Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
Chapter 4 Internal Combustion Engine Internal combustion engines have numerous advantages over external combustion
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Classification of IC engines
4.3 IC engine terminology
4.4 4-stroke SI engine
4.5 2-stroke SI engine
4.6 4-stroke CI engine
4.7 2-stroke CI engine
4.8 Thermodynamic cycles in IC engines
4.9 Indicator diagram and power measurement
4.10 Combustion in SI engine
4.11 Combustion in CI engines
4.12 IC engine fuels
4.13 Morse test
4.14 Comparative study of IC engines
Examples
Problems
4.1 Introduction
History of internal combustion engines dates back to year 1680 when Christian
Huygens developed an engine using gun powder for explosion inside a cylindrical tube.
Subsequently, in year 1860 a non-compression engine utilizing coal gas was developed
by “Lenoir” in France. Engine was called Lenoir engine and it was operationally similar
to steam engine. In 1866 “Otto-Langen free piston engine” was developed in Germany
and it had thermal efficiency more than “Lenoir engine.”
In 1876 four stroke engine based on Otto cycle was developed by Nikolous Otto in
Germany which revolutionized the developments of internal combustion engines and are
even used till date. The compression ignition engine technology and engines based on it
evolved in year 1892. Such engines are credited to Rudolf Diesel another German
engineer and are so named as Diesel engine. Two stroke engines came up in 1881 in
Scotland and were first developed by Dugald Clerke. “Brayton engine” based on Brayton
cycle and “Atkinson engine” based on Atkinson cycle were developed in year 1873 and
1885 respectively.
Apart from conventional two stroke and four stroke engines described earlier the
“Wankel engine” which was rotary engine and the “Stirling engine” which was external
combustion engine came up in years 1957 and 1938 respectively. In 1923 an engine
called as free piston engine was developed by Pateras Pescara in France.
Free piston engine is actually a combination of reciprocating piston-cylinder engine
and turbine. “Engine refers to a device which transforms one form of energy into the
other form”. “Heat engine is a modified form of engine used for transforming chemical
energy of fuel into thermal energy and subsequently for producing work”. Based on the
mechanism used for adding thermal energy they can be classified into the following:
a) External combustion engine
b) Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine have combustion occurring outside engine and adding
heat to the working fluid used in the engine. Thus, in external combustion engines heat
released during combustion is indirectly utilized by the working fluid in external
combustion engine. Internal combustion engines have combustion occurring in engine
itself and heat released during combustion is directly utilized for getting shaft work.
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT
Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
engines such as lower weight to power output ratio, simplicity, smaller initial cost, and
higher efficiency etc. Due to indirect heat transfer the external combustion engines permit
for the use of any cheaper fuel such as coal, wood, oil etc. for combustion.
Internal combustion engines are exhaustively used in automobiles, gas turbine etc.
and external combustion engines are used in steam turbine, steam engine, nuclear power
plant etc. Internal combustion engines are efficient than external combustion engines and
also are smaller than external combustion engine of similar capacity.
4.2 Classification of IC engines
Internal combustion engines can be classified on the following basis.
(a) Based on number of strokes: Number of strokes involved in a cycle of IC engine can
be two strokes or four strokes. Such engine can be;
(i) Two stroke engines
(ii) Four stroke engines
(b) Based on thermodynamic cycle: Depending upon thermodynamic cycle used in the
internal combustion engines these can be classified as:
(i) Engines based on Otto cycle (“Spark-Ignition engine”)
(ii) Engines based on Diesel or Dual cycle (“Compression-Ignition engine”)
(c) Based on mechanism of ignition: Internal combustion engines have combustion as the
basic process. Combustion process may be initiated using externally assisted ignition
(spark ignition) or it may get initiated on its” own due to excessive compression
(compression ignition). Such engines are called:
(i) Spark ignition engines
(ii) Compression ignition engines.
The spark ignition engines may have “magneto ignition system” or “battery ignition
system” for creating necessary electric potential for producing spark.
(d) Based on type of fuel used: IC engines may be classified depending upon the type of
fuel being used. These can be:
(i) Petrol engines (petrol being used as fuel)
(ii) Gas engines (gaseous fuel being used)
(iii) Diesel engines (diesel being used as fuel)
(iv) Multi-fuel engines (more than one fuel being used)
(e) Based on fuel admission: IC engines can be of different types depending upon
arrangement used for fuel admission:
(i) Carburetor type engines (use carburetor fuel metering)
(ii) Injection type engines (use fuel injector and injection system)
(f) Based on type of cooling: IC engines have inherent requirement of continuous cooling
of engine. Based on type of cooling these can be classified as:
(i) Air cooled engines (Generally used in small sized engines)
(ii) Water cooled engines (Generally used in large sized engines)
(g) Based on type of motion: IC engines may have reciprocating motion of piston or it
may also have rotary motion. Such engines can be:
(i) Reciprocating engines
(ii) Rotary engines
Reciprocating engines may have different cylinder arrangements such as:
(i) Opposed cylinder engines
(ii) Inclined cylinder engines
(iii) V-shaped cylinder arrangement.
Rotary engines may be further classified as single rotor engines or multi-rotor engines i.e.
(i) Single rotor engine
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
(ii) Multi rotor engine 18. Stroke: It is the nominal distance travelled by the piston between two extreme
4.3 IC engine terminology positions in the cylinder.
Some of the basic components and generally used terms in internal combustion 19. Dead center:
center It refers to the extreme end positions insi inside
de the cylinder at which
engines are given as under. piston reverses its motion. Thus, there are two dead centers in cylinder, called as “top top
1. Cylinder: It is a cylindrical block having cylindrical space inside for piston to dead center” or “inner
inner dead center” and “bottom
bottom dead center” or “outer
outer dead center”.
make reciprocating motion. Upper portion of cylinder which covers it from the top is Top dead center (TDC) is the farthest position of piston from crankshaft. It is also
called cylinder head. This is manufactured by casting process and materials used are cast called inner dead center (IDC).
iron or alloy steel. Bottom dead center (BDC) refers to the closed position of piston from crankshaft. It
2. Piston and Piston rings: Piston is a cylindrical part which reciprocates inside the is also called outer dead center (ODC).
cylinder and is used for doing work and getting work. Piston has piston rings tightly 20. Swept volume
volume: It is the volume swept by piston while travelling fro from
m one dead
fitted in groove around piston and provides a tight seal so as to prevent leakage across center to the other. It may also be called stroke volume or displacement volume.
piston and cylinder wall during piston’s reciprocating motion. Pistons are manufactured Mathematically, Swept volume
volume=Piston
Piston area
area×Stroke
Stroke
by casting or forging process. Pistons are made of cast iron, aluminum alloy. Piston rings 21. Clearance volume
volume: It is the volume space above the piston inside cylinder, when
are made of silicon, cast iron, steel alloy by casting process. piston is at top dead center
center. It is provided for cushioning considerations and depends,
3. Combustion space: It is the space available between the cylinder head and top of largely upon compression ratio.
piston when piston is at farthest position from crankshaft (TDC). 22. Compression ratio
ratio: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when piston is at
4. Intake manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting intake system to the inlet valve BDC to the clearance volume.
upon cylinder. Through intake manifold the air/air-fuel mixture goes into cylinder. Compression ratio
ratio=
= ((Swept
Swept volume + Clearance volume)/ Clearance volume
5. Exhaust manifold: It is the passage/duct connecting exhaust system to the exhaust
valve upon cylinder. Through exhaust manifold burnt gases go out of cylinder.
6. Valves: Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by
valve operating mechanism comprising of cam, camshaft, follower, valve rod, rocker arm,
valve spring etc. Valves are generally of spring loaded type and made out of special alloy
steels by forging process.
7. Spark plug: It is the external igniter used for initiating combustion process. Spark
plug is activated by electrical energy fed by electrical system with engine. It delivers
spark with suitable energy to initiate combustion at appropriate time for suitable duration.
8. Bearing: Bearings are required to support crank shaft. Bearings are made of white
metal leaded bronze.
9. Connecting rod: It is the member connecting piston and crankshaft. It has
generally I section and is made of steel by forging process.
10. Crank: It is the rigid member connecting the crankshaft and connecting rod.
Crank is mounted on crankshaft. Crank transfers motion from connecting rod to
crankshaft as it is linked to connecting rod through crank pin.
11. Crankshaft: It is the shaft at which useful positive work is available from the
piston-cylinder arrangement. Reciprocating motion of piston gets converted into rotary
motion of crankshaft. Crankshaft is manufactured by forging process from alloy steel.
12. Crankcase: Crankcase actually acts like a sump housing crank, crankshaft,
connecting rod and is attached to cylinder. These are made of aluminum alloy, steel, cast Fig. 4.1
1 Internal combustion engine
iron etc. by casting process.
13. Gudgeon pin: It is the pin joining small end of the connecting rod and piston. 4.44 44-stroke SI engine
This is made of steel by forging process. Spark ignition (SI) engines employ external ignition system for initiating the
14. Cams and Camshafts: Cams are mounted upon camshaft for opening and closing combustion process. Spark plug is the most commonly used ignition method used in
the valves at right timings and for correct duration. Camshaft gets motion from spark ignition en
engines.
gines. Let us first understand working of 44-stroke
stroke SI engine. Figure 4.
4.3
crankshaft through timing gears. shows the different strokes and processes associated with them.
15. Carburetor: Carburetor is device to prepare the air fuel mixture in right proportion
and supply at right time.
16. Bore: It is nominal inner diameter of the cylinder.
4. Piston area: It is the area of a circle of diameter equal to bore.

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 Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
expansion stroke or po
power
wer stroke or expansion process. This is the stroke accompanied
by positive work available at shaft. Now while piston is at BDC the exhaust valve gets
opened and combustion products are exhausted out during 55––6. 6. Cylinder is further
emptied and made ready fforor being recharged while piston travels from BDC to TDC, 66–1
pushing out burnt gases. This is called exhaust stroke.
Here we have seen that out of suction, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes
only expansion stroke is accompanied by the production ooff positive work, rest three
strokes are work absorbing strokes. Work requirement for the three strokes is met from
the work available during expansion stroke. For storing the excess energy and releasing it
Fig. 4.2 P-V
V and T-s
T s diagram for SI engine cycle (Otto cycle)
when required, a flywheel is mounted over the crankshaft
kshaft.. Cycle gets completed in two
Let us start with piston at TDC, state 1. As piston mov
moveses for TDC to BDC, the inlet
revolutions of crankshaft. Examples of four stroke engines are petrol engines used in cars
valve gets opened and fresh airair-fuel
fuel mixture prepared in carburetor enters the cylinder.
etc.
This supply of air
air-fuel
fuel mixture into cylinder is called suction process or suction stroke
during which inlet valve is open while exhaust vvalvealve remains closed. After the piston
4.55 22-stroke SI engine
reaches BDC, it reverses its motion and moves towards TDC. During this piston travel
22-stroke
stroke SI engine is a modified form of 44-stroke
stroke engine where all the four processes
both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Thus, the air air-fuel
fuel mixture inside cylinder
required for co completion
mpletion of one cycle of SI engine get completed in two strokes. Thus,
gets compressed till piston reaches TDC. This is the second stroke and called
obviously in each stroke two processes get completed. Figure 4.44 shows the line diagram
compression stroke or compression process (2 (2–3).
of 2--stroke
stroke SI engine.

Fig. 4.4 2-stroke

stroke SI engine
General arrangement shows that here there ar aree no valves as in case of 44-stroke
stroke
engines, instead it has exhaust and suction ports. Piston has a projection on its top, which
acts like deflector. Mixture of air
air-fuel
fuel goes into crank case first and then gets transferred
to top of piston at appropriate ti
time.
me.
Let us start piston movement from TDC to BDC. When piston reverses its motion
IVC: Inlet valve closed, IVOIVO: Inlet valve open, EVC EVC: Exhaust valve closed, EVO EVO: from BDC to TDC then the suction port gets uncovered and fresh mixture enters and goes
Exhaust valve open. into crank case. With piston moving from TDC to BDC and during covered position of
Fig. 4.33 Working of 4-stroke
4 stroke S.I. engine suction
ion port the mixture gets transferred to the top of piston through transfer port. Upon
Now highly compressed airair-fuel
fuel mixture is available inside the cylinder and ready for reversal during piston travelling from BDC to TDC, the air fuel mixture on top of piston
combustion. With piston at TDC, the spark plug is activated and it releases spark for gets compressed and subsequently gets ignited by spark from spark plug.
igniting air
air-fuel
fuel mixture. Spark plug used in the SI engines gets activated by suitable The comb
combustion
ustion of fuel
fuel-air
air mixture results in release of excessive energy which
mechanism in the engine and provides suitable amount of energy in the form of spark for forces piston to move from TDC to BDC. Simultaneously as piston uncovers exhaust port
initiating combustion process. This burning of mixture is accompanied by sudden the burnt gases go out through exhaust port. Again when piston reaches BDC it reverses
increase in pressure and temperature while piston passes the TDC position. Here constant its motion and during travel from BDC to TDC the suction takes place as explained
volume heat addition takes place and state 4 is attained. Due to this release of fuel energy, above at the bottom of piston while compression of fuel air mixture takes place on top of
the combustion products try to expand and piston moves from 44–55 i.e. TDC to BDC.
During this travel the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. This stroke is called
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
piston. Thus, suction and compression, both processes get completed during travel of the compression of air occurs by the top side of piston while on the bottom side of piston
piston from BDC to TDC. air again enters into crankcase. Upon piston reaching TDC fuel is injected into
Expansion and exhaust processes occur during travel of piston from TDC to BDC compressed air which is at high temperature and pressure. As fuel is injected into
along with transfer of fresh fuel air mixture from crankcase to top of piston. Here all four compressed air the fuel ignition ggets
ets set on its own due to temperature being more than
processes occur during two strokes and one revolution of crank shaft. Thermodynamic self ignition temperature of fuel, i.e. compression ignition. Fuel injection is continued for
cycle followed by 2-stroke SI engine is Otto cycle. Scooter engines are generally two some duration along with its ignition which causes release of excessive fuel energy. This
stroke engines. 2-stroke SI engines are used for smaller applications. energy release cau
causes
ses piston to go back from TDC to BDC, i.e. the expansion process as
4.6 4-stroke CI engine shown in (c). As piston reaches BDC it simultaneously forces air in crank case to get
Compression ignition (CI) engines operate generally on Diesel or dual cycle. In these transferred to cylinder space and forces burnt gases out of cylinder i.e. exhaust process.
engines the combustion is realized due to excessive compression and is so called Here also cycle gets completed in single revolution of crankshaft i.e. two processes
compression ignition engines. Here air alone is sucked inside the cylinder during suction occurring simultaneously in each stroke.
stoke and compressed. Degree of compression is much more than that of spark ignition
(SI) engines. After compression of air the fuel is injected into the high pressure and high
temperature compressed air. Due to high temperature of air the combustion of fuel gets
set on its” own. Self ignition of fuel takes place due to temperature of air-fuel mixture
being higher than self ignition temperature of fuel. Thus in CI engines, larger amount of
compression causes high temperature, therefore unassisted combustion.
Schematic of 4-stroke CI engine is quite similar to that of 4-stroke SI engine with the
only major difference that spark plug is replaced by fuel injector for injecting fuel at high
pressure into compressed air. 4-Stroke CI engine works with following four processes
getting completed in separate strokes.
General arrangement in CI engine is similar to that of SI engine with spark plug
replaced by fuel injector.
a) Stroke 1: Piston travels from TDC to BDC and air is sucked.
b) Stroke 2: Piston travels from BDC to TDC, while air is compressed with inlet and
exit passages closed.
c) Stroke 3: Piston reaches TDC and air gets compressed. Fuel injector injects fuel
into compressed air for certain duration. Ignition of fuel also takes place
simultaneously as air temperature is much higher than self ignition temperature
of fuel. Burning of fuel results in release of fuel chemical energy, which forces
piston to travel from TDC to BDC. Contrary to SI engine where heat addition
gets completed near instantaneously, in CI engines fuel injection and thus heat
addition is spread in certain stroke travel of piston i.e. heat addition takes place at
constant pressure during which piston travels certain stroke length as decided by
cut-off ratio. This is expansion process and piston comes down to BDC with both
inlet and exit valves closed.
d) Stroke 4: After expansion piston reverses its motion upon reaching BDC and
travels up to TDC with exit passage open. During this piston travel burnt gases
are expelled out of cylinder i.e. exhaust stroke. Fig. 4.5 2-stroke
stroke CI engine
Completion of above four strokes requires two revolutions of crankshaft.
4.7 2-stroke CI engine 4.8 Thermodynamic cycles in IC engines
Fig. 4.5 shows the general arrangement in 2-stroke CI engine. Here the structure of Thermodynamic cycles used in IC engines are Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Dual
CI engine is very much similar to that of SI engine with the major difference that spark cycle and are described in Chapter 9 under title of “Air
Air standard cycles
cycles”.. However, the
plug is replaced by fuel injector, structure is made sturdier to withstand high compression comparison of these cycles with one another for different reference conditions is
ratio. presented here.
Working of 2-stroke compression ignition engine is shown in (a), (b), (c), (d) (a) Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles for same compr compression
ession ratio and heat
explaining the suction, compression, expansion and exhaust processes. During piston input:
input
travel from BDC to TDC air enters crankcase. When piston reaches TDC and reverses its Figure 4.6
6 shows the three cycles on P P-V
V and T-s
T s diagram for same compression ratio
motion to BDC air in crankcase gets partly compressed and is transferred from crankcase and heat input. For same heat input, T
T-ss diagram shows;
to top of piston through transfer port. Upon reversal of piston motion from BDC to TDC
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 7 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 8
 Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
Area bcef
bcef== Area bc"e"f
bc"e"f= Area bb'c'e'f Heat rejected shall be given by;
(Otto) (Diesel) (Dual) Area adfg for Otto cycle
Area ad'f 'g for Diesel cycle
Area ae"f "g for Dual cycle
Area adfg > Area ae"f "g > Area ad'f 'g ⇒ WDiesel > WDual > WOtto
Here W refers to net work in respective cycle.
Hence, it can be seen that heat rejected is highest in Otto cycle followed by Dual
cycle and Diesel cycle. Thus, efficiency shall be maximum for Diesel cycle due to largest
work available followed by Dual cycle and minimum for Otto cycle at same maximum
pressure and same heat input.

4.9 Indicator diagram and power measurement

Internal combustion engines have combustion taking place inside and power is
available at crankshaft. The shaft work available is less than the total energy released
inside the cylinder due to frictional and other losses.
Fig. 4.66 Comparison ofof Otto Diesel and Dual cycles on P P-VV and TT-ss diagram for same
compression ratio and heat input. Comparison can be made by looking at these cycle For performance evaluation of internal combustion engine, one is interested in
representations. following different powers.
Heat rejected can be given as;
For Otto
Otto=Area adef
def a) Indicated power:
For Diesel
Diesel=Area
Area ad"e"f It refers to the power available inside the cylinder i.e. the power provided to piston.
For Dual
Dual=Area
Area ad'e'f Mathematically:
A look at areas on T
T-ss diagram shows
shows: Area adef < Area ad'e'f < Area ad"e"f. Indicated power= (Energy in fuel)- (Energy loss in exhaust, coolant, radiation etc.)
Since heat input is same therefore based on the heat rejected one can say that as heat It is measured from the indicator diagram which is obtained using indicator
rejected for Otto cycle is smallest so this has highest efficiency. It is followed by Dual mechanism.
cycle
ycle and smallest efficiency is for Diesel cycle.
(b) Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles for same maximum pressure and same b) Brake power:
heat input
input: It refers to the power available at crankshaft i.e. it is the useful shaft work.
For carrying out comparison the P P-VV and T-ss representations for three cycles are Mathematically:
shown in Fig. 4.7.
4. Brake power= (Indicated power)- (Energy loss in friction, pumping and unaccounted
losses etc.)
Brake power is usually measured by absorption or transmission type dynamometers.
It can be given as:
 2N 
Brake  power      * T    *T Watt
 60 
where
 is angular speed, rad/s
N is speed of rotation of shaft in rpm,
T is torque, N. m

c) Friction power:
It refers to the power lost due to friction and other reasons. It is quantified by the
difference between indicated power and brake power.
Fig. 4.7 Comparison of Otto, diesel and Dual cycles on P
P-V T-ss diagram for same
V and T Friction power=Indicated power- Brake power
maximum pressure and same heat input.
Here heat input is same so, Indicator diagram:
Area bcfg
bcfg==Area
Area b'c'f'g
b'c'f'g=Area
Area b"c"d"f"g.
(Otto) (Diesel) (Dual)
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 Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
Indicator diagram is the graphical description of pressure and volume variations
occurring inside cyl
cylinder.
inder. An indicator diagram for a fourfour-stroke
stroke internal combustion
engine is shown in Fig. 4.
4.8 along with the four different processes.

mep

Fig. 4.9 Indicator

ndicator diagram mechanism

For getting indicated power we need mean effective pressure (average pressure) and
volume displaced. From the indicator diagram obtained the mean effective pressure can
be obtained, knowing area of diagram, length of diagram and indicator spring constant.
Area of diagram can be estimated using plan meter and length of diagram measured.
Ad
Mean effective pressure, mep      *k
Ld
where Ad is area enclosed in diagram
Ld is length of diagram
k is indicator spring constant gi ven as N/cm2×cm
given cm travel.
Fig 4.
4.8 Indicator diagram and processes in IC engine Using mean effective pressure
pressure, the indicated power can be obtained by product of
pressure and volume displaced.
For getting the indicator diagram
diagram,, “indicator diagram mec
mechanism”
hanism” is put over the IC
engine and real variation of pressure and volume states obtained. mep * AL  nN
Indicator mechanism shown in Fig. 4.9, 9, has number of links “g” and chord for stroke engine,   
Indicated power for 22-stroke Watt
60
transferring linear displacement of piston rod into the rotation of drum “f”. where mep
mep=mean
mean effective pressure in Pa
A stylus “d” is operated over the drum through a parallel motion link “ee”. AA=cross-sectional A=πD2/4,
ectional area of cylinder. A 4, where D is bore.
Displacement of “e” is caused along yy-axis axis by an indicator piston rod “h”,
“ , which is LL=length
length of stroke.
connected to indicator piston “b” put in indicator cylinder “a” as shown. NN=rpm
Indicator piston is resisted by an indicator spring ““c”.. In between indicator cylinder nn=no.
no. of cylinders.
and engine cylinder a cock is provided to isolate it after indicator diagram is obtained.
Indicator mechanism has thus drum “f” rotating about its axis and stylus “d” operated In case of 4-stroke engines, 2 revolutions are required for completing one cycle,
by pressure variation inside cylinder along yy--axis.
axis. Thus, displacement along volume axis therefore effective rpm shall be N/2.
is made available by rotation of drum and along pressure axis it is made available by N 
vertical reciprocatory movement of stylus depending upon pressure inside engine mep * AL    n
 2 
cylinder. stroke engine   
Indicated power for 44-stroke Watt
60
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 Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
Based on indicated power and brake power, the mechanical efficiency of engine can propagation phase is spread in about 80% of combustion space length and is covered in
be obtained as below. 60–70%
70% of total time of combustion. “AfterAfter burning
burning” occurs in less than 10% of
Mechanical efficiency of engine combustion space in less than 10% of total combustion time as evident from Fig. 4.11.
11.
Brake  power Combustion may also sometimes occur abnormally. “Abnormal combustion” is said
mech 
Indicated  power to occur when combustion begins inside the cylinder on its” own before the stipulated
ηmech=Brake
Brake power/Indicated power time for it This abnormal combustion may be due to pre pre-ignition
ignition (i.e. ignition of fuel
Mechanical efficiency is ththus
us indicator of how efficiently indicated power is even before spark plug ignites it) and results in un
uncontrolled
controlled pressure rise. Abnormal
converted into brake power. combustion is also termed as detonation or knocking and can be felt by jerky operation of
engine, excessive noise, reduced power output etc.
4.10
10 Combustion in SI engine
Combustion is the process of oxidation of fuel resulting into the release of energy
equivalent to calorific value of fuel. Energy released in combu combustion
stion is in the form of heat.
Combustion process in spark ignition engine has requirement of the “mixture mixture of fuel and
air in right proportion,
proportion,” “mechanism
mechanism for initiation of combustion process process” and
“stabilization
stabilization and propagation of flame for complete burnin burning.”
For complete combustion of every fuel there is chemically correct fuel fuel--air
air ratio also
called stoichiometric fuel
fuel-air
air ratio. This fuel air ratio may be rich or lean depending upon
the proportion of fuel and air present in mixture. In SI engine this fuel air ratio generally
varies between 11:77 to 11:30 30 with lean mixture at 11:30 30 and rich mixture at 11:7.
Stoichiometric fuel
fuel-air
air ratio is around 11:14
14 to 1:15
1 15 for hydrocarbon fuel. The extreme
values of fuel
fuel--air
air ratio permissible in SI engine on both rich and lea leann ends put limits as
“lower
lower ignition limit
limit” and “upper
upper ignition limit
limit”.. Varying fuel
fuel-air
air ratio is required in SI
engine due to varying loads on engine between no loads to full load on engine. The ratio Fig. 4.11
11 Duration of combustion phases
of actual fuel
fuel-air
air ratio to stoichiometric fuel--air ratio
tio is given by “equivalence
equivalence ratio”
ratio or 4.11
11 Combustion in CI engines
“relative
relative fuel
fuel-air
air ratio”.
ratio . Appropriate fuel
fuel-air
air ratio is maintained in SI engines through Combusti
Combustion on in CI engines differ from SI engine due to the basic fact that CI engine
“carburetor
carburetor” (the fuel metering system). combustion is unassisted combustion occurring on its its” own. In CI engine the fuel is
injected into combustion space after the compression of air is completed. Due to
excessively hig
highh temperature and pressure of air the fuel when injected in atomized form
gets burnt on itsits” own and burning of fuel is continued till the fuel is injected.
Theoretically this injection of fuel and its
its” burning should occur simultaneously up to the
cut-off
off point, but this does not occur in actual CI engine. Different significant phases of
combustion are explained as under.

Fig. 4.10
10 Phases of combustion in SI engine
Hence, it can be summarized that the comcomplete
plete combustion in SI engine occurs in
three distinct zones i.e. preparation phase, flame propagation phase and after burning
phase. In order to complete combustion in smallest possible time the flame propagation
phase and preparation phase should be shor
shortened.
tened. It is seen that out of total distance Fig. 4.12
12 Pressure rise during combustion in CI engines
travelled in combustion space in first phase i.e. preparation phase about 10% of Thus, it is seen that the complete combustion in CI engines may be comprising of
combustion space length is covered in about 20–30%
20 30% of total time for combustion. Flame four distinct phases i.e. “ignition
ignition delay
delay” followed by “uncontrolled
uncontrolled combustion,
combustion,”
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 13 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 14
 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
“controlled combustion” and “after burning”. Combustion generally becomes abnormal which is lost in overcoming friction and other losses. Brake power can be measured by
combustion in CI engines when the ignition delay is too large resulting into large using dynamometer at the crank shaft of engine.
uncontrolled combustion and zigzag pressure rise. Abnormal combustion in CI engines Friction power can be experimentally determined by number of methods namely
may also be termed as “knocking” in engines and can be felt by excessive vibrations, “Willan’s line method”, “Motoring test” and by the numerical difference between
excessive noise, excessive heat release, pitting of cylinder head and piston head etc. In indicated power and brake power.
order to control the knocking some additives are put in CI engine fuel so as to reduce its” Morse test is experimental method for estimating the friction power of the multi
self ignition temperature and accelerate ignition process. Also, the combustion chambers cylinder engine. Here engine is first run up to certain speed of rotation. Subsequently, one
are properly designed so as to have reduced physical and chemical delay. by one each cylinder of the engine is isolated from contributing to shaft work either by
switching off electric supply to spark plug or by stopping fuel supply. When one cylinder
4.12 IC engine fuels is not producing power i.e. due to its isolation then also piston reciprocates in this
Fuels used in SI engines and CI engines are different as the nature of combustion cylinder similar to other cylinders thus the frictional losses remain constant for the shaft
process is different in the two engines. Normally hydrocarbon fuels are used for both the running at same speed. When second cylinder is cut then also frictional losses remain
applications and should possess desirable properties such as high calorific value, suitable same but the brake power and indicated power get reduced accordingly. This process of
combustion characteristics, ease of handling, environment friendly etc. In SI engines the cutting off each cylinder one by one is carried out till last cylinder and the brake power is
fuel used is generally “gasoline” also called as petrol and is mixture of different measured by dynamometer attached to crank shaft which is maintained to run at same
hydrocarbons. Gasoline is available from refining process and its” exact composition speed of rotation when cylinders are cut off one by one.
depends upon the degree of refining and source etc. Gasoline should have capability of Mathematically, if there are n number of cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine. Then
mixing rapidly with air, suitable volatility, resistance to abnormal combustion etc. initially when all cylinders are working.
SI engine fuels are characterized in respect to its” resistance to abnormal combustion Indicated power from n cylinders, ip   bp    fp  ; here ip, bp and fp refer to
n n n
by its rating in terms of “Octane number”. Octane number of fuel is determined by
indicated power, brake power and friction power respectively.
comparing the combustion performance of actual fuel with that of reference fuel. Octane
When one cylinder is cut then,
number is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane
(C8H18) and n-heptane (C7H16). Iso octane is low boiling point fuel having very high ip n –1
 bp 
n –1
  fp 
n
resistance to abnormal combustion and is arbitrarily assigned octane number of 100. When second cylinder is cut then,
“n-heptane” is seen to have very poor resistance to abnormal combustion and is so ip n –2
 bp 
n –2
  fp 
n
assigned octane number of 0.
These “iso-octane” and “n-heptane” are also called as “primary reference fuels”. In From above the power produced from first cylinder being cut off can be obtained as:
order to determine octane number of any fuel its combustion characteristics are matched ip nth  cylinder
 bp  – bp 
n n –1
with those of a variable mixture of “iso-octane” and “n-heptane”. The composition of Total indicated power from engine: ip n   ip nth  cylinder
iso-octane fraction and n-heptane fraction which yields the similar combustion
characteristics is used to know the octane number. Say, for example in a particular test the Thus, after knowing indicated power of engine the friction power can be determined
mixture of 80% by volume of iso-octane and 20% by volume of n-heptane offers the as under, because brake power is also known through dynamometer.
combustion similar to that of test fuel. Then the test fuel shall have octane number of 80.  fp  n
 ip  – bp 
n n
Octane number generally lies between 0 and 100 but can be extended beyond 100 by Friction power estimated using Morse test gives fairly correct estimate. Although,
using certain additives. “Tetra ethyl lead” is the most popular additive used in SI engines there may be slight deviation because when each cylinder is cut then there is substantial
which further increases resistance to abnormal combustion i.e. even more than that of increase in engine vibrations and the friction losses may change due to change in back
iso-octane. pressure etc.
In CI engines the Diesel fuel is generally used which is also available during
petroleum refining but is impure as compared to SI engine fuel. CI engine fuels are also 4.14 Comparative study of IC engines
characterized by a rating given in terms of “Cetane number” which also indicates the Comparative study of IC engines with other prime movers is described here.
resistance of fuel to knocking. Cetane number for any fuel is given by percentage by
volume of cetane (C16H34) in a mixture of cetane and α-methyl naphthalene (a) Difference between SI and CI engine
(C10H7CH3) which offers the combustion characteristics similar to that of test fuel. SI engine CI engine
Cetane is arbitrarily assigned cetane number of 100 as it offers maximum knock 1. It works on Otto cycle 2. It works on Diesel/Dual cycle
resistance and α-methyl naphthalene is assigned cetane number of 0 as it has minimum
2. Compression ratio is from 5 to 15. 2. Compression ratio is from 12 to 30.
knock resistance. Cetane rating is also obtained by the test similar to that for octane
3. Petrol (Gasoline) is used as fuel. 3. Diesel is used as fuel.
rating.
4. Fuel should have high self ignition 4. Fuel should have low self ignition
4.13 Morse test
temperature. temperature.
In IC engines there are three powers namely “indicated power” which is developed
5. A mixture of air and fuel is sucked inside 5. Air alone is sucked during suction
inside cylinder, “brake power” which is available at crank shaft and “friction power”
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 15 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 16

the cylinder during suction process.
6. Carburetor is required for preparing
air-fuel mixture.
7. Fuel goes into cylinder along with air
during suction.
8. Spark plug is required to initiate
combustion.
9. Combustion takes place isochorically.
10. Due to low compression ratio the engine
structure is light.
11. Engine speed is higher.
12. Efficiency is low.
13. Generally used in 2-wheeler automobiles
and smaller and lighter engines.
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT
Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
process.
6. Carburetor is not required.
7. Fuel is injected after compression.
For injection of fuel a fuel pump and
injector is required
8. Ignition of fuel takes place on its”
own due to high temperature of air
inside cylinder.
9. Combustion takes place isobarically.
10. To withstand high compression
ratio the engine structure is sturdy.
11. Engine speed is lower.
12. Efficiency is high.
13. Generally used in 4 wheelers and
bigger engines.
17
Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
(b) Comparison of 2-stroke engine with 4-stroke engine
2-stroke engine 4-stroke engine
1. One cycle is completed in one revolution 1. One cycle is completed in two
of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft.
2. Power stroke is available in each 2. Power stroke is available in alternate
revolution of crankshaft. revolution of crankshaft.
3. Thermal efficiency is low. 3. Thermal efficiency is high.
4. Volumetric efficiency is less due to less 4. Volumetric efficiency is high due to
time available for suction. large time available for suction.
5. Lighter flywheel is required due to more 5. Heavier flywheel is required due to
uniform torque available. less uniform torque available.
6. Engine is compact and light in weight. 6. Engine is heavy.
7. Cooling requirements are less. 7. Cooling requirements are high.
8. Valves are not required. 8. Complex valve operating mechanism
is required.
9. Cost is low. 9. Cost is high.
10. Used in light vehicles and small engines. 10. Used in heavy duty vehicles and
bigger engines.
(c) Comparison of IC engines with gas turbine
IC engines Gas turbine
1. IC engine have good part load 1. Gas turbines have poor part load
efficiency. These have internal efficiency. These may have external
combustion. combustion or internal combustion both as
per requirement.
2. IC engines are well suited for 2. Gas turbines are not well suited for
smaller applications such as smaller applications, especially
automobiles. IC engines can be used automobiles. These are well suited for
for small capacity power plants. aviation applications and land applications
in power plants etc. as prime movers. It has
small specific weight and small size
capability which make these suitable for
airplanes.
3. Balancing is poor due to 3. Balancing is good due to absence of
reciprocating parts. Mechanical reciprocating parts. Mechanical efficiency
efficiency is also poor. is good due to rotary parts and no sliding
members
4. Maintenance requirement is high. 4. Poor maintenance requirement.
5. Type of fuels which can be used is 5. Large number of different types of fuels
limited in number. can be used.
6. Operation is noisy and large 6. Operation is silent and smooth.
vibrations are present.
7. No modification is possible for 7. Modifications such as reheating,
improving efficiency and output in regeneration and intercooling etc. are
existing IC engines. possible in order to improve efficiency and
output.
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 18

(d) Comparison of gas turbine with steam turbines
Gas turbine
1. These are generally internal
combustion type, but may be of
external combustion type too.
2. High quality fuel is being used.
3. Thermal efficiency is better.
4. It does not require boiler, feed water 4. It requires boiler, feed water supply, feed
supply, condensing plant etc. Number
of components involved is small.
5. These can be started quickly.
6. Maintenance cost is small.
7. These have smaller specific weight
and size i.e. small weight per kW
output and so these can be used in
aviation applications.
8. Initial cost and running cost are
small.
Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
The pressure
pressure--volume
volume (pV) diagram and how work is produced in an ICE
Steam turbines
1. These are of external combustion type.
2. Any type of poor or good quality fuel
can be utilized.
3. Thermal efficiency is poor than gas
turbines.
pump, condensing plant etc. instead of
compressor, combustion chamber as in gas
turbines. Number of components involved
is large.
5. These take time to start because of time
required in generating steam.
6. Maintenance cost is high.
7. These have large specific weight and
size and are exclusively suited for land
applications.
8. Initial cost and running cost are large in
steam turbines.

(e) Comparison between Diesel engine, Gas turbine and Steam turbine based plants:
(Parametric form)
Parameter Diesel engine Steam turbine plant Gas turbine
1. Power generation 10 kW to 10 MW 1 MW to 1000 MW 100 kW to 100 MW where:
capacity S – piston stroke
2. Efficiency 0.35 to 0.40 0.30 to 0.40 0.20 to 0.40 Vc – clearance volume
Vd – displaced (swept) volume
3. Fuel High grade fuel, Medium to low High to medium
p0 – atmospheric pressure
pressure
liquid fuel of grade fuel, may be grade, may be liquid
W – work
diesel grade gaseous, liquid or or gas fuel.
TDC – top dead center
solid fuel.
BDC – bottom dead center
4. Size and weight Medium Large Small
IV – inlet valve
5. Capital cost $US 110–180 $US 140–1200 per $US 80–300 per kW
EV – exhaust valve
US$ per kW kW
IVO – inlet valve opening
6. Lubrication Frequent oil and Negligible Oil topping up.
IVC – inlet valve closing
requirement filter changes
EVO – exhaust valve opening
7. Maintenance Weekly and Daily Monthly and annual EVC – exhaust valve closing
period monthly IGN (INJ) – ignition (injection)
8. Specific Very heavy Coal handling Intake and exhaust
installation needs foundations, facility, Ash mufflers etc.
vibration isolation, handling facility, As you can see
see,, there is a continuous variation of the pressure and volume inside the
enclosures for enough supplies of engine’s cylinders. We’ll see that the work produced by the ICE is function of the
making its water, exhaust pressure and volume changes.
operation quiet etc. emission control etc. Work W [J] is the product between the force F [N] which is pushing the ppiston
iston and the
9. Plant life 10–12 years 25 to 35 years 15 to 30 years displacement, which in our case is the stroke S [m].
[m]

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 19 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 20

 Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
W=F⋅S (1) By looking at the indicated pressure-volume (pV) diagram above, we can see that there
We know that pressure is force divided by area, therefore: are two distinct areas:
F=p⋅Ap (2)  the upper area, formed during the compression and power strokes (+W)
where p [Pa] the pressure inside the cylinder and Ap [m2] is the piston’s area.  the lower area, formed during exhaust and intake strokes (-W), also named
Replacing (2) in (1), gives: pumping work
W=p⋅Ap⋅S (3) Depending on the value of the intake pressure, the pumping work area can be negative or
We know that multiplying a distance with an area we get a volume, therefore: positive. For atmospheric engines, the pumping work is negative because it’s using
W=p⋅V (4) energy from the engine to push exhaust gases out of the cylinders and draw fresh air
during intake.
This is the instantaneous work produced in the cylinder for a certain pressure and For gasoline atmospheric engines, due to intake air throttling, the pumping losses are
volume. To determine the work for the complete engine cycle we need to integrate the higher, being maximum at idle speed. Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline
instantaneous work: engines because there is no throttle on the intake, the load being controlled through fuel
W   F  dx   p  Ap  dx (5) injection.
If we divide the brake specific torque to the indicated specific torque, we get the
where x is the piston travel. mechanical efficiency of the engine ηm [-]:
The product between the travel of the piston and the piston area gives the differential wb
volume dV displaced by the piston: m 
wi
dV=Ap⋅dx (6)
Replacing (6) in (5), gives the work produced in the cylinder for a complete cycle: For most of the engines, mechanical efficiency is around 80-85% at full load (wide open
W   p  dV (7) throttle) and it’s dropping to zero at idle, where all the engine torque is used to maintain
idle speed and not for propulsion.
Since the vast majority of the internal combustion engines have several cylinders, we are
going to introduce a more appropriate parameter to quantify work, which is specific Power calculations:
work w [J/kg]. Measuring indicated power of Diesel engine
w=W/m (8) – The area can be measured by an instrument known as ‘Planimeter’ or by the use of the
where m [kg] is mass of air-fuel mixture inside the cylinders for a complete cycle. mid ordinates rule. [On modern engines this diagram can be continuously taken by
We can define also the specific volume v [m3/kg] as: employing two transducers, one pressure transducer in the combustion space and other
V transducer on the shaft. Through the computer we can thus get on line indicated diagram
v (9)
m and power of all cylinders.]
The derivative of the specific volume will be: – The area is then divided by the length of the diagram in order to obtain mean height.
1 This mean height, when multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator mechanism, gives
dv   dV (10)
m the indicated mean effective pressure for the cylinder. The mean effective or average
from which we can write: pressure [Pm] can now be used to determine the work done in the cylinder.
dV  m  dv (11)
Replacing (7) in (8) gives: Calculations
1 Area of the indicator diagram= a [mm2]
w
m  p  dV (12) Length of the diagram= L mm
From (11) and (12) we get the mathematical expression of specific work for a complete Average height of the diagram= a [mm2]/ L [mm]
engine cycle: Average mean indicator pressure= a [mm2]/ L [mm]* k [bar/ mm];
Where k= spring scale in bar per mm
w   p  dv (13) or
The work produced inside the engine’s cylinders is called indicated specific work, wi Pm= (a/ L)* k [bar]
[J/kg]. What we get at the crankshaft is a brake specific work wb [J/kg]. It is called Work done in one cycle= Mean indicated pressure* Area of the piston* Length of stroke
“brake” because, when engines are tested on a test bench, they are connected to a braking = [Pm] x [a] x [L]
device (hydraulic or electric), which is simulating the load.
To get the brake work we have to subtract from the indicated work all the losses of the To obtain the power of this unit, it is necessary to determine the rate at which work is
engine. The losses are the internal frictions and the auxiliary devices which require power done.
from the engine (oil pump, water pump, supercharger, air conditioner compressor, Now,
alternator, etc.). These losses have an equivalent friction specific work wf [J/kg]. Indicated power of unit [ip]=Mean indicated pressure [Pm] * Area of piston [A] * Length
wb  wi – w f of stroke [L] * Number of power strokes per second [N]
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 21 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 22
 Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine Lecture notes:: Chapter 4 Internal combustion engine
V2

Or
W  V1
pdV (4.17)
Indicated power of unit  PmLAN Although Eq. 4.17 is derived for the case of a gas (or liquid) in a piston
piston–cylinder
cylinder
assembly, it is applicable to systems of any shape provided the pressure is uniform with
Unit of Final Result position
ition over the moving boundary.
Indicated power  PmLAN
= (A/ L)
L)* k [bar/m]*
[bar [m]* A [m2]]* N [1/s]
L [m]
2
= [bar]
[bar]* [m]* [m ]* [1/s]
= 105 N/m2* m* * m2* 1/s
= 105 Nm/s
= 105 Joules/s
= 105 Watts
Hence, multiply the result obtained from calculating indicated power with 10 5 and the
final unit will be in Watts.

Expansion or Compression Work

There are many ways in which work can be don donee by or on a system. The remainder
of this section is devoted to considering several examples, beginning with the important
case of the work done when the volume of a quantity of a gas (or liquid) changes by
expansion or compression.
Let us evaluate the wo
work
rk done by the closed system shown in Fig. 4.4 consisting of a
gas (or liquid) contained in a piston
piston–cylinder
cylinder assembly as the gas expands.

Fig. 4.77 Work of a quasi-

quasi-equilibrium
equilibrium expansion or compression process.

Fig. 4.4 Expansion or compression of a gas or liquid

During the process, the gas pressure exerts a normal force on the piston. Let p denote
the pressure acting at the interface between the gas and the piston
piston.. The force exerted by
the gas on the piston is simply the product pA, where A is the area of the piston face.

The work done by the system as the piston is displaced

placed a distance dx is
W  p  Adx (4.15)
The product A*
A*dx in Eq. 4.15
15 equals the change in volume of the system, dV. Thus,
the work expression can be written as
W  pdV  (4.16)
Since dV is positive when volume increases, the work at the moving boundary is
positive when the gas expands. For a compression, dV is negative, and so is work found
from Eq. 4.16.
16. These signs are in agreement with the previously stated sign convention
for work.
For a change in volume from V1 to V2, the work is obtained by integrating Eq. 4.16
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 23 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 24