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5. Sedimentation
Why?
Predict particulate transport and predict sedimentation rates
Design of sedimentation systems for water and wastewater
Particles carry contaminants (aerosols and aquasols)
Assumption: Particle-particle interactions are negligible

You need to know

§  How to use Stoke’s law to calculate settling velocity

§  How to determine settling velocity for cases when
Stoke’s law cannot be applied
§  Apply this knowledge to sedimentation reactor
design

Concepts applicable to both aerosols, and aquasols

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Particle Suspension (Chapter 2)

§  Stokes’ law (Clark 2.1-2.4)

§  Stopping distance (Clark 2.7-2.8)
§  Sedimentation processes (Clark 2.5-2.6)

Fine aerosols <2.7 µm Coarse aerosols >2.7 µm

Sedimentation

Surface forces (chapter 6) can stabilize suspensions and hinder sedimentation

Polydisperse suspensions 4

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Low Velocity (i.e. low Reynolds number)

Particle Dynamics and Stokes Law
Newton’s 2nd law:
Fn
FD

Fg

Mathematical modeling of fluid stationary and particle moving 5

is equivalent to fluid moving and stationary particle

Low Velocity (i.e. low Reynolds number)

Particle Dynamics and Stokes Law

There are three forces we will

Fn consider acting on the sphere:
Fg – the net gravity force
FD
FD - the steady drag force
Fn – the non-steady drag force
 
This gives us:
Fg Fg – FD – Fn = Mp dv/dt  
We usually ignore non-steady
drag force
  Fg – FD = Mp dv/dt
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Fn
FD

Fg

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Fn Gravity force:
Fg = Mpg - Mfg (2.12)
FD  
where:
g = acceleration of gravity
Mf = mass of fluid displaced by
the particle
Fg Mf g = buoyancy force

(
Fg = M p g − M f g )
π d 3ρ p g π d 3ρ f g π d 3ρ p g ⎛ ρ p − ρ f ⎞
= − = ×⎜ ⎟
6 6 6 ⎝ ρp ⎠
9

dvt ρ f
for Re = < 2 (condition for Stokes Law)
µ
the steady drag force FD = 3πµ dvt
dv
Fg -FD =M p
dt

π d 3ρ p g ⎛ ρ p − ρ f ⎞ dv
×⎜
⎜ ρ ⎟⎟ − 3πµ vd = M p
6 ⎝ p ⎠ dt

π d 3ρ p g ⎛ ρ p − ρ f ⎞ π d 3 ρ p ⎛ 18µ ⎞ π d 3 ρ p dv
×⎜ ⎟⎟ = ×⎜ + ×
6 ⎜ ρ 6 ⎜ ρ d 2 ⎟⎟ 6 dt
⎝ p ⎠ ⎝ p ⎠
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π d 3ρ f g
divide both side by
6
dv ⎛ 18µ ⎞ ⎛ ρp − ρ f ⎞
+⎜ ⎟ v = g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dt ⎜⎝ ρ p d 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ρp ⎠
−1
⎛ 18µ ⎞
define characteristic time τ = ⎜
⎜ ρ d 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ p ⎠
dv v ⎛ ρp − ρ f ⎞
+ = g⎜ ⎟⎟
dt τ ⎜ ρ
⎝ p ⎠ 11

Assume that we release a particle from rest and we

allow it to rise or fall. Derive an equation for terminal
velocity (Q1)

ρ f − ρp ⎡ ⎛ t ⎞⎤
A. v = gτ ⎢1 − exp ⎜ − ⎟⎥
ρp ⎣ ⎝ τ ⎠⎦
ρp − ρ f
B. v = g
ρp

C. v =
( ρ p − ρ f )d2
g
18µ
D. None of the above 12

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Note : at t = 0, v = 0;
at t = ∞, v = vt = terminal velocity
when velocity get to terminal velocity,
the system reaches steady state
dv ⎛ 18µ ⎞ ⎛ ρp − ρ f ⎞ dv
+⎜ ⎟ v = g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ with =0
dt ⎜⎝ ρ p d 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ ρp ⎠ dt

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⎛ 18µ ⎞ ⎛ ρ − ρf ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
vt = g ⎜ p ⎟⎟
⎟ ⎜ ρ
⎝ ρ pd ⎠ ⎝ p ⎠

vt =
(ρ p − ρ f )d 2g
18µ
−1
⎛ 18µ ⎞ ρp − ρ f
with τ = ⎜ 2⎟
vt = gτ
⎝ ρ pd ⎠ ρp

vt =
(ρ p
−ρf )τ g
ρp
dvt ρ f
Stoke's law for Re = <2
µ

Make sure to check Re 14

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Anthrax spores of 1µm in size were released in

water with negligible initial velocity. Will the
spores settle in water (Q2)? Viscosity of water
= 1.8×10-5 kg/m-1.s-1 and Cunningham slip
function Cc=1; spore density=1.05×103kg/m3;
water density =1.1×103kg/m3

A.  yes
B.  no

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Stokes’ Flow

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Stokes’ law and non-continuum

effects: slip correction factor

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Stokes’ law and non-continuum

effects: slip correction factor
−1
ρp − ρ f ⎛ 18µ ⎞
vt = gτ with τ = ⎜
ρp ⎜ Cc ρ p d 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠

or vt =
(ρ p − ρ f ) d 2 gCc
18µ
Ignore fluid density term for aerosol
−1
⎛ 18µ ⎞ ρ p d 2 gCc
vt = gτ with τ = ⎜ or vt =
⎜ Cc ρ p d 2 ⎟⎟ 18µ
⎝ ⎠

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Different shape factors

FD = χ 3πμUde (2.9)
χ = shape factor or dynamic shape factor
de = equivalent-volume diameter (assuming sphere)
Shape χ
Cube 1.08
Cylinder (L/D=4, axis normal to flow) 1.32

Aggregates of spheres (chain of 2) 1.12

Compact aggregate of 3 1.15

Compact aggregate of 4 1.17 19

Corrections to Stokes’ law: the drag

coefficient for Re>2

For a sphere with diameter d

1 1 d2 1
FD = C D ρ f U 2 A = C D ρ f U 2 π = C D ρ f d 2U 2π
2 2 4 8
U = free stream velocity
⎛ i.e. uniform velocity of the flow field at a distance far enough ⎞
⎜⎝ from the particle that velocity is unaffected by the presence of the particle⎟⎠ ;

C D is a drag function of the fluid velocity.

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Corrections to Stokes’ law: the drag

coefficient for Re>2

If we assume that fluid is stationary and particle is moving

2
1 2 d 1
FD = CD ρ f vt π = CD ρ f d 2vt 2π
2 4 8

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Drag coefficient for Re>2

– for particles moving in water

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For particles moving in water

Case 1: Re<2 Stokes' law
dv ρ
C D = 24 / Re ;Re = t f
µ
1 2 d
2
1 24 µ
FD = C D ρ f vt π= × × ρ f d 2 vt 2π = 3πµ dvt
2 4 8 dvt ρ f
Case 2 if 2 ≤ Re ≤ 500
18.5 18.5
CD = =
Re0.6 ⎛ ρ v d ⎞ 0.6
f t p
⎜ µ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Case 3 if 500 ≤ Re ≤ 2 × 105
C D = 0.44 23

For particles moving in water

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Drag coefficient for Re>2

– for particles moving in air

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Drag coefficient for Re>2

– for particles moving in air
dv
(M p g − M f g ) − FD = M p
dt
dv
For aerosol at steady state = 0; M f << M p
dt
1 π CD ρ f d vt
2 2

M pg − = 0;
8 Cc

d 3πρ p g 1 π CD ρ f d vt
2 2

= ;
6 8 Cc
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Remember: Stokes’ law and non-

continuum effects: slip correction factor
−1
ρp − ρ f ⎛ 18µ ⎞
vt = gτ with τ = ⎜
ρp ⎜ Cc ρ p d 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠

or vt =
(ρ p − ρ f ) d 2 gCc
18µ
Ignore fluid density term for aerosol
−1
⎛ 18µ ⎞ ρ p d 2 gCc
vt = gτ with τ = ⎜ or vt =
⎜ Cc ρ p d 2 ⎟⎟ 18µ
⎝ ⎠

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Terminal settling velocity

1/2
4d ρ p gCc ⎛ 4gdCc ρ p ⎞
v =
2
;vt = ⎜ ⎟
t
3C D ρ f ⎝ 3C D ρ f ⎠

dvt ρ f
substitute Re = and vt
µ
C D d 2 vt 2 ρ f 2
C D Re 2 =
µ2
CD d 2 ρ f 2 ⎛ 4d ρ p gCc ⎞ 4d 3 ρ f ρ p gCc
= ×⎜ =
µ2 ⎜ 3C ρ ⎟⎟ 3 µ 2
⎝ D f ⎠
Dependent on densities, gravity, diameter, Cc and viscosity 28

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For higher Re and for aerosol particles, we can use a plot shown here from
Seinfeld and Pandis, Atmospheric chemistry and physics, Second edition

CDRe2 value is
found using
this graph

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Q3 Calculate the settling velocity of a 200-µm-

diameter droplet with density 1 g/cm3. Assume Cc=1

A.  Terminal velocity = 126 cm/sec

B.  Terminal velocity =67 cm/sec
C.  None of the above

µ = 1.72 ×10−4 gcm−1s −1; ρ f = 1290 g / m3

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4d 3 ρ f ρ p gCc
CD Re = 2
=
3µ 2
4 × ( 200 ×10−6 m ) 1290 g / m3 ×1g / cm3 × 9.8m / s 2
3

= = 455
3 × (1.72 ×10−4 gcm−1s −1 )
2

Use figure to find Re=10

dvt ρ f
Re =
µ
Re µ 10 ×1.72 ×10−4 gcm−1s −1 ×10000cm2 / m2
vt = = = 67cm / s
dρf ( 200 ×10−6 m ) ×1290 g / m3
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126 cm/s is obtained neglecting CD!

If particles already have velocity

relative to still fluid, how long will they
travel?

§  It is called the stopping distance S

§  Neglect gravity force

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Q13 Anthrax spores of 1µm in size were released

in air with initial velocity is 50 m/s. Assume no
wind condition. How far will the spore travel?
Viscosity of air = 1.72×10-5 kg/m-1.s-1 and
Cunningham slip function Cc=1.168; spore
density=1.1×103kg/m3.

A.  ~2 m
B.  ~20 m
C.  ~0.2 m Stopping distance derived in section 2.8!

D.  ~2×10-4 m
E.  None of the above
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Sedimentation processes

E.g. Sedimentation rates of particles in

lakes, aerosols in urban areas, or flocs in
water treatment systems, and
design of clarifiers

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Quiscent Batch Sedimentation

§  A square box that is initially filled with a monodispersion (i.e.

same size) of small spherical particles
§  There are no flows into or out of the box (i.e. “batch
sedimentation”)
§  Particles settle to a very thin layer at the bottom of the box
to leave a growing particle-free layer at the upper part of the
box (i.e. the condition is quiescent).
§  Define a control volume with initial depth of D; this depth is
reducing with time 35

Integration box
with height
D-vtt

C C

Write mass balance for this system (Q4)

dV
A. C = −CAvt ;
dt Hint: substitute d(CsysV)/dt
dV by the correct expression!
B. C = QCin − CAvt ;
dt
dV
C. C = QCin − QCout − CAvt ;
dt
D. None of the above
A = cross sectional area; vt = terminal sedimentation velocity; Q= flow rate 36

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This is a batch system. Sedimentation is the only

“reaction term” here. Concentration is constant so it
can be taken out of the derivative.
dV
A. C = −CAvt ; A = cross sectional area;
dt
vt = terminal sedimentation velocity
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Perfect-mix batch sedimentation

C0

§  A square box that is initially filled with a monodispersion

(i.e. same size) of small spherical particles;
§  There are no flows into or out of the box (i.e. “batch
sedimentation)
§  Particles settle to a very thin layer at the bottom of the
box. The upper part of the box is well-mixed.
§  Define a control volume with constant depth of D. 38

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Write mass balance for this system (Q5)

dC
A. AD = −CAvt ;
dt
dVC
B. = QCin − CAvt ;
dt
dV
C. C = QCin − QCout − CAvt ;
dt
D. None of the above
A = cross sectional area; vt = terminal sedimentation velocity; Q= flow rate
39

Find the particle flux (vtC) to the bottom (Q6) –

Sedimentation flux
A. vt C = vt C0 exp( Dvt t )
B. vt C = exp(− Dvt t )
C. vt C = vt C0 exp(−vt t / D)
D. None of the above 40

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Write mass balance for this system (Q5)

dC
AD = −CAvt ; A = cross sectional area;
dt
vt = terminal sedimentation velocity; D=depth
dC
D = −Cvt
dt
dC v dt
=− t
C D
C
= exp(−vt t / D)
C0
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Flux vt C = vt C0 exp(−vt t / D)

Removal by sedimentation is one of the methods used

for pathogen removal. Label the curve on the chart (Q7)
Flux of oocysts to

0.0007
0.0006
the bottom

0.0005
0.0004
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0
0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000 1000000 1200000
0 0

Time (sec)

A.  Blue=well-mixed; red=quiescent

B.  Red=well-mixed; Blue=quiescent
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Oocyst looks like a sphere with diameter around

5 µm. Density of oocyst is around 1.05 kg/L.
Density of water is 1 kg/L. Viscosity of water =
0.01185 g/cm-1.s-1 Assume that oocyst-
containing water is stored in a tank of 1 m in
depth. Calculate velocity of oocyst
sedimentation in m/s.
A.  ~2 m/s
B.  ~20 m/s
C.  ~5.85×10-7m/s
D.  ~ 5.85×10-5m/s
E.  None of the above
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Water flow
direction

trajectory

fig_10_11

Particles moves in two directions:

-  Horizontally with the flow
-  Vertically by sedimentation
44

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Water flow
direction

fig_10_11

Which of the following is NOT correct (Q8)

A.  Particle 3 sinks faster than is being carried by
the flow vs3>vf
B.  Particle 2 settles right before it flows out
C.  Particle 1 sinks too but it can still be removed

45

Continuous quiescent sedimentation

Steady state

Particle falling with vt and carried

by the water stream with v

46

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Particles in a clarifier
v
vc
h

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Particles in a clarifier
v
vc
h

The critical settling velocity vc is the velocity needed for the particles
to reach the bottom of the basin
The vertical travel distance for particles is h
h hQ hQ Q
vc = = = = Overflow velocity
θ Vb hAb Ab
where Ab = surface area of the clarifier
θ =hydraulic retention time of the clarifier;
Vb = clarifier volume
Q = flow rate of water through the clarifier 48

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Particles in a clarifier

If we want to remove all particles, vt ≥ vc

Design equation to find the size and flow rate of the sedimentation basin
to remove particles with d p
g( ρ p − ρ )d p2 Q Qh Qh h
vt = = vc = = = =
18µ Ab Ab h V θ

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Performance of a clarifier

§  If the overflow velocity (vc) is too high, water flows

too fast, particles don’t have enough time to
settle. Typical overflow velocity vc =1-2.5 m/h
§  If the retention time is too short, particles don’t
have enough time to settle. Typical retention time
is from 1 to 4 hours.

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Circular sedimentation basin has flow rate = 3 MGD

(million gallons a day) (1MGD=0.0438m3/s); Depth
h=3.5 m; diameter db=21 m. Silt particles to be
removed dp=0.01mm and ρp=2200 kg/m3. T=15oC
ρw=999.1kg/m3 μw=0.00114 kg/m/s
Will the clarifier remove silt particles (Q9)?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Cannot determine
§ Calculate settling velocity
§ Calculate hydraulic retention time
§ Calculate critical velocity
§ Compare settling velocity with critical velocity
51

Hydraulic retention time

Vb π db2 h π (21m) 2 3.5m
θ= = = = 9226s = 2.6hr
Q 4Q 4 × 3MGD × (0.0438m3 / s / MGD )
Settling velocity
g ( ρ p − ρ )d p2
(9.8m / s 2 )(2200 − 999.1kg / m3 )(10−5 m)2
vs = = = 5.74 × 10−5 m / s
18µ 18(0.00114kg / m / s )
h 3.5m
Critical velocity vc = = =38 × 10-5 m/s
θ 9226s
Settling velocity is smaller than critical velocity, silt will not be removed

52

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A treatment plant has a horizontal flow sedimentation

basin with a length of 6 m, width of 36 m, and process
flow rate of 450 m3/hr. What removal percentage should
be expected for particles that have settling velocities of
1.0 m/hr and 2.5 m/hr (Q10)? Assume particles density
of 2,650 kg/m3. The water temperature is 10ºC with
viscosity of 1.306×10-3 m2/s and density of 999.7kg/m3;
g=9.81m/s2
A.  48% and 10%
B.  48% and 100%
C.  100% and 8%
D.  12% and 2%
E.  None of the above
53

Calculate the overflow velocity

Q 450m3 / hr
V0 = = = 2.1m / hr
lw 36m × 6m

For particles with settling velocity of 1 m/hr (vt<V0),

the fraction of removal is
vt 1.0m / hr
R= = = 0.48 = 48%
V0 2.1m / h
For particles with settling velocity of 2.5 m/hr (vt>V0), the
fraction of removal is 100%.

54

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A treatment plant has a horizontal flow sedimentation

basin with a length of 6 m, width of 36 m, and process
flow rate of 450 m3/hr. What is the minimum size of
particles that would be completely removed (Q11)?
Assume particles density of 2,650 kg/m3. The water
temperature is 10ºC with viscosity of 1.306×10-3 kg/
(ms) and density of 999.7kg/m3; g=9.81m/s2

A.  d~0.3×10-5m
B.  d~30×10-5m
C.  d~3×10-5m
D.  d~300×10-5m
E.  None of the above
55

The minimum particle size that would result in

complete removal is calculated from the settling
velocity vt=V0=2.1m/h
Assume Stokes law is valid

vt =
(ρ p − ρ f )d2
g=
9.81m / s 2 × (2650 − 999.7) kg / m3 × d 2
× 3600 s / hr = 2.1m / hr
18µ 18 ×1.307 ×10 −3 N .s / m 2
d = 8.48 ×10−10 m 2
2

d = 2.9 ×10−5 m = 2.9 ×10−3 cm

dvt ρ 2.9 ×10−5 m × 2.1m / hr × 999.7 kg / m3 1hr
Re = = × = 0.01
µ 1.307 ×10 −3 N .s / m 2 3600 s

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Perfect-mix sedimentation

Which is the mass balance in steady-state?

Which is the removal rate?

57

1
2

Do at home

Q12 Label the curve

A.  1=perfect-quiescent; 2=intermediate; 3=perfect-mixed
B.  1=perfect-mixed; 2=intermediate; 3=perfect-quiescent
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Case studies

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