534 440 2.68 3.50 NE
05-May-2008 17:33:07 71.05 5.65 380 570 403 5.78 5.04 NE
07-May-2008 14:16:23 22.3 11.65 263 133 476 64.90 11.70 SW
07-May-2008 14:36:48 20.69 12.05 203 119 410 44.48 9.22 SW
07-May-2008 14:58:47 21.34 4.85 241 125 229 14.99 5.97 SW
07-May-2008 15:03:17 22.04 7.78 305 140 334 30.31 8.20 SW
07-May-2008 15:28:30 16.34 7.22 217 103 246 23.91 8.40 SW
07-May-2008 16:14:28 24.91 6.44 276 171 242 17.66 6.80 SW
07-May-2008 16:30:17 18.82 5.04 305 112 210 15.38 7.62 SW
07-May-2008 16:31:28 32.85 3.88 421 224 186 11.64 5.72 SW
07-May-2008 16:35:06 30.03 3.59 519 189 212 10.01 6.23 SW
07-May-2008 16:50:23 23.15 3.46 235 137 151 9.73 6.14 SW
07-May-2008 16:53:43 44.14 8.02 578 311 449 53.17 8.69 SW
08-May-2008 15:55:09 20.56 4.46 305 128 266 20.87 6.58 SW
08-May-2008 16:14:30 25.17 1.89 294 168 155 9.52 5.17 SW
08-May-2008 16:18:58 47.1 6.17 126 339 377 22.35 7.73 SW
08-May-2008 16:29:15 36.7 7.3 132 269 384 16.77 7.21 SW
08-May-2008 16:40:14 30.39 9.7 112 211 427 45.66 9.00 SW
08-May-2008 17:18:50 57.74 7.19 341 412 317 26.52 9.30 SW
08-May-2008 17:47:30 71.05 6.7 417 564 490 49.95 9.52 SW
08-May-2008 18:21:51 38.49 9.79 382 261 351 24.65 7.47 SW
08-May-2008 18:39:29 21.24 3.38 141 146 171 8.89 5.02 SW
09-May-2008 17:40:00 17.59 12.25 90 110 476 8.29 8.30 NE
09-May-2008 17:44:41 15.87 6.13 43 96 274 3.77 6.17 NE
09-May-2008 19:01:29 10.82 0.95 77 57 16 0.19 1.52 NE
09-May-2008 19:11:12 4.88 7.88 5 24 156 1.57 7.85 NE
09-May-2008 19:17:26 17.44 5.75 23 98 205 5.24 6.76 NE
09-May-2008 19:48:03 10.23 9.67 50 53 252 4.55 6.44 NE

b) Experiment from ROC site

Time GMT Infrasonic parameters Gas mass estimates from infrasound [kg] Gas mass estimates from UV cameras [kg]

Peak pressure [pa] Duration [s] Method #1 Method #2 Method #3 Gas mass [kg] Source vent

29-Jun.-2014 06:49:28 2.94 5.33 122 95 275 593 NE

29-Jun.-2014 06:51:14 3.14 7.07 156 99 218 643 NE
29-Jun.-2014 06:55:42 2.98 7.05 105 96 251 682 NE
29-Jun.-2014 06:58:10 12.97 2.65 232 177 108 378 NE
29-Jun.-2014 06:59:26 12.88 3.59 129 50 160 555 NE
29-Jun.-2014 07:08:58 10.00 2.73 96 142 85 441 NE
29-Jun.-2014 07:20:56 5.67 7.61 174 112 327 599 NE
29-Jun.-2014 07:34:29 3.52 3.41 151 113 150 541 NE
29-Jun.-2014 07:43:52 13.59 2.92 112 167 130 390 NE
29-Jun.-2014 07:52:55 3.30 3.97 100 97 125 524 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:06:45 5.00 3.66 116 109 123 335 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:14:41 3.81 3.82 155 100 186 338 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:21:15 5.53 2.41 72 109 81 486 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:22:56 3.72 10.09 193 100 369 605 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:25:20 20.16 1.82 218 136 121 382 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:29:28 3.87 3.24 116 96 95 358 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:39:18 16.12 2.45 166 212 108 691 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:45:03 3.92 5.41 422 100 326 678 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:51:28 3.84 3.31 50 91 61 373 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:52:01 10.91 2.61 156 139 153 427 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:54:19 3.36 5.23 414 102 176 485 NE
29-Jun.-2014 08:58:37 3.85 9.97 185 105 334 849 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:03:39 2.85 3.47 81 120 106 447 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:06:13 7.55 6.54 184 124 90 632 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:11:59 2.66 3.40 138 95 119 497 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:13:48 4.09 1.61 211 95 104 339 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:16:26 14.60 2.83 150 192 120 432 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:17:05 3.21 9.43 344 93 345 910 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:26:01 3.70 5.04 162 99 181 693 NE
29-Jun.-2014 09:27:25 4.14 2.63 215 100 69 339 NE
03-Aug.-2014 08:22:26 7.39 4.00 244 120 278 776 NE
03-Aug.-2014 08:30:29 3.24 2.55 215 94 104 478 NE
03-Aug.-2014 08:59:28 36.62 4.63 611 628 467 918 NE
03-Aug.-2014 09:11:44 8.42 0.98 64 128 39 368 NE

(continued on next page)

172 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178

Table 1 (continued)

b) Experiment from ROC site

Time GMT Infrasonic parameters Gas mass estimates from infrasound [kg] Gas mass estimates from UV cameras [kg]

Peak pressure [pa] Duration [s] Method #1 Method #2 Method #3 Gas mass [kg] Source vent

03-Aug.-2014 09:15:13 11.10 5.18 504 162 259 698 NE

03-Aug.-2014 10:08:14 31.15 3.54 835 396 384 747 NE
03-Aug.-2014 10:24:23 16.82 3.94 406 304 293 601 NE
03-Aug.-2014 10:38:30 6.18 8.69 95 104 81 416 NE
03-Aug.-2014 11:04:32 52.80 2.49 855 999 327 594 NE
03-Aug.-2014 11:06:22 52.44 3.59 836 739 376 753 NE

4.1. Outflow mass rate
Assuming that the mass flux q(t) of the atmosphere displaced is
equivalent to the mass flux of the gas involved in the explosive process,
the mass flux q(t) is calculated directly from Eq. (1) by integrating the
variation of the acoustic pressure recorded at a distance r from the
source (e.g. Firstov and Kravchenko, 1996; Johnson et al., 2004;
Oshima and Maekawa, 2001):
Zt 
r
qðt Þ ¼ 2πr p t þ dt þ C 1
c
0 twice following Eqs. (2) and (3) and the total gas mass is calculated as
being c the speed of sound in air and C1 the integration constant. Then,
the mass flux is integrated a second time to calculate the gas mass m(t)
associated with the explosion (Fig. 2c):
properties of the medium, such as magma density of the gas/particles
cloud is required. The integration constants C1 and C2 can be derived
by trial and error methods (Oshima and Maekawa, 2001), but are in
general neglected for impulsive explosions with no prolongated emis-
sion of gas and/or material.
This method has been successfully applied to calculate the gas mass
content of strombolian activity at the Mount Erebus lava lake (Johnson,
2003; Johnson et al., 2004), Pacaya volcano (Dalton et al., 2010), and of
the violent vulcanian explosions at Sakura-jima volcano (Johnson &
Miller, 2014). We applied this method to the 71 explosions recorded
ð2Þ during the experiments. Each acoustic signal was thus integrated
the largest value of the gas mass distribution (Fig. 2c). We obtain that
the total gas mass ranges between 5 and 866 kg (Table 1), which is
very close to the range between 50 and 960 kg of the gas masses mea-
sured by UV cameras (Mori & Burton, 2009; Tamburello et al., 2012).

Zt
mðt Þ ¼ qðt Þdt þ C 2 ð3Þ 4.2. Bulging of the magma free surface
0
Assuming that volcanic explosions are generated by the bursting of
This method has the advantage to be extremely simple, since no a an over-pressurized gas slug, infrasonic pressure can be also related to
priori knowledge on the source (vent) dimensions and on the physical the bulging of the magma free-surface just before the bubble bursting.

Fig. 2. (a) Infrasonic signal band-pass (0.5–25 Hz) filtered and (b) acoustic power associated with the 5th May 2008, 16:38:22 explosion from NE crater (Table 1). Black lines show the full
scale records while gray lines show the same signal at a different amplitude scale to highlight the low amplitude 5.48 s lasting coda. Yellow area indicates the segment of infrasonic signal
automatically extracted using LTA/STA method. Infrasonic duration is defined by the time between markers 1 and 2, while peak pressure is defined as the maximum positive infrasonic
amplitude within the two markers. Converted gas mass using mass outflow method (par. 4.1) and using the gas flow velocity method (par. 4.3) are shown in (c) and (d) respectively. Gas
mass yielded using the bulging of the magma free surface method (par. 4.2) is achieved by using the peak-to-peak pressure of the signal. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178
^ will depend on the fluid-
In this case, infrasonic peak-to-peak pressure p
dynamic conditions of the magma controlling the rise and the expan-
sion of the gas slug in the conduit (Lane et al., 2013):
 
^
p ^ 2
p
γ≈1:59 þ 21:2 þ 48:9
patm patm
where slug stability index γ is an adimensional dynamical property of
the rising slug (Del Bello et al., 2012) that depends on the slug volume
(Vgas), the atmospheric pressure patm, and the proportion of the cross
section A' occupied by the falling liquid film (Llewellin et al., 2012):
ρmagma gV gas A0
γ¼  
πpatm R2v 1−A0
Thus, combining Eqs. (4) and (5), it is possible to derive the slug
volume Vgas from infrasonic peak-to-peak pressure ðp ^Þ by assuming
A' = 0.4814 (Lane et al., 2013), the vent radius Rv = 2.5 m (Delle
Donne & Ripepe, 2012), and the magma density ρmagma =
2950 kgm−3 (Pioli et al., 2014).
Using Eq. (4), from the amplitude of the infrasound we can thus cal-
culate a slug stability index γ ranging between 1.9 and 45 which from
Eq. (5) gives slug volumes Vgas between 46 and 2740 m3. Considering
that most of the erupted gas is H2O and CO2 (Allard et al., 1994;
Aiuppa et al., 2010), we calculate a mean gas density of ~ 0.52 kg/m3,
assuming an atmospheric pressure of 0.93 x 105 Pa and a temperature
between 100 and 352 °C (Harris and Ripepe, 2007a, b). We then
calculate gas masses ranging between 24 and 1425 kg (Table 1),
which are within the same range of previous method (par. 4.1), and in
agreement with the independent gas mass measurements (Mori &
Burton, 2009; Tamburello et al., 2012).
4.3. Infrasound and gas flow velocity
If we consider infrasound as produced by the gas flow in a medium
at rest, for a monopole source (Vergniolle & Brandeis, 1996; Delle
Donne & Ripepe, 2012; Iemma et al., 2014; Sánchez et al., 2014), the
acoustic power Π(t) can be related to the velocity u(t) of the flow
(Woulff and McGetchin, 1976):
2πρatm R2v u4 ðt Þ
Π ðt Þ ¼
c
where ρatm is the density of the atmosphere (~ 1.08 kg/m3 at
~ 900 m a.s.l. and ambient temperature of 25 °C). The acoustic power
is also related to acoustic pressure:
2πr 2 2
Π ðt Þ ¼ p ðt Þ
ρatm c
where p is the acoustic pressure recorded at a distance r. Thus, combin-
ing Eq. (6) with Eq. (7) we can first calculate the velocity u(t) and then
we can calculate the gas mass flux assuming a vent radius Rv = 2.5 m
(Delle Donne & Ripepe, 2012) and a gas density ρgas of 0.52 kgm− 3
(Fig. 2d):
 1=2
r The gas thrust phase is typically associated with a sharp increase of
qðt Þ ¼ πρgas R1:5
v jpðt Þj
ρatm
Gas mass is the calculated by the integration over time of Eq. (8) and
ranges between 15 and 553 kg (Table 1), again in the same order of
magnitude of the previous methods and perfectly inline with the previ-
ous gas measurements (Allard et al., 2008; Mori & Burton, 2009;
Tamburello et al., 2012).
173
5. Comparing infrasound with thermal images
Infrasound then seems able to provide gas mass consistent with in-
dependent estimates of the gas mass, regardless of the method used.
However, the gas mass derived by direct integration of infrasound
ð4Þ (par. 4.1) does not require assuming the diameter of the conduit nor
the gas density and thus appears more efficient than the two other
methods (par. 4.2 and 4.3). To better understand these results we com-
pared infrasound source to the explosive process by using the thermal
images collected by the camera deployed (Fig. 1).
Analysis of infrared thermal imagery has been widely used to study
explosive dynamics of strombolian activity and to constrain the source
process (Ripepe et al., 1993; Patrick, 2007; Delle Donne & Ripepe,
ð5Þ 2012). The temperature derived from thermal imagery allows one to
evaluate several parameters, including the mass of fragments involved
in each eruption (Harris et al., 2012, 2013), the style of activity, the
height reached by the ejecta, and the magma output rate (see Ripepe
et al., 1993; Patrick, 2007; Ripepe et al., 2008, among others). Here we
use thermal radiance mainly to determine i) the thermal energy and
ii) the duration of the gas thrust associated with each explosion.
5.1. Thermal energy and gas/particles cloud volume
The heat flux dissipated during strombolian explosions depends on
temperature of the total ejected solid mass (see Harris et al., 2013 for
a review). The total radiated heat of strombolian explosions can be mea-
sured by the integrated temperature over a fixed FOV and by applying
the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Zt h i
T 4 ðt Þ−T 4BKG dt
ET ðt Þ ¼ εσAFOV ð9Þ
0
where ET is the apparent radiated thermal energy (in Joules), ε is the ash
emissivity (~0.96), s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, AFOV is the area
of the field of view, T(t) is the integrated temperature within the FOV
at the time t, and TBKG is the background temperature in the FOV evalu-
ated just before the eruption onset. The thermal energy calculated for
the explosions during our experiment spans between 0.19 and 65 MJ
(Table 1).
Because volcanic gases are characterized by very weak thermal
ð6Þ emissivity, the main contribution to the heat flux is given by the erupted
ash and volcanic bombs. Assuming a nearly constant magma tempera-
ture, the radiated thermal energy ET can be thus related to relative var-
iation of total mass of fragments erupted (Delle Donne & Ripepe, 2012;
Harris et al., 2013).
5.2. Gas thrust duration
ð7Þ
A typical explosive event can be characterized by two main phases:
the early gas thrust phase, during which volcanic materials are pro-
pelled in the atmosphere, and the late buoyant phase, when the gas
still expands at constant velocity in the atmosphere by entraining air
in the plume. In terms of linear theory of sound, acoustic pressure is
generated by changes in the mass outflow and thus more related to
the gas thrust phase rather than to the constant expansion rate of the
buoyancy phase (Eq. (1)).
ð8Þ
the temperature within the camera field of view (FOV). The buoyant
phase is instead associated with the temperature waning, since no
new volcanic material flows into the FOV but rather the plume is slowly
expanding because of the temperature gradient (Marchetti et al., 2009).
Duration of the gas thrust can be thus defined as the time difference be-
tween the onset of the explosion and the maximum peak of the temper-
ature gradient (Marchetti et al., 2009). Gas thrust duration of the
174 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178

explosions recorded during our experiment ranges between 1.5 and
12 s.
5.3. Infrasonic and thermal correlation
We compared thermal energy and duration of the gas thrust phase
with peak amplitude and duration of the infrasonic pressure signal to
verify the link between acoustic signal and explosive parameters
(Fig. 3). No clear correlation pattern is found between thermal energy
and acoustic peak pressure. Correlation is low (R = 0.3) for the SW cra-
ter explosions, but higher (R = 0.78) for the NE crater explosions
(Fig. 3a). In contrast, the correlation between thermal energy and dura-
tion of the acoustic signal is low (R = 0.25) for the NE crater, and high
(R = 0.8) for the SW crater. This suggests a distinct control of explosive
styles on acoustic source. When the explosions are impulsive and
scoria-rich, such as those generated by the NE crater, the initial peak
pressure pulse accounts for most of the acoustic energy and the dura-
tion of the infrasonic signal can be neglected. In this case the peak am-
plitude of the acoustic signal provides a good indication of the total
mass ejected. On the contrary, when explosions are ash-rich and
sustained like those one generated by the SW crater, the infrasonic en-
ergy of the low initial pressure pulse can be neglected and the duration
of the signal becomes important. This is confirmed by the very good cor-
relation of R = 0.84 and R = 0.89 between the duration of the thermal
gas thrust and the duration of the acoustic signal (Fig. 3c) for both ex-
plosions associated with the NE and SW craters, respectively, suggesting
a close link between the origin of the acoustic signal and the gas thrust
phase (Marchetti et al., 2009; Delle Donne and Ripepe, 2012).
Considering the thermal energy as a proxy for the ejected mass
(Delle Donne & Ripepe, 2012; Harris et al., 2013), we compared thermal
energies with the acoustic derived gas masses and we find that the first
two methods (par. 4.1 and 4.2) show low correlation coefficients (of
R = 0.13 and R = 0.3 respectively) when the long lasting ash-rich SW
crater explosions are considered, and on the contrary, higher correla-
tions of R = 0.75 and R = 0.79 for the impulsive scoria-rich NE crater
explosions (Fig. 3d, e). Only the last method based on the integration
over time of the source outflow velocity and thus also considering the
duration of the signal, shows high correlation coefficients of R = 0.79
and R = 0.89 for explosions of both the SW and NE craters (Fig. 3f).
In conclusion, when explosive dynamics is controlled by sharp re-
lease of highly pressurized gas, duration of the gas thrust phase can be
neglected, while, when explosions are sustained by the prolonged emis-
sion of gas with relatively low initial pressure, like the ash-rich at the
SW crater, duration of the infrasound becomes important and should
be considered. Since thermal energy is mainly controlled by quantity
of solid mass (Harris et al., 2013), while infrasound depends mainly
on the gas, the presence of different linear regression for the two craters
can be interpreted as reflecting different gas/mass ratios, with explo-
sions at the NE crater having gas/mass ratios larger than explosions at
the SW crater (Fig. 3f).
6. Gas mass from UV cameras
The gas mass derived by infrasound is here compared to the direct
measurements of the SO2 mass derived by UV cameras, which provide
SO2 column densities in two dimensions (Tamburello et al., 2012 for a
review). Estimating the total SO2 mass produced by an explosion re-
quires integration of the cumulative amount of SO2 over the image
FOV. This calculation does not require knowledge on the plume speed,
and thus overcomes the inherent difficulty in measuring the ascent
rate of the explosive gas thrust. However, large amounts of ash scatter
UV light or even prevent light to pass through the plume, thus making
the method less efficient in measuring SO2 contents in ash-rich explo-
sions. We thus explore the correlation with the infrasound only for
the gas-rich (and ash-poor) explosions of the NE crater (Figs. 1 and 5).

Fig. 3. Comparison between thermal energy and duration with acoustic peak pressure and duration (a, b, c), and gas mass estimates (d, e, f) calculated for the explosions of the SW (circles)
and NE (squares) craters. Thermal energy associated with NE craters explosions are well correlated with peak pressure but not with acoustic duration, while thermal energy associated
with SW crater explosions show a good correlation only with acoustic duration and not with peak pressure. A good correlation at both craters is achieved only when comparing
thermal and acoustic durations. Gas mass estimates using three different infrasonic methods show different correlation with thermal energy. The best correlation of is achieved if gas
mass is calculated using the gas flow velocity method (par. 4.3).
 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178
The SO2 mass from each explosion was calculated always within the
same integration window, chosen to contain the targeted SO2 cloud and
part of the background. The peak in SO2 mass is typically reached in tens
of seconds after the blast, and reflects the expansion velocity of the gas
in the atmosphere. By subtracting the SO2 contribution observed before
the explosion from the corresponding observed maximum value, we
obtained the total SO2 mass released during the explosion.
According to previous measurements made with UV cameras
(Tamburello et al., 2012), SO2 mass ranges between 14 and 37 kg.
This, assuming an SO2 concentration of 4.2 wt% (Burton et al., 2007),
converts into total magmatic gas mass between 335 and 918 kg
(Fig. 4, Table 1).
This range is fully consistent with the gas mass derived from
acoustics (between 39 and 999 kg), but shows quite distinct correlation
coefficients of R = 0.5, R = 0.33 and R = 0.8 when the different
methods described at par. 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3 are considered. Correlation
analysis is thus indicating that, in spite of the similar gas mass ranges,
the method considering the integration over time of the gas flow
velocity (4.3) is the most reliable, and the calculated linear regression
fit has slope of 1.2:
MUV ½kg ¼ 1:2  M ACU ½kg þ 324
when a vent radius Rv of 2.5 m is considered, but has an offset of 324 kg,
which is indicating that the gas mass calculated by the acoustics is
somehow underestimating the total gas mass. This misfit can be due
to uncertainty in one of the parameters used to convert acoustic
pressure into gas flux using Eq. (8).
Considering that gas mass is calculated from the infrasound as the
integral of the gas flux which is a function of the gas velocity, a possible
source of error may arise from our uncertainties in the gas density and
in the vent radius Rv. However, changes of the vent radius Rv between
0.5 and 5 m and of the gas density between 0.3 and 1 kg m−3 do not af-
fect the offset but rather the slope of the linear fit (which varies between
13 and 0.4, respectively). Thus, uncertainties on the vent radius and gas
density cannot be responsible for the underestimation of gas mass
derived by the acoustic method, but only for the proportionality ratio
between the two methods. In fact, considering a vent radius Rv =
2.8 m and a gas density of 0.6 kgm− 3 the 1:1 direct proportionality
ratio between UV (MUV) and acoustic (MACU) based gas masses is
achieved, but the offset of 324 kg still remains unchanged.
A possible mechanism that could justify this offset is the gas released
during a phase of stationary flux, or the increase of the passive
degassing triggered by the decompression of the magmatic column dur-
ing the explosive process (Genco and Ripepe, 2010). This is also in
Fig. 4. Gas mass estimates using three acoustic methods: a) mass outflow (par. 4.1); b) bulging of the magma surface (par. 4.2), and c) gas flow velocity (par. 4.3), and compared with UV
camera gas mass measurements of explosions of the NE crater. Acoustic gas mass achieved using the gas flow velocity method (par. 4.3) shows the best correlation with UV camera
measurements (R = 0.8), with a slope of the linear fit equal to 1.2 for vent radius of 2.5 m. Correlation is reduced when gas mass from UV-camera is compared with the gas mass
derived using the other two acoustic methods.
175
agreement with observations of a stationary flux component during
the explosive events, typically showing a post-explosive coda of en-
hanced passive degassing, associated with Strombolian explosions
(Tamburello et al., 2012; Pering et al., 2016).
7. Conclusive remarks
Infrasound associated with explosive eruptions is generally pro-
duced by the rapid expansion of the gas and therefore are linked to
the dynamics of its mass outflow. This links volcano acoustics to the
magma fragmentation process and, in general, to any other phenome-
non well coupled with the atmosphere (any source inducing a volume
change in the atmosphere is a potential producer of infrasonic waves)
making infrasound a highly potential tool for the remote monitoring
of active volcanoes.
The linear theory of sound explains acoustic pressure as generated
by the fluctuations of the mass outflow and it has been used to calculate
either the velocity of the gas and/or directly the mass of gas during ex-
plosive eruptions (Woulff and McGetchin, 1976; Vergniolle and
Caplan-Auerbach, 2006; Caplan-Auerbach et al., 2010; Johnson et al.,
ð10Þ 2004; Dalton et al., 2010; Lane et al., 2013; Ripepe et al., 2013; Lamb
et al., 2015). In spite of the uncertainty on the nature of the source, prop-
agation effects and geometry of the vent, in most cases the acoustic
method has provided mass and MFR in harmony with other techniques
(Dalton et al., 2010; Ripepe et al., 2013). However, the limits and the ef-
ficiency of the acoustic method to retrieve eruption source parameters
have not been thoroughly tested.
We show that duration of the infrasound is highly correlated
(R = 0.84–0.89) with the duration of the gas thrust phase detected
by IR camera. This suggests that the infrasonic source is active during
the gas thrust phase of the explosive process and thus duration of the
infrasonic signal is reflecting the duration of the gas thrust, and indi-
cating that the unsteady gas flux in the conduit is responsible for the
origin of the infrasound. Acoustic signals of comparable peak ampli-
tude but different duration can result in significantly different mass
if their duration is not considered. This is clear in the example of
Fig. 6 showing infrasonic and thermal signals associated with two
distinct explosions from the SW crater occurred at 14:16:23 and
16:30:17 GMT of 7th May 2008 (Table 1). Thermal images evidence
how duration of the infrasonic signals of 11.65 s and 5.04 s, respec-
tively, are comparable to the durations of the gas thrust (11.7 s and
7.62 s), and how infrasonic amplitudes die out after the explosive
cloud has reached the maximum height, marking the end of the gas
thrust phase (Fig. 6).
176 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178

Fig. 5. A typical strombolian explosion detected by (a) UV camera, (b) thermal images and (c) the associated infrasound (blue line) with the acoustic-derived based gas mass using gas flow
velocity method (black line). Explosive onset is marked by an infrasonic pulse that reaches the amplitude of ~10 Pa. UV images show the gas is feeding the plume during the gas thrust
phase, while during the waning phase of the thermal the plume is detached from the vent and no gas is released. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

In spite of the similarity of the acoustic onset, thermal imagery re-
veals that these two explosions with similar waveform and comparable
initial peak pressure (22.3 Pa and 18.82 Pa respectively) can have differ-
ent thermal energies of 64.9 MJ and 15.38 MJ, respectively, and the
plume reaching different elevation above the vent (Fig. 6). The similar-
ity of the acoustic signal brings to comparable gas mass estimates when
the first method (304 and 264 kg) and the second one (132 and 112 kg)
are considered for the two explosions (Table 1). Only the third method
(par. 4.3), based on the integration over time of gas flow velocity gives
significantly different gas mass estimates of 476 kg and 210 kg, between
the two explosions, reflecting the different gas thrust duration and ther-
mal energy (Table 1). We conclude that acoustic duration cannot be
neglected when gas mass and/or MFR is derived by infrasound, and
that the method based on the integration over time of the gas flow

Fig. 6. Thermal and infrasonic signals of two explosions from the same crater (SW) occurred at 14:16:23 and 16:30:17 GMT on 7th May 2008 (Table 1). a) Infrasound associated with these
two explosions has almost the same peak amplitude but different duration of 11.65 s and 5.04 s, respectively. (b) The main amplitude first infrasonic onset shows comparable peak
pressure of 22.3 Pa and 18.82 Pa for both explosions and similar waveform, suggesting similar gas content. (c) Thermal images acquired at 2 s interval, show instead that the two
explosions are significantly different both for the duration of 11.7 s and 7.62 s, and also for the amount of volcanic ejecta released, which gives thermal energies of 64.9 MJ and
15.38 MJ, respectively, in line with the gas mass of 476 kg and 210 kg each.
 D. Delle Donne et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 325 (2016) 169–178
velocity gives the most reliable results. In fact, we demonstrated, how in
this case the total gas mass shows a linear correlation 1:1 ratio with the
SO2 mass measured by UV camera for a vent radius of 2.8 m and gas
density of 0.6 kgm−3. This strongly supports the idea that, when the du-
ration is considered, acoustic waves can be used to obtain a remote and
reliable estimate of the gas mass from the velocity, and the MFR during
strombolian eruptions can be derived. Infrasound could then determine
a step toward improved and fast estimates of eruption source parame-
ters that can be integrated into the current real time numerical models
used to estimate ash dispersal in the atmosphere (Degruyter and
Bonadonna, 2012; Woodhouse et al., 2013) with immediate impact on
improving our risk assessment.
Our experiment also provides a robust evidence of an acoustic
source active during the full injection of gas and fine particles into the
atmosphere. This is consistent with high-speed camera image analysis
(Genco et al., 2014) which show how infrasonic wavefield is radiated
from the vent during the entire explosive process, indicating a clear
link between mass discharged and infrasonic waves. Even if we cannot
exclude that turbulence within the plume could also generate acoustic
radiation similar to the large-scale turbulence jet noise spectra (e.g.
Matoza et al., 2013; Taddeucci et al. 2014), our results are supporting
the idea that infrasound associated with strombolian explosions can
be mainly explained by linear acoustics conditions of a monopole source
and can be directly linked to the velocity of the mass discharge rate.
Acknowledgements
The research leading to these results has received funding from the
European Community's Seventh Framework Program under Grant
Agreements No. 305377 (Project BRIDGE) and No. 308377 (Project
FUTUREVOLC).
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