Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW 1

Literature Review

Factors that Impact the Online Learning Experience of the Older Adult Learner

Cheryl L Davis

University of Houston
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Abstract

The population of the world is ageing because people are living longer today than in previous

years which means that there are more older adults still in the workforce, continuing their

education, and trying to keep up with the many advancements of technology. According to data

from World Population Prospects: the 2019 Revision, by 2050, one in six people in the world

will be over age 65 (16%), up from one in 11 in 2019 (9%). With older adults living longer and

technology continuing to advance, the purpose of this study is to answer the research question,

what major factors impact learning and the online learning experience of the older adult learner

age 55 and older? The goal of this research was to identify factors that impact learning for older

adults, discover solutions to improve and/or enhance the overall learning experience of the older

adult learner, and offer suggestions for future research.

Keywords: older adult learner, lifelong learning, online learning, online learning experience,

technology, usability, cognitive learning, cognitive ageing

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Introduction

The older adult population is increasing worldwide and according to the US Census Bureau,

(2018) individuals aged 65 and older in the United States, will outnumber those under 18 by

2034. As a matter of fact, in 2018, for the first time in history, persons aged 65 or above

outnumbered children under five years of age globally (World Population Prospects: the 2019

Revision). Older adults are living longer which means they are working longer, continuing their

education, and truly becoming lifelong learners. According to Harlow and Cummings (2003),

learning has three levels: a) survival learning – where some things make sense; others do not; b)

adjustment learning - the learner is directed by outside instructions, but does not rely on their

own sense of mastery and control, and c) discovery learning - skill development and comfort

with new learning resulting in a sense of mastery. The older adult learning experience seems to

encompass each of these three levels. Because of the consistent change in technology some older

adults are learning at rapid speeds and enrolling in formal and informal online learning courses

while others are struggling to learn computer basics.

In my research several articles focused on eLearning or online learning involving the older

adult learner. Online learning is described by most authors as access to learning experiences via

the use of some technology (Benson, 2002; Carliner, 2004; Conrad, 2002) and there is an

increase in older adult participation. As new technologies continue to forge ahead, the needs of

older adult learners continue to differ from that of younger generations. Many older adult

learners want to learn technology skills, and do not want to be excluded from computer training

courses (Beisgen & Kraitchman, 2003); however, the research identifies a few major obstacles

that can impact learning for older adults. Factors that impact the online learning experience of

the older adult includes cognitive changes, stereotypes, technology, and usability. Despite the
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barriers, research shows, that older adults can learn computer skills as well as young students,

and although they learn slower (Tomporowski, 2003) they are learning computer technology at a

pace faster than any other age group (Beisgen & Kraitchman, 2003, McConatha, 2002).

There has been much research conducted on adult learning but the aim of this review is to

assemble articles that provide qualitative and/or quantitative research of older adult learners. The

focus of this review is on the major factors that impact learning and the online learning

experience of older adult learners, age 55 and older by examining the literature, identifying

design considerations that can ensure a satisfying learning experience, and provide suggestions

for future research.

Key Concepts

The typical adult learner is thought to be age 25 and older but the starting age of the older

adult learner seems to vary. For the purpose of this review the older adult learner is defined as a

person age 55 and older who is involved in some form of adult learning. Past studies have

described adult learning as a lifelong process whereby knowledge is created through the

transformation of experience (Illeris, 2010; Kolb, 1984); however, there is no one definition,

model, or theory that explains how adults learn, why they learn, or how best to facilitate their

learning process (Merriam, 2010). As an older adult learner, returning to school for me was a

little intimidating because so much time had passed and so much had changed. I, like many other

older adult learners, are familiar with some forms of technology; however, I was not prepared for

many of the online learning tools. With that being said, most older adults are self-learners

(Oñate et al., 2015) and research shows that more and more older adults are technology users and

are participating in online learning (Fong, 2022).

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Various studies suggest that older adults are stereotyped as having less technological ability

than younger age groups. For instance, technology related behaviors, such as buying a personal

computer and taking a computer course, are viewed as competence activities that are less typical

of older adults (Ryan and Heaven 1988; Ryan, Szechtman, and Bodkin 1992). This research

identifies one of the factors that can impact the learning experience of the older adult learner -

stereotypes. Stereotypes exist in all walks of life and according to Google, stereotype is usually

defined as beliefs about groups, prejudice as evaluation of or attitude toward a group, and

discrimination as behavior that systematically advantages or disadvantages a group. Githens,

(2007), states that there are long-term consequences of stereotypes that affects an individuals’

self-identities and hampers long-term organizational effectiveness. To extend it a little further,

older adults contend with stereotype threat which is the concern or worry about confirming

negative stereotypes targeting the group to which one belongs (Steele 1997; Steele, Spencer, and

Aronson 2002).

In addition to stereotypes, most articles reviewed were consistent with technology being a

major factor in the older adult learning experience whether it was how technology is used or the

attitude of the learner about technology in general. Technology continues to change and so does

cognitive abilities with age. Cognitive aging results in age-related changes in cognitive abilities

(Chaffin & Harlow, 2005) which in turn impacts learning. One final factor that emerged is

usability. Usability is the degree to which something is able to be used. When learning

technology or participating in online learning courses, ease of use benefits all learners but

especially the older adult.

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Cognitive Learning & Technology

Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping us learn how to

maximize the brain's potential; however, as we age, we begin to experience a shift in many of

our cognitive and physical functions such as working memory, reasoning, sensory, and

navigating. As we age, physiological changes begin to slow down the learning process; therefore,

for the older adult learner, maintaining control over hard-earned autonomy is constantly

challenged by age-related physical, cognitive, and environmental changes (Purdie and Boulton-

Lewis, 2003).

Some research suggest that people usually get the idea that older adults cannot learn or do not

feel the need to learn (BulBul, 2022) and we understand that to be a stereotype but as noted in

Chaffin and Harlow’s (2005) research older adults have age-related deficits in working memory.

According to other research older people can be willing and enthusiastic about learning to use

new technology (Betts et al., 2017; Mitzner et al., 2008; Neves and Amaro, 2012; Tsai et al.,

2015). As a matter of research, a considerable proportion of older adults in the United Kingdom

(UK) are already engaging in massive open online courses (MOOCs) (Liyanagunawardena and

Williams 2016). Some older adults learn better in informal learning environments which allow

for self-paced learning and other options to satisfy different learning needs and preferences,

compared to the strict formal curriculum mode (Jin et al. 2019). Although with age comes

cognitive decline, research shows that continuous learning improves physical, cognitive and

psychological health of older adults, providing them with joy of life, self-fulfillment, social

involvement, self-reliance in social relationships, self-sufficiency, and coping strategies; helping

them preserve cognitive functions, feel less tired, reduce social isolation level and dependency

on others, increase psychological capital and sense of well-being; and introducing a more
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pragmatic way of using spare time, thus, maintaining and improving their quality of life

(Aldridge & Lavender, 2000; Borkowsky, 2013; Boulton Lewis et al., 2006; Boulton-Lewis,

2010; Dench & Regan, 2000; Formosa, 2012a; Githens, 2007; Merriam & Kee, 2014).

Technology and the Older Adult

Technology is a part of everyday life. Older people acknowledge the benefits of digital

technology for social connectedness and other social gains, and most would like to learn how to

successfully use them (Betts et al., 2017; Neves et al., 2019) by receiving training before having

to use the new technologies and they would like targeted digital training instead of a general

training class. Older adult learners care about the delivery of their training and any negative

experiences affect adoption, attitudes towards technology and perceived self-efficacy (Czaja et

al., 2006; Mitzner et al., 2008).

The literature reveals that older adults use a variety of technological devices for various

purposes. Some of the research focused on the use of cell phones, T.V., etc., but more recent

studies show the significance of online training needs for older adult learners. The research also

points out that teaching older adults with low or no skills how to use computers and smartphones

can be extremely challenging; however, having the ability to social network, video chat, and

participate in an occasional online game can help people to stay connected and active even in

situations that require physical distance (Moore & Hancock, 2020).

Older adult learners prefer one-on-one training, supportive environments, adjusted pace,

structure and feedback, removal of inaccessible jargon and personalization to meet specific needs

and lifestyles (Barnard et al., 2013; Betts et al., 2017; Wolfson et al., 2014) for the older adult. A

study conducted by Sanchiz et al. (2019) showed that older adults needed more time to

reformulate on a common search engine result page, having more difficulty in exploring the
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search paths conducted by the study. However, when they used a different tool, designed

especially for them, the results showed that “older users reformulate their queries more rapidly

and elaborate more flexible search strategies at the beginning of the activity” (Sanchiz et al.,

2019). So how do we design training for the older adult to have the best experience?

Design Considerations

When participating in online learning, older adults may experience discouraging usability

problems because of the text-based environments, and terminology and structure of the Web

(Aula, 2005; Wright, 2016). To improve the learning experience for the older adult learner

usability tests, accessibility, and ergonomic requirements are described in the literature as a way

of helping with the development of interfaces and products with more efficiency, effectiveness,

and satisfaction, contributing to greater independence and better quality of life for this population

(Sauvé et al., 2019). In addition,

“having alternatives to text presented according to the user’s needs,

such as large characters, braille, speech, symbols or simpler language;
offering dynamic multimedia content of different types (videos, texts,
audio, games, etc.); having simpler page options, without losing
information or structure; making it easier for users to hear and view the
contents by using an appropriate color palette, as well as the effects of
brightness, contrast and flashing; providing ways to help users
navigate, find content and determine where they are, such as accessible
guides or help tools; accessibility to all functionalities also available
through the keyboard; sufficient assistance to help the user to avoid and
correct possible errors and bugs; predictability and instinctiveness
adapted to the population and with the possibility of customization
facilitated from the user’s perspective, among others (W3C, 2008).”

And to continue to support the older adult learner designers must keep accessibility in mind.

Providing one-on-one training (when possible) and testing that can be done before the beginning

of classes can assist with understanding for both the learner and instructor, clear and concise

instructions of all tools that will be utilized during training should be provided, different
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platforms can be added for interactions, ease of use of platforms is a necessity, structure,

organization, and some type of communication outside of the online environment would

certainly be helpful. Other research revealed that older adults, require interesting, engaging, and

aesthetically pleasing materials. In addition, designers for older adults can include specific

accommodations so that older adults can meet the challenge of learning computer skills (Holt &

Morrell, 2002).

Compare/Contrast

The literature provided a few different approaches and models that could be useful for the

older adult learner. In 2008, Renaud and Van Biljon, developed the Senior Technology

Acceptance and Adoption Model (STAM) to include user context – the demographic and

personal factors such as age and functional ability – to understand learning, use, and adoption in

later life. STAM is a variant of TAM (the Technology Acceptance Model) that is used to

understand uptake and digital learning of the broader population.

In Pham’s (2021) research, usability factors regarding social, technical, and pedagogical items

were explored with a focus on older adult learners using the mental model approach to

understand the adult learner experience by collecting qualitative data. The mental model is

described as a conceptual model residing in the mind of people and representing their

understanding of how things work (Norman, 2013). Social usability focuses on human-to-human

interactions supported by technology (Preece, 2001). Technical usability refers to the use of

technology in the course and Pedagogical usability refers to whether the tools, content, interface,

and tasks in an online learning environment support a variety of learners in achieving learning

goals and objectives (Silius et al. (2003).

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In Fong’s (2022) research study of 20 participants, a qualitative approach was used to

examine factors that affect technology use for online learning among older adults by collecting

detailed personal views from older adults through qualitative interviews. By adopting the model

for the adoption of technology by older adults (MATOA) developed by Kenneth Hsiche Wang et

al. (2017), they aimed for an understanding of how older adults’ viewed technology use for

online learning; however, in this study there was no focus on the learning experience of the older

adult.

Gaps in the Literature

The literature for this review ranges from 1998 – 2022 and a variety of angles have been

studied as it relates to the learning and the learning experience of the older adult. There are

consistencies in the articles describing the issues with technology and older adults, but the main

aspect of technology in several articles were based on general technology and not related to

online learning or the learning experience. One other major concern in the literature is the

specific beginning age of the older adult. Some articles did not specify a specific age for what

they considered the older adult while others referred to the age as 50 or 65 and older.

Conclusion

What is crystal clear in the research is that older adults are living longer and with age comes

change. Cognitive abilities change as a normal process of aging and most older adults experience

mild cognitive declines; however, personality, wisdom and creativity, are not likely to change

(APA, 2017), making the older adult learner more self-directed and experiential learners. The

cognitive abilities and learning process are different for older adults, therefore, teaching and

learning practices must be adjusted according to the characteristics of older adults (Oñate et al.,

2015).
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In addition to cognitive changes, research shows that technology is one of the main factors

that impact older adult learning; however, today more older adults are technology users and

participating in online learning (Fong, 2022) compared to the 2015 data that showed two-thirds

of 17 European countries registered rates above 30% regarding the 55 and older population with

no computer skills (Midão et al., 2020) and 27% of older adults aged 65 and older in the US are

still offline (Xie et al., 2020).

The online learning experience of the older adult learner is impacted by usability including

the platform, course content, and course design. A qualitative research study by Boling, 2011

examined course content, tasks, and pedagogical approaches to determine how these factors

contributed to or hindered positive online learning experiences. The findings revealed that

students favored activities that allowed texting peers and preferred completing real-world

assignments that required interaction. The students felt disconnected when there was little to no

interactive learning. This study also points to aspects of both course design and instructional

strategies that hindered the development of interactive and engaging online learning

communities; however, the study did not specify the ages other than they were adults who had

completed an online degree or certificate program.

More usability research should be conducted that focuses on the online learning experience of

the older adult learner, age 55 and older that examines course content, tasks, pedagogical

approaches, as well as learning platforms.

Pham, 2021 recommends future development and testing of the socio-technical-pedagogical

heuristics’ evaluation of online course framework and Fong, 2022, suggest future studies might

usefully examine the effect of the availability of technical support at schools and universities on

the intention to participate in online learning through technology among older adults and might
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also investigate financial incentives as a factor affecting the adoption of technology for online

learning.

The aim of this research was to identify factors that impact the online learning experience of

the older adult learner and the literature consistently presented factors that prove to be impactful

for older adults participating in some type of learning. The literature also provided several

suggestions some from studies where older adults provided suggestions that if incorporated

would assist them in being satisfied with their online learning experience.

It is my opinion that the research clearly identifies some major factors in the design but

outside influences as well have an impact on the older adult learner. As designers, instructors,

and teachers of older adults it would be beneficial if we were mindful of the factors when

designing, developing, and instructing the older adult. As we continue to include new strategies,

approaches, and changes for the older adult we will be improving the learning experience for all

adult learners.
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