Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.

9, 2055-2067 ISSN 1229-9197 (print version)

DOI 10.1007/s12221-020-1076-1 ISSN 1875-0052 (electronic version)

Properties of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Using Either Industrial or

Recycled Fibers from Waste Tires
Julian Carrillo1*, Juan Lizarazo-Marriaga2, and Fabian Lamus3
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Universidad Militar Nueva Granada, UMNG, Bogotá 110111, Colombia
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá 110231, Colombia
(Received October 3, 2019; Revised November 28, 2019; Accepted January 3, 2020)

Abstract: Currently, more than 2.5 million tires are discarded each year in Bogotá, Colombia, and 1.2 million of them are not
properly disposed, producing a huge environmental problem. As a possible solution, previous studies have assessed the
performance of steel fibers recovered from recycled post-consumer tires as reinforcement of concrete. However, engineers in
Colombia are still uncertain to use this type of recycled material, since the concrete and the dosages used in reported studies
were obtained mostly from different construction practices and materials in countries other than Colombia. The aim of this
paper is to show and discuss the results of a research intended at evaluating the mechanical response of concrete reinforced
using recycled steel fibers from waste tires in Bogotá, Colombia. The testing campaign of the study comprised 45 axial
compression and splitting tension tests on cylinders, and 14 bending tests on concrete slabs reinforced using nominal fiber
dosages of 15, 30 and 60 kg/m3 of steel fibers obtained from used tires. For comparative purposes, the study included also the
test on 21 cylinders and 12 beams made of concrete reinforced using industrial steel fibers, with the same nominal dosages
used for the recycled steel fibers. Based on measured response, preliminary design equations are proposed to estimate the
mechanical properties of concrete reinforced using recycled steel fibers. It is also checked whether the obtained results fulfil
the requirements specified by ACI-318 and NSR-10 building codes when steel fibers are used as minimum shear
reinforcement of concrete beams.
Keywords: Steel fiber reinforced concrete, Waste tires, Recycled steel fiber, Industrial steel fiber, Concrete reinforcement

Introduction research to allow a better understanding of the local materials.

The increase in the amount of waste materials around the
world has become a challenge for the sustainability of the
planet. Effective environmental solutions should be urgently
implemented by the construction industry. Waste from tires
is a huge international issue because of the problems
associated to its chemical composition and poor biodegradability,
leading to massive landfilling, human health problems and
flammability [1]. Approximately 1.3 billion cars have been
estimated around the world in 2017, with around 5.2 billion
waste tires [2]. Besides, over 300 million waste tires are
produced annually only in the United States, and this
number is increasing [3]. Currently, more than 2.5 million
tires are discarded each year in Bogotá, Colombia, and 1.2
million of them are not properly disposed, producing a huge
environmental problem in the country.
A literature review carried out by the authors (2019)
revealed that some studies have been carried out to assess
the potential use of recycled steel fibers from tires as
reinforcement of concrete. Tlemat et al. [4] pointed out that
steel fibers recycled by crushing and pyrolysis can be a
viable alternative to replace part of the conventional
reinforcement of concrete, which can be used in cases where
high crack-resistance is required. Aiello et al. [5] confirmed
the use of recycled steel fibers in the practice and design of
structures is promising, but it is necessary to carry out
*Corresponding author: julian.carrillo@unimilitar.edu.co
Rossli and Ibrahim [7] stated that adding recycled steel
fibers from tires to concrete improves crack resistance,
compressive strength, bending strength and tensile strength.
Sengul [8] stated that the fracture energy of concrete
increased as recycled fibers are added. Zamanzadeh et al. [9]
showed that recycled and industrial fibers contribute to
control crack propagation and to maintain the crack width
within some expected limits. Zamanzadeh et al. [9] also
stated that the deflection achieved using specimens reinforced
using industrial fibers was greater than that developed by
specimens reinforced using recycled fibers. Centonze et al.
[10] observed that the existing bonding between concrete
and reinforcing bars does not significantly change with the
addition of recycled steel fibers. Martinelli et al. [11] and
Caggiano et al. [12] showed that the toughness of a concrete
mix reinforced with industrial and recycled fibers decreases
as the industrial fibers were partially replaced by recycled
steel fibers. These authors argued that the low toughness of
the hybrid fiber (industrial and recycled) is related to the fact
that recycled fiber is not straight, has no hooks and has a low
aspect ratio.
Engineers in Colombia are still uncertain to use this type
of recycled material, since the concrete and the dosages used
in reported studies were obtained mostly from construction
practices and materials in countries other than Colombia. In
addition, most of the studies assessing the mechanical
properties of concrete reinforced using recycled steel fibers
describe qualitatively the behavior of the material; however,

2055
2056 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 Julian Carrillo et al.

most of these studies are limited in proposing equations that Table 1. Variables of the study
allow an approximate calculation of these properties [13]. Variable Description
Taking the above into account, the aim of this paper is to Hook type: hooked-end
show and discuss the results of a research intended at
evaluating the mechanical response of concrete reinforced Industrial Length, lf, mm: 50
steel fibers Diameter, df, mm: 1.01
using recycled steel fibers from post-consumer tires in
Bogotá, Colombia. The testing campaign of the study Aspect ratio, lf /df: 48
comprised 45 axial compression and splitting tension tests Reference: Fiber recycled
on cylinders, and 14 bending tests on concrete slabs from used tires
reinforced using nominal fiber dosages of 15, 30 and 60 kg/m3 Recycled Hook type: Without hook
of steel fibers obtained from used tires. For comparative steel fibers Average equivalent length, lf, mm: 31 (50.4 %)
purposes, the study included the test on 21 cylinders and 12 Average diameter, df, mm: 0.23 (28.1 %)
beams made of concrete reinforced using industrial steel
Average aspect ratio, lf /df: 144 (57 %)
fibers, with the same nominal dosages used in the recycled
steel fibers. Based on the measured response, preliminary Dosages for % Df-min: 25 50 100
3
design equations are proposed to estimate the mechanical both types Df-nominal, kg/m : 15 30 60
properties of concrete reinforced using recycled steel fibers. of fibers Volume fraction, Vf %: 0.19 0.38 0.76
It was also checked whether the obtained results satisfy the () Values in brackets are the coefficients of variation.
ACI-318 Building Code [14] and the NSR-10 Colombian
Code [15] in terms of the use of steel fibers as minimum
shear reinforcement of concrete beams. minimum dosage specified by the ACI-318 [14] and the
NSR-10 [15] to replace the minimum shear reinforcement
Experimental provided by conventional steel in beams (Df-min = 60 kg/m3).
A sample size of 1067 fibers was used in this study to
The experimental campaign included different types of characterize the geometrical properties of recycled fibers
specimens such as standard cylinders and beams made of [16]. The equivalent length (lf) considered here corresponds
plain concrete, concrete reinforced with recycled steel fibers to the distance between the opposite ends of the fiber. It was
and concrete reinforced with industrial steel fibers. The necessary to take three measurements of the diameter of the
specified values of compressive strength, maximum size of recycled steel fibers (df) due to the lack of uniformity along
the aggregate and slump of concrete were 21 MPa, 38.1 mm the fiber length; two at the opposite ends of the fiber and
and 178 mm (7 in.), respectively. The values of the nominal another more in the middle point. The aspect ratio of
properties of concrete are characteristic of those used for recycled fibers (lf /df) was computed as the ratio between the
construction of walls for low-rise housing in Latin America. equivalent-length and the average-diameter of each fiber in
Concrete was prepared and provided by a ready-mix company. the sample. The statistical parameters for the geometric
The length (lf) and diameter (df) were used to determine characteristics of the recycled fibers for the sample are
the aspect ratio or slenderness (lf /df) of fibers. The fiber shown also in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the histograms of the
dosages (Df) were expressed in terms of both mass per unit geometrical characteristics of the recycled fibers. Figure 1a
volume (kg/m3) and volume fraction (Vf). Table 1 describes shows that data of fiber length is concentrated in the lower-
the two types of fibers and the dosages used, where Df-nominal length intervals; i.e., 56.4 % of the measured fibers are in the
is the nominal dosage of the fiber in kg/m3. The parameter % range of 17.6 to 34.5 mm. Figure 1b shows that the intervals
Df-min is related to the ratio between Df-nominal and the of diameters with greater frequency were 0.19-0.22 mm

Figure 1. Histograms of fiber characteristics; (a) equivalent length, (b) average diameter, and (c) aspect ratio.
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 2057

Table 2. Testing campaign

Df-nominal (kg/m3)
Testing type PC ISFRC RSFRC
0 15 30 60 15 30 60
Compressive strength 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Elasticity modulus 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Splitting tensile strength 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Flexural strength of beams 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

(18.9 %) and 0.22-0.24 mm (14.3 %), and the 0.23 mm
average value obtained is within this range. Figure 1c shows
that the range of aspect ratio varying between 20-100
exhibits a frequency of 46.2 %; this range stands out above
the other ranges. For comparison purposes, these industrial
steel fibers were selected because they are categorized as
low performance fibers, and are used mainly for reinforcing
industrial floors and slabs on-ground.
The experimental campaign included tests of compressive
strength, modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio, splitting
tensile strength, as well as bending of concrete beams to
identify the mechanical properties of concrete reinforced
using industrial steel fibers and steel fibers recycled from
tires. Table 2 shows the number of specimens for plain
concrete (PC), Industrial Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(ISFRC) and Recycled Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(RSFRC). In summary, the experimental campaign included
49 cylinders having 150 mm diameter and 300 mm height,
and 14 beams measuring 150150600 mm. The tests were
carried out using procedures specified by ASTM standards.
Flexural performance of beams specimens was assessed
with third-point loading setup.
Results and Discussion
Measured Values of Dosage and Concrete Slump
Table 3 shows the nominal and the measured dosages of
fibers used for concrete reinforcement. Measured values of
fiber content were used to analyze the response of the
specimens. The slump of the RSFRC and ISFRC are shown
in Figure 2, in which the measured slump of plain concrete
was greater than the specified concrete slump (178 mm). It is
also observed in the figure that the slump decreases as the
amount of recycled and industrial fibers is increased. Figure
Table 3. Measured dosages of industrial and recycled steel fibers
Type of concrete ISFRC RSFRC
Df-nominal, kg/m3 15 30 60 15 30 60
Df-measured, kg/m3 12.7 31.5 65.2 18.6 34.0 65.1
Vf, % 0.16 0.40 0.83 0.24 0.43 0.83
CV, % 13.4 9.6 2.2 12.8 7.5 11.9
Figure 2. Variation of the slump as the industrial and recycled
fiber dosage increases.
2 also shows that the slump of the recycled steel fiber was
slightly greater than those of the industrial fiber. Centonze et
al. [6] found the same behavior in their study.
During casting of specimens, it was also observed that the
workability of the RSFRC was similar to that of the ISFRC,
even though during mixing, clusters of recycled fibers were
observed. The trend observed in this study and that reported
by Centonze et al. [6] showed that recycled steel fibers affect
the workability of concrete; however, the reduction of
workability is slightly lower than that associated to the
industrial steel fibers. The previous condition could be
considered an advantage because the slump in recycled
fibers is greater than that of industrial fibers and therefore its
workability could be higher.
Compressive Behavior
The compression failure modes showed an abrupt rupture
occurred for the PC and ISFRC, while the recycled steel
fibers were able to maintain the integrity of the concrete
components throughout the testing. Aiello et al. [5] argue
that this type of compressive behavior could occur due to the
irregular geometry of the recycled fibers, causing that
concrete withstand more compressive strength. This improved
behavior may be related to the beneficial effect of the
irregularity of the fiber to increase the adherence of the fiber
and the corresponding confinement of concrete.
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain curves for PC, ISFRC and
RSFRC. Figures 3f and 3g show that the RSFRC with
dosages of 34.0 and 65.1 kg/m3 withstand more compressive
strains than those for the ISFRC. The RSFRC with 65.1 kg/m3
exhibited the greatest compressive strains, since strains of up
to 0.010 were reached, while the ISFRC reached strains of
0.004 with a dosage of 65.2 kg/m3. On the other hand,
Figures 3b and 3c showed stress-strain curves of ISFRC
specimens that suffered abrupt failure mechanisms which
occurred when reaching the maximum strength.
Figure 4 shows the relationships between the mechanical
properties of concrete under compression tests and the
parameter Vf ×(lf /df) for the two types of steel fibers. A linear
regression analysis was also implemented for calculating the
2058 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 Julian Carrillo et al.

Figure 3. Compressive stress-strain curves for different values of Df in kg/m3, PC; (a) 0, ISFRC, (b) 12.7, (c) 31.5, (d) 65.2, RSFRC,
(e) 18.6, (f) 34.0, and (g) 65.1.

Figure 4. Trends of the mechanical properties of axial compression; (a) compressive strength, (b) strain associated to f 'c, (c) modulus of
elasticity, and (d) Poisson’s ratio.
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
equations and their corresponding correlation coefficients
(r). Figure 4a also shows that the ISFRC compressive
strength drops down between 1 % and 24 % of the PC as the
industrial fiber dosage increases. For low values of fiber
dosages, the compressive strength is not affected, while for
high fiber dosages, the compressive strength is affected
notably. In the case of the RSFRC, no matter the steel fiber
dosage, the decrease of compressive strength was always
less than 2 % the PC, so it is concluded that the recycled
fiber dosage slightly affects the concrete compressive
strength. Rossli and Ibrahim [7] reported that the compressive
strength increased up to 29 % the PC strength when the
recycled fiber dosage was augmented. Aiello et al. [5]
obtained RSFRC and ISFRC’s compressive strength values
greater than that of the PC strength. Additionally, although it
is widely known in the literature that the compressive strain
associated to the maximum f'c is approximately 0.002, such
parameter resulting from the compression tests of this study
for the PC, RSFRC and ISFRC in all its dosages was close to
0.003. Figure 4b shows the constant behavior of the strain
when increasing the amount of recycled and industrial
fibers.
Figure 4c shows that the modulus of elasticity tends to
decrease as the industrial steel fiber content increased. In
contrast, the recycled fibers do not seem to have any effect
on the modulus of elasticity, since this property remained
almost constant when the content is increased. This trend has
already been observed in other studies on the behavior of the
ISFRC, where the modulus of elasticity decrease is attributed
to the substitution of coarse aggregate for steel fibers [17].
The Colombian code NSR-10 [15] proposes to estimate the
Table 4. Study variables and axial compression equations proposed for the ISFRC
Study Vf % lf /df f 'c, MPa
Nataraja et al. [18,19] 0-1.0 55-82
Prashant et al. [20,21] 0-1.5 60
Ponce [22] - -
Mármol [23] - -
Gallo et al. [17] 0-0.76 48
This study-RSFRC 0-0.83 144
This study-ISFRC 0-0.83 48
Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 2059
modulus of elasticity of plain concrete made of local
aggregates as 3900√f'c. If this equation is used for computing
the modulus of elasticity of a concrete with f'c of 42.3 MPa,
the theoretical modulus of elasticity would be 25,360 MPa.
This computed value is only 5 % higher than that
experimentally obtained for simple concrete.
Figure 4d shows that the Poisson’s ratio is independent of
the parameter Vf ×(lf /df) for both, recycled and industrial steel
fibers. The Poisson’s ratios of all experimental data measured
were very similar among them, with values varying between
0.18 and 0.21. The mean values of the Poisson’s ratio of the
RSFRC and ISFRC were 0.21 and 0.20, respectively. The
NSR-10 standard proposes a Poisson ratio value of 0.20 for
PC, which is consistent with the results obtained in this
study. Gallo et al. [17] argued that the decrease of the
Poisson’s ratio is directly correlated to the confinement of
concrete and, therefore, to the corresponding capacity of the
material to withstand greater transversal deformations.
A non-dimensional analysis was carried out in this study
to obtain linear regressions of the measured data in terms of
Vf, (lf /df) and f 'c. Equations resulting from these regressions
were used to estimate the mechanical response of RSFRC
and ISFRC. Table 4 shows the proposed equations for
calculating the mechanical properties of RSFRC and ISFRC
under compression stresses. The table also shows the r or CV
statistical parameters, and the values of the mechanical
properties that were used to calibrate the equations. Table 4
also shows a summary of equations proposed in the technical
literature to estimate the compressive properties of ISFRC.
Table 4 shows that the equations proposed by Ponce [22]
and Marmol [23] to compute the modulus of elasticity
Unit Equations
30-50 MPa fcf′ = fc′ + 2.160 ( RI )
fcf′ = 1.88Vf + fc′
33-42 MPa
Ecf = 0.574fc′ + Ec
- MPa Ecf = ηEsVf + Ec ( 1 – Vf )
- MPa Ecf = ( 1 – ηη0 Vf )Ec + ηη0 Vf Es
MPa fcf′ = [ 0.99 – 0.0003Vf ( lf /df ) ]fc′
28-35 MPa Ecf = [ 4066 – 17.8Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′
- v = 0.12 – 0.0006( Vf ( lf /df ) )
MPa fcf′ = 0.99fc ′ , CV = 1.3 %
42.3 MPa Ecf = 3626 fc ′ , CV = 2.7 %
- ν = 0.21, CV = 2.8 %
MPa fcf′ = [ 1.00 – 0.002Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc ′ , r = 0.58
42.3 MPa Ecf = [ 3625 – 12.32Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc ′ , r = 0.62
- ν = 0.20, CV = 3.1%
2060 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9
include a fiber efficiency coefficient (η) and an orientation η0
factor. These parameters usually take values of 0.41 and
0.41lf, respectively [17]. Additionally, Nataraja et al. [18,
19] proposed a reinforcement index RI to estimate the
compressive strength, which could be calculated using
equation (1).
l subjected to tension stresses. A different trend occurred
RI = Wf ----f (1)
df
where Wf is the weight fraction of fibers, which can be
related to the volume fraction using Wf =3.27Vf [24]. The
trends obtained by Gallo et al. [17] are similar to those
obtained in this research, since the compressive strength,
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio slightly decrease as
the dosage of industrial steel fiber is increased.
Splitting Tensile Strength Tests
Figure 5 shows the parameters used to analyze the stress-
strain curves obtained. In those curves, f0 corresponds to the
peak strength, fp is the strength related to the onset of the
contribution of fibers, ft is the maximum strength, and fut is
the ultimate strength. On the other hand, ε0t, εp, εt and εut are
the strains related to f0, fp, ft and fut, respectively; and T is the
toughness of the SFRC.
It was observed during splitting tensile tests that the
ISFRC specimens were not entirely split in two parts; that is,
the integrity of the specimens was conserved after the
material failed (Figure 6c). On the other hand, a complete
Figure 5. Stress-strain curve measured during splitting tensile test
[25].
Figure 6. Failure modes during splitting tensile tests; (a) plain concrete, (b) RSFRC, and (c) ISFRC.
Julian Carrillo et al.
detachment occurred in some RSFRC specimens as shown
in Figure 6b. This condition was credited to the effect of
hooks of industrial steel fibers which allow higher interlocking
between concrete and fibers. It is believed that the lack of
hooks, the short length, and the different diameters of the
recycled steel fibers cause the concrete to detach easily when
during the tests of modulus of elasticity, in which the recycled
fiber samples showed some integrity after the failure.
Figure 7 shows the stress-strain curves obtained from the
splitting tensile tests for PC, RSFRC and ISFRC. The
ultimate strains reached by the RSFRC and ISFRC were
close to 0.02 mm/mm. Likewise, the performance of the
splitting tensile strength of the RSFRC was slightly higher
than that of the ISFRC specimens, except for the 18.6 kg/m3
dosage of the recycled fibers (see Figure 8e). The figure
shows that specimens reinforced with a fiber content higher
than 65.1 kg/m3 experimented strain-hardening behavior,
mainly for specimens with industrial steel fibers.
Figure 8 shows the trends for the mechanical parameters
measured during splitting tensile tests as a function of the
parameter Vf ×(lf /df). Figure 8a shows that the splitting
tensile strength at first crack (fo) of RSFRC slightly increases
as the fiber content is increased; for example, an increase of
around 8 % was observed for the 65.1 kg/m3 dosage. This
slightly increase was credited to the basis that the contribution
of fibers started after the first crack is developed in the
specimen. Likewise, Figure 8b shows that the strain associated
with fo increases as the parameter Vf ×(lf /df) also augmented.
In the figure, the high variation of the measured data is
significant; for example, the variation coefficients obtained
for ε0t were greater than 50 %.
Figure 8c shows that the strength at the onset of the
contribution of the recycled and industrial steel fibers (fp),
increases as the parameter Vf ×(lf /df) augments. This is
because the sudden loss of strength after f0 decreases as the
recycled and industrial steel fibers dosage increased. The
variation of the data obtained in the case of the RSFRC
showed a CV of 44 % for the fiber dosage of 34 kg/m3. On
the other hand, it is observed in Figure 8d that εp decreases
as the parameter Vf ×(lf /df) is increased for both, the industrial
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Figure 7. Stress-strain curves during splitting tensile tests for different values of Df in kg/m3, PC; (a) 0, ISFRC, (b) 12.7, (c) 31.5, (d) 65.2,
RSFRC, (e) 18.6, (f) 34.0, and (g) 65.1.
and the recycled steel fibers. Although measured data
reveals that recycled and industrial fibers are able to initiate
their mechanical contribution to concrete at small strains,
recycled fibers require greater deformations than industrial
fibers to start its contribution. It is worth noting that the
strain εp is related to the highest variation coefficients with
values that reach up to 80 % of the RSFRC.
Figures 8e and 8f show that ft and εt have a similar trend
than fp and εp, where ft increases and εt decreases as the
amount of fibers in concrete increases. Carrillo et al. [25]
stated that the strength ft turned out to be greater than f0, and
that εt increased as the industrial fibers content was
increased. The data obtained in this study showed that trends
of ft and εt were different from those reported by Carrillo et
al. [25] since, in this study, only the ISFRC with 65.1 kg/m3
was able to provide a strength ft greater than f0. Additionally,
strains εt measured in this study diminished as the fiber
content was increased in all the specimens tested.
Figure 8g shows that fut of RSFRC and ISFRC increases as
the parameter Vf ×(lf /df) augments. Carrillo and Silva [26]
argued that this strength increment was the result of an
increase in the industrial steel fibers dosage, because the
Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 2061
degradation rate was reduced as fiber dosage increases. It is
also observed in Figure 8g that the industrial steel fibers
provided an ultimate concrete strength higher than that
contributed by the recycled steel fibers; that is, 33 % higher
for the minimum dosage and 16 % higher for the maximum
dosage. Figure 8h shows that the measured ultimate strain
(εut) was constant for RSFRC, while εut for ISFRC slightly
decreases as the Vf ' (lf /df) increased. In the case of the
ISFRC, this behavior has already been reported in other
studies, and it happens because fibers maintain the maximum
strain capacity of concrete [25]. Finally, it is observed in
Figure 8i that, as expected, fibers added to concrete
considerably improves the energy dissipation capacity or
toughness of RSFRC and ISFRC. For example, it was observed
that the RSFRC using 65.1 kg/m3 reached a toughness 8 %
greater than that in ISFRC mixtures. Similar to the data
reported by Sengul [8], results of this research confirm that
the recycled fibers may improve the splitting strength
depending on the dosage of fibers used.
Table 5 shows a summary of some equations found in the
technical literature for calculating the mechanical properties
of RSFRC and ISFRC when subjected to splitting tensile
2062 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 Julian Carrillo et al.

Figure 8. Mechanical properties of PC, RSFRC and ISFRC when subjected to splitting tensile stress; (a) f0, (b) ε0t, (c) fp, (d) εp, (e) ft, (f) εt,
(g) fut, (h) εut, and (i) T.
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 2063

Table 5. Study variables and equations proposed for splitting tensile strength of ISFRC in MPa
Authors Vf % lf /df f´c, MPa Fiber shape Equation
Narayanan and Darwish 1.2fcf′
0.25-3.0 100-133 35-73 Twisted ft = ---------------------- + 0.7 + 1.0 F
[27] ( 20 – F )
Wafa and Ashour [30] 0.5-2.0 75 30-60 Hooked ft = 0.58 fc′ + 3.02Vf
Naaman et al. [31] 1.0-2.0 60-100 17-40 Hooked ft = – 4.21 + 1.64 fcf′
ft = 1.04 fc′ + 1.50
Eren and Celik [32] 0.5-2.0 60-83 30-100 Hooked
ft = 1.08Vf + 3.82
Araújo [33] 0.75-1.50 48 45-101 Hooked ft = ( 0.31Vf + 0.52 ) fcf′
2
Song and Hwang [34] 0.5-2.0 64 40-100 Hooked ft = 0.63 fc′ + 3.01Vf – 0.02Vf
Hanai and Holanda [35] 0.75-2.0 37.5-54.5 23-73 Hooked ft = 0.738 fcf′ – 0.737
0.83
Xu and Shi [36] 0.25-2.0 50-80 20-100 Hooked ft = 0.21( fcf′ )
Tsai et al. [37] 0.5-1.0 20-100 28-70 Hooked ft = ( 0.15Vf + 0.51 ) fcf′
Karl et al. [28] 0.5-2.0 60 49-84 Hooked ft = ( 24F + 0.5 ) fc′
γf ⎞
ft = f0 + ⎛ 0.638 × lf /df × Vf × -----------
Ramadoss and Nagamani -
0.5-1.5 80 47-80 Twisted ⎝
[29] γCRFA⎠
f0 = 0.45 fc′
fp = [ 0.43 + 0.0006Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′
Carrillo et al. [25] 0.15-0.74 48 34-35 Hooked
ft = [ 0.41 + 0.0054Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′
fut = [ 0.038 + 0.0062Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′
fp = [ 0.20 + 0.003Vf ( lf /df) ] fc′ , r = 0.86
This study-RSFRC 0-0.83 144 42.3 without hook ft = [ 0.21 + 0.003Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′ , r = 0.82
fut = [ 0.081 + 0.003Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′ , r = 0.91
fp = [ 0.32 + 0.004Vf ( lf /df) ] fc′ , r = 0.84
This study-ISFRC 0-0.83 48 42.3 Hooked ft = [ 0.33 + 0.005Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′ , r = 0.86
fut = [ 0.023 + 0.006Vf ( lf /df ) ] fc′ , r = 0.91

stresses. Some authors have proposed relationships for
estimating the maximum strength provided by fibers (ft) for
ISFRC. Narayanan and Darwish [27], and Karl et al. [28]
include the F factor in their equations, which could be
calculated from equation (2).
l failure mode of fiber-reinforced specimens was caused by
F = ----f Vf Ff (2)
df
where Ff is a fiber binding factor, which is 0.5 for straight
fibers, 0.75 for round fibers and 1.0 for corrugated fibers
[28]. On the other hand, the ft equation proposed by
Ramadoss and Nagamani [29] takes into account not only
the peak concrete strength (f0) but also the density of both,
the steel fibers (γf) and the fiber reinforced concrete (γCRFA).
Finally, the relationships proposed in this study were based
on the form established by Carrillo et al. [25], which take
into account the parameters Vf ×(lf /df) and f 'c to obtain
approximate values of f0, fp, ft and fut for the ISFRC and RSFRC.
Flexural Performance from Bending Tests on Beams
Regarding the failure mode of the specimens tested, it was
observed that reinforced concrete beams using dosages
between 18.6 and 34.0 kg/m3 of recycled fibers, and 12.7
and 31.5 kg/m3 of industrial fibers were completely split in
two parts. For the dosage of 65.1 kg/m3 of recycled fibers
and 65.2 kg/m3 of industrial fibers, samples kept the specimen
together after the ultimate failure load. As expected, the
the detachment of the fibers rather than for the breakage
thereof. Concrete beams reinforced with 18.6 kg/m3 of
recycled fibers failed in the same way as simple concrete.
Figure 9 shows the load-deflection curves achieved from
the bending tests on PC, RSFRC and ISFRC specimens.
Figure 9d shows that the contribution of industrial fibers is
greater than the contribution of the recycled fibers. For
example, a maximum deflection of 4.1 mm was obtained for
the dosage of 65.2 kg/m3 of industrial fibers, while a
maximum deflection of 2.8 mm was measured for a dosage
of 65.1 kg/m3 of recycled fibers. It is observed in Figure 9e
that the lower dosage of 18.6 kg/m3 of recycled fibers did
not contribute to improve the behavior of concrete. In fact, it
was found during the tests carried out that the behavior of
concrete reinforced using 18.6 kg/m3 of recycled fiber
behaved almost like a concrete without reinforcement,
2064 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9
Figure 9. Load-deflection curves from bending tests for different values of Df in kg/m3; (a) 0, (b) 12.7, (c) 31.5, (d) 65.2, (e) 18.6, (f) 34.0,
and (g) 65.1.
which indicates that this dosage of fibers is not enough to
improve the structural behavior of reinforced concrete
beams. Unlike recycled fibers, Figure 9b shows that the
dosage of 12.7 kg/m3 of industrial fibers did contribute to
improve the flexural properties of concrete.
Figure 10 shows the response of different mechanical
parameters obtained from bending tests on recycled and
industrial steel fiber reinforced concrete when Vf ×(lf /df) is
increased. The first peak of the load-deflection curve is
associated to the modulus of rupture (f1), and the deflection
(δ1) associated. The equivalent residual stresses (feq (0-0.75)
and feq (0.75-3)) is related to the stresses calculated in the
deflections ranging from 0 to 0.75 mm and from 0.75 to
3 mm, respectively. The D0 ductility index was assessed in a
range of net deflections from 0 to 0.75 mm and is given by
the ratio between feq (0-0.75) and f1. Likewise, the D1 ductility
index was assessed in the range of net deflections from 0.75
to 3 mm and is given by the ratio between feq (0.75-3) and feq (0-0.75)
[38].
Figure 10e shows that the residual stress between 0.75 mm
and 3 mm is smaller than the modulus of rupture in all the
Julian Carrillo et al.
specimens tested. ACI-318 Building Code [14] and NSR-10
Colombian code [15] prescribes that the residual strength
obtained from flexural tests at a 0.75 mm deflection must be
greater than or similar to 0.90f1. ACI-318 and NSR-10 codes
also prescribe that the residual strength at a 3 mm deflection
must be greater than or equal to 0.75f1. These limits were
included as horizontal lines in Figure 9, which shows that
these two conditions were not fulfilled for any of the
concrete types and dosages investigated herein. It is also
observed in Figure 10 that after the peak strength is reached
for all types of concrete and dosages, there is a considerable
loss of strength before the fibers begin its contribution.
Residual stress from 18 % to 46 % of f1 occur within the
0.75-3 mm interval. This trend could be credited to the poor
distribution or low dosage of fibers in the concrete matrix.
Figure 10a shows that the f1 strength of RSFRC increase
for the dosages of 18.6 and 34.0 kg/m3; however, f1 for the
65.1 kg/m3 dosage decreases 27 % when compared to 34.0 kg/
m3 dosage. This figure also highlights that the industrial steel
fibers contribute slightly to the increase of the modulus of
rupture; for example, f1 increases as Vf ×(lf /df) is also
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Figure 10. Flexural mechanical properties of PC, RSFRC and ISFRC; (a) f1, (b) δ1, (c) feq (0-0.75), (d) D0, (e) feq (0.75-3), (f) D1, and (g) T(3mm).
increased. Bencardino [38] observed a similar behavior for
industrial fibers. The slight or non-existent contribution of
the two types of steel fibers to the modulus of rupture is due
to the fact that fibers have not yet begun to contribute to the
performance of concrete at that point of the first crack.
Similarly, Figure 10b shows that there is a slight contribution of
the industrial steel fibers and a constant contribution of the
recycled steel fibers to increase the δ1 deflection.
Aiello et al. [5] stated that the main purpose of steel fibers
is to prevent and control the crack propagation in concrete.
Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 2065
The above is shown in the load-deflection curves obtained
from the bending tests on concrete in Figure 10, where
residual stresses are obtained after the first crack is caused. It
is observed in Figure 10c that the feq (0-0.75) residual stress is
constant for the ISFRC and the RSFRC, although the ISFRC
stress (0.23 MPa) is approximately twice the RSFRC stress
(0.48 MPa). On the other hand, Figure 10d shows that the
ductility index (D0) which is related to the net deflection
interval from 0 to 0.75 mm, slightly increases as Vf ×(lf /df)
increases. It is observed also in Figure 10d that the ISFRC
2066 Fibers and Polymers 2020, Vol.21, No.9 Julian Carrillo et al.

Table 6. Classification of ductility indices according to UNI 11039 the proposed equations for calculating the modulus of
[39] rupture, the residual stresses and the RSFRC toughness.
Df-mesuared Ductility type
Concrete type
(kg/m3) D0 D1 Conclusion
PC 0 - -
The mechanical properties of compressive strength,
18.6 - -
modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio showed that the
RSFRC 34.0 0.22=DS 0.83=DP RSFRC has a similar behavior to that of the ISFRC. In fact,
65.1 0.31=DS 0.64=DP recycled steel fibers contribute to support greater compressive
12.7 0.53=DP - strains than PC subjected to axial stresses. Unlike specimens
ISFRC 31.5 0.43=DS 0.86=DP of ISFRC, the recycled steel fibers were able to keep the
65.2 0.56=DP 0.82=DP integrity of concrete elements under compressive stresses,
thus controlling crack propagation. Therefore, recycled steel
fibers can be an alternative for industrial fibers if their use is
contributes to obtain a more ductile concrete when compared intended to reinforce concrete subjected to axial compression
with the RSFRC. UNI 11039 [39] standard classifies the loads.
ductility (D0 and D1) as follows: DS for a smooth behavior The splitting tensile mechanical properties of the RSFRC
when the ductility is lower than 0.5, DP indicates a plastic were similar to those of the ISFRC. However, it was
behavior when the ductility varies between 0.5 and 0.9, and observed during the tests that the industrial steel fibers were
DH indicates a strain-hardening behavior when the ductility able to keep the concrete together, while the samples of the
is higher than 0.9. Table 6 shows the results of this RSFRC got completely split in two halves. It was confirmed
classification for the concrete investigated in this research. during bending testing on RSFRC and ISFRC that the post-
Figure 10e shows that the feq (0.75-3) residual stress increases cracking behavior of concrete using recycled fibers was
as a function of Vf ×(lf /df) for the industrial steel fibers; lower than that of ISFRC. In fact, the RSFRC using 18.6 kg/
however, it is constant for the recycled steel fibers. Unlike m3 of recycled fibers behaved like a plain concrete. On the
the trends of the results obtained in this study, Centonze et other hand, the variation of results obtained was high, having
al. [6] noted that feq (0.75-3) increased by 38 % when increasing variation coefficients of up to 44 %, which was due to an
the tire-recycled steel fiber dosage from 15.9 kg/m3 to inefficient distribution of fibers. Likewise, the results showed
31.75 kg/m3 in concrete. On the other hand, it is observed in the recycled fibers contribute to concrete toughness; however,
Figure 10f that the ductility index (D1) associated to the the recycled fibers contribution was lower than that provided
feq (0.75-3) of the RSFRC decreases with Vf ×(lf /df); for example, by the industrial fibers. As for the flexural stress requirements
the RSFRC’s D1 is up to 22 % lower than the ISFRC’s D1. for the SFRC specified in the Colombian code NSR-10, the
Figure 10g shows that the concrete toughness is considerably residual stresses obtained for the two types of fibers were
improved with an increment of Vf ×(lf /df) for the industrial lower than the values required by the standard. The hooks of
fibers, while the toughness of the concrete with recycled the industrial fibers allow better anchoring between concrete
fibers is practically constant. Although recycled fibers did and reinforcement. In the case of recycled fibers, this hook is
not reach toughness values close to those obtained with not present and the irregular and variable geometry of the
industrial fibers, Figure 10g shows that this type of fibers fibers makes difficult for them to have a good concrete
contributes to a better concrete flexural performance. It is interlocking. A possible solution for this could be the hybrid
observed in Figure 10g that the ISFRC toughness is up to mixture of the two types of steel fibers in order to achieve a
59 % higher than that of the RSFRC for dosages close to better concrete performance.
65 kg/m3. Centonze et al. [6] also noted that the RSFRC The equations proposed herein to predict the mechanical
contributes to the concrete toughness but fails to overcome properties of the SFRC under compressive, splitting tensile
the toughness provided by the ISFRC. Table 7 summarized and flexural stresses in terms of parameters such as f 'c and
Vf × (lf /df) are practical tools for analysis and design. These
equations are applicable to concrete with compressive strength
Table 7. Equations proposed to estimate the mechanical properties between 35 MPa and 42 MPa, industrial steel fibers and
of the RSFRC steel fibers obtained from waste tires, dosages of recycled
Equation Unit Statistical parameter fibers between 10 and 65 kg/m3 and values of Vf ×(lf /df)
f1 = 0.81 fc′ MPa CV=1.9 % between 30 and 120.
feq(0 – 0.75) = 0.23 fc′ MPa CV=1.1 %
Acknowledgments
feq(0.75 – 3) = 0.17 fc′ MPa CV=14.4 %
T(3mm) J CV=5.8 % The authors recognize the Vicerrectoría de Investigaciones
Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
at the Universidad Militar Nueva Granada (UMNG) for
financing the Grant IMP-ING-2933. The donation of
concrete, industrial steel fibers, and recycled steel fiber from
Argos-Colombia (Diego Velandia), Bekaert-Colombia (Liliana
Cardona), and Grupo Renova, respectively, is greatly
appreciated. The authors also thank engineers Sebastián
Guzman and Carlos Díaz for their support during data and
figures processing. The authors also acknowledge to USI
Library of Institute of Engineering at UNAM for providing
some of the references. The information contained in this
article represents exclusively the opinion of the authors and
does not necessarily represent the opinions of the sponsor.
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