SCIENCE

Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and

Mountain Ranges
Earth has four layers consisting of different materials,
namely, crust, mantle, inner, and outer core.
Asthenosphere – mechanically weak and ductile region of
the upper mantle of Earth.
Lithosphere - composed of the crust and the upper mantle.
- rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural
satellite.
- constant but very slow motion.
The movement of the lithosphere is called tectonics.
Plates are in constant motion. As they interact along their
margins, important geologic processes take places, such as
the formation of major mountain ranges, active volcanoes,
and earthquake epicenters.
Plate movements may result in earthquakes. Earthquakes
may happen anytime, either on land or underwater.
Earthquakes on land can be caused either by tectonic plates
movement or volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes under the sea
can cause a tsunami.
When there are earthquakes, crusts can either meet or move
apart and form mountains and volcanoes.
Plate Tectonics – Explain the movement of lithosphere.

Plate Tectonics is a (law, theory) which suggests that

Plate – broken, numerous, segment in the entire lithosphere. Earth’s crust is made up of plates that constantly (move,
rotate) and interact in various ways, thus, producing
Two Types of Plate: earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes, and other (geologic,
land) features.
1. Major Plates
Plate Tectonics is very evident the Ring of Fire. It is a long
- Pacific Plate
chain of volcanoes and other tectonically active structures
- South American Plate that surround the Pacific Ocean. The Ring of Fire is one of
the most geologically active areas on Earth and a site for
- North American Plate frequent earthquakes and powerful volcanic eruptions.
- African Plate

- Australian Plate Two kinds of crust:

- Antartic Plate Continental plates / crust: thicker but less dense, older
- Eurasian Plate Oceanic plates / crust: which thinner but (compact, denser),
younger.

2. Minor Plates
The plate that pushes the Philippine Plate towards the
- Carribean Plate
(Eurasian, Indo- Australian) plate is the Pacific Plate.
- Nazca Plate
The world’s earthquakes, (eruptions, volcanoes), and
- Scotia Plate mountain ranges are not randomly distributed over the
Earth’s surface. They are both situated at the same (location,
- Indian Plate place) near the (center, edges) of the continents.
- Arabian Plate 2 Geologic activities such as (ethnicity, seismicity) or the
- Philippines Plate occurrence of earthquake, (extravasation, volcanism), and
mountain formations are the (basis, reasons) of scientists in
- Juan de Poca Plate dividing Earth’s lithosphere.

- Cocos Plate Earthquakes – sudden, violent shifting of plates.

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Earthquakes are distributed along the edges of Pacific
Ocean.
Intensity - number (written as roman numeral) describing
the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effect on the
Earths surface and on humans and their structures.
Magnitude – measures the energy released of the source of
earthquake.
How to determine the epicenter of an earthquake?
1. seismograph
2. Triangulation Method – uses distance information
determined from 3 seismic station.
Foreshock – before
Main shock – Stronger/strongest
Aftershock – after
There are countries that earthquakes may not happen
because there are no volcanoes in this place.
There is division in the lithospheric place because of
volcano, mountain ranges, earthquake epicenters.
Facts about the Ring of Fire
- International Sensation
- Plate Tectonics make the whole thing possible
- Home to World’s Deepest Ocean Trench
- Littered with volcanoes and prone to earthquake
- Its quakes aren’t always connected
- It’s a great producer of geothermal energy
- The Ring of Fire could help set up a future
“Supercontinent”
Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are the lines at the edges of the different
pieces of the lithosphere.
Lithospheric plates are moving due to the convection current
in the Earth’s interior. The lithosphere is made up of the
crust and upper part of the mantle. There are two types of
crusts: the continental crust which is thicker but less dense,
and the oceanic crust, which is thinner and denser.
According to the Plate Tectonic Theory, the Earth’s
lithosphere consists of the crust and upper mantle that move
slowly and constantly over time. This movement causes the
formation of plate boundaries namely: divergent,
convergent, and transform fault boundaries.
(a) Divergent boundaries refer to plates that separate and
move apart in opposite directions forming new lithosphere -
the young seafloor. This either occurs at mid-ocean ridges
(seafloor spreading) or at rifted continental margins (rift
valley).
Molten rocks called magma to rise from the Earth’s mantle
to the surface. The Earth’s surface is cool enough to solidify
the magma that rose, thus, creating new oceanic crust or
seafloor.
A divergent boundary is also known as a constructive
boundary.
The mid-ocean ridge is formed by the divergence between
oceanic plates while continental rift valley is formed
between continental plates. Rift valley can also be found at
the bottom of the ocean where seafloor spreading occurs.
Both the formation of mid-ocean ridge and rift valley had
the occurrence of an earthquake. Examples are boundaries
between South American plate and African plate, Pacific
Plate and Nazca Plate, and North American Plate and
Eurasian Plate.
(b) Convergent boundaries are formed when two plates
move toward each other. The oceanic plate bends downward
at the subduction zone. This occurs in two oceanic plates:
convergent boundary and continental plate oceanic plate
convergent boundary.
Oceanic plate sinks because it is denser than the continental
plate. In the case of convergence of two oceanic plates, the
older plate sinks. Whereas in the convergence of two
continental plates, they collide and buckle up forming
mountain ranges. No subduction occurs in this type of
convergence.
This boundary has three types: Oceanic plate -Continental
plate boundary, Two Oceanic plates boundary, and Two
Continental plates boundary. In Oceanic-Continental plates
boundary and two oceanic plates boundary, the oceanic plate
bends downward into the mantle through the process called
subduction. The leading edge of the subducted plate melts in
the mantle and magma rises forming a continental volcanic
arc in oceanic-continental plate boundary, which is parallel
to the trench that is formed due to subduction.
While in two oceanic plates boundary, island volcanic chain
is formed parallel to the trench. An earthquake occurs in
both type of boundaries. Since the oceanic plate is destroyed
at the convergent boundary, this boundary is also called a
destructive boundary. Examples are boundaries between the
Eurasian plate and the Philippine plate, Nazca Plate and
South American Plate, and Pacific Plate and Australian
Plate.
With two continental plates converging, a compression zone
is formed. Both plates collide and buckle up causing
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mountain ranges such as the Himalayas mountain ranges.
There is no subduction, no trench, and no volcanoes formed
in this type of convergent boundary.
(c) Transform fault boundaries are plates sliding past or
slipping past each other. It is also called the Strike-slip fault.
Rocks that line the boundary split into pieces as the plates
slip at each other. A crack is then formed creating an
undersea canyon or linear fault valley. San Andreas Fault is
an example of this.
Processes and Landforms
Along Plate Boundaries
Convergence of Continental and Oceanic Crust
A continental crust curves upward on top of the oceanic
crust due to its lesser density. The oceanic crust, due to its
greater density, stays below.
When an oceanic crust converges with a continental crust, a
crack between the crusts underwater, called trench, is
formed. Since the oceanic crust has greater mass due to the
presence of water on it, so, its density also is greater. This
causes it to dive down or subduct under the overriding plate,
the continental plate. Subduction is the process by which a
plate dives under a less dense plate.
At the mantle, the leading edge of the subducting plate melts
or becomes fluid. It turns into a hot molten material which
we call magma. Due to the heat in the mantle, the magma
builds up a pressure that enables it to push the ground above
it. The column of rising magma is called a mantle plume.
When there is volcanic activity such as an eruption, the
ground moves, and so an earthquake is felt. Because
subduction continues, a group of volcanoes, called volcanic
arc, is formed at the surface of the continental crust along
the boundary where the two crusts converged. The
movement of the ground may cause a disturbance in the
ocean. The water may flip or kick upwards to a few meters
high. This is what we call tsunamis, a Japanese term for
harbor wave. This event is very dangerous when it moves
inland, destroying lives and properties.
Oceanic Crusts Convergence
The convergence of two oceanic crusts results in some
similar events compared to the first type of convergence.
Tsunamis may be formed. Earthquakes may happen. There
is also subduction because one plate is denser than the other.
The front part of the subducting plate becomes magma upon
reaching the mantle. Then it builds up pressure due to heat,
pushes the crust above it, forming a volcano. This is a
continuous process.
Since the plates are moving, the volcano will move with the
plate. It becomes extinct when it is no longer above the
magma deposit in the mantle. A new volcano will then be
formed. This series of volcanoes is called volcanic island arc
since it is surrounded by water.
This explains why the Philippines is mostly loaded with
volcanoes. The different islands were believed to have
originated from the convergence of two oceanic crusts.
Converging continental crusts or plates result in a collision
zone, which could cause shallow earthquakes. At that place,
a crack called fault is formed. This type of convergence will
cause no subduction since the two plates have the same
densities. There would be no volcanoes formed, no
tsunamis. The convergence will result in a group of high
landforms that we call mountain ranges.
Divergent plate boundaries mostly happen under the oceans.
As plates pull away from each other, a vertical space that
may extend deep down into the lowest layer of the crust is
created. It is a rift valley. The force of separation creates a
tension zone. A shallow earthquake may happen with this
plate movement
Plate divergence is believed to be a slow continuous
process. As the plates move away, the gap between them
increases. While this happens, materials from the mantle
may rise, filling up the space. These materials pile up near
the tension zone forming mountain-like structures called
oceanic ridges. But new materials from the mantle may push
the old ones. The filled-up space between the plates
becomes a new seafloor. This process is known as seafloor
spreading.
Transform fault boundary is mostly found in oceans, but
there are few that traverse through continental crust. This is
characterized by plates moving horizontally against each
other, producing a crack called fault on the ground.
The force, the plates exert can break the rocks and other
materials under the ground. The shaking usually ends
abruptly. This is why it brings about strong earthquakes. The
fault could swallow humans, cars, and buildings. Murky
odorous water from under the ground may spring up from
the fault. Most faults do not totally close when the shaking
ceases since the adjoining edges have already moved farther
from each other.
Earths Mechanism
Plate Tectonic Theory
Plate Tectonic Theory was developed in 1960s, stating that
the Earth’s lithosphere-the crust and the upper mantle- is
broken up into several pieces called plates that move slowly.
It explains how the massive plates move along the different
types of plate tectonic boundaries (convergent, divergent,
and transform fault) where they interact, and the geologic
events (earthquakes and subduction) and geologic features
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(formation of mountains, volcanoes, and trenches) that occur
at their boundaries.
A convection current is a heat transfer process that involves
the movement of energy from one place to another. The
convection currents tend to move a fluid, gas particles, or
molten rock. These are due to the differences in the densities
and the temperature of a specific gas or a fluid. Due to this
temperature difference, the hot fluid tends to rise as it
expands, whereas cold fluid tends to sink because it
contracts. Convection is one of the kinds of heat transfer; the
other two are radiation and conduction.
Convection current also happens in the mantle. The mantle
is the second inner layer of Earth, made up of mostly hot
rocks and magma. It is a very hot layer because of the heat
generated by the core. The source of heat from the core is
due to the decay or breakdown of radioactive elements.
Mantle convection is a process by which thermal convection
occurs in the inner layer of the earth. The differences in the
temperature at the Earth’s interior and surface cause
convection currents to occur within the mantle.
Lithospheric plates are the parts of the uppermost layer of
the Earth, and they are flowing in an area called the
asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is a soft, less rigid upper
part of the mantle where the lithospheric plates float and
move around.
Plates move slowly and continuously when the hot less
dense material rises. The rising hot material cools down in a
certain area. Hence, it becomes denser than the cool, dense
material sinks that creates convection cell, with hot rising
currents and cool sinking currents are regularly repeated and
become a cycle.
The movement of the lithospheric plate is attributed to
mantle convection and considered as one of the driving
mechanisms for plate motion. The lithosphere at the
divergent boundary will uplift and tear apart due to the
rising of hot magma. The sinking of magma pulls down the
tectonic plate at a convergent boundary.
Aside from mantle convection, ridge push, sliding, and slab
pull are other forces that move the lithospheric plates. In the
process of slab pull, the presence of a heavier subducting
plate pulls down the trailing slab into the subduction zone.
In a ridge push or gravitational sliding process, the old
oceanic crust becomes heavier than the new oceanic crust
and sinks because of the weight of the raised ridge, which
pushes down the older oceanic crust towards the trench at
the subduction zone.
Evidence of Plate Movements
Continental Drift Theory
Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930), who was a German
polar researcher, geophysicist, and meteorologist. He is
remembered as the originator of the Continental Drift
Theory by hypothesizing in 1912 that the continents are
slowly drifting around the Earth and is once a large
landmass called Pangaea, a Greek word which means "All
Earth."
Alfred Wegener collected diverse pieces of evidence to
support his theory, including geological "fit" and fossil
evidence. It is important to know that the following specific
fossil evidence was not brought up by Wegener to support
his theory. Wegener did not collect the fossils, but he called
attention to the idea of using these scientific documents
stating there were fossils of species present in separate
continents in order to support his claim. Geological "fit"
evidence is the matching of large-scale geological features
on different continents. It has been noted that the coastlines
of South America and West Africa seem to match up,
however more particularly, the rock terrains of separate
continents confirm as well.
Glaciers carve rocks and leave marks as they move. In this
evidence, scientists can determine the direction of
movement of each continent. In addition, the existence of
coal deposits in Antarctica suggested that it was once
located near the region of the Earth where the climate is
enough to support complex life forms such as plants and tall
trees.
The Mesosaurus is known to have been a type of reptile,
similar to the modern crocodile, which propelled itself
through the water with its long hind legs and limber tail. It
lived during the early Permian period (286 to 258 million
years ago), and its remains are found solely in South Africa
and Eastern South America.
The now extinct Cynognathus was a mammal-like reptile.
Roaming the terrains during the Triassic period (250 to 240
million years ago), the Cynognathus was as large as a
modern wolf. Its fossils are found only in South Africa and
South America.
The Lystrosaurus, which translates to "shovel reptile," is
thought to have been a herbivore with a stout built like a pig.
Lystrosaurus fossils are only found in Antarctica, India, and
South Africa.
The Glossopteris fossil is found in Australia, Antarctica,
India, South Africa, and South America —all the southern
continents. Glossopteris seed is known to be large and bulky
and possibly could not have drifted or flown across the
oceans to a separate continent. Therefore, the continents
must have been joined at least one point in time in order to
maintain the Glossopteris' wide range across the southern
continents.
Evidence:
Puzzle Fit of the Continent
Fossils
Rock and rock formation
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Past Climate Data
The Continental Drift Theory is being supported by the
following evidence: continental fit, matching of rocks,
fossils of ancient organisms, coal deposits in Antarctica,
ancient climates, and glaciers carvings.
Seafloor Spreading
Magnetic Pole at present. The crystalized irons in rocks
found in the seafloor act as a magnetic compass that can tell
the Earth's magnetic field direction.
Seafloor spreading was strengthened with the discovery of
the magnetic rocks near the ridge following a pattern aside
from the fact that the rocks near the ridge are younger than
those farther from the ridge.

The idea of continental drift circulated in scientific circles
until World War II, when sounding gear called SONAR
produced new evidence of what the seafloor looked like.
The gear, developed in the 1930s, bounced sound waves off
the seafloor to determine its depth and features.
It happened that the command of one attack transport ship,
the USS Cape Johnson, was given to Harry Hammond Hess,
a geologist from Princeton University.
Ocean floor exploration continued, and by the 1950s, other
researchers had found that a huge rift ran along the top of
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. That enabled Hess to understand his
ocean floor profiles in the Pacific. He discovered that the
bottom of the sea was not as smooth as expected, but full of
canyons, trenches, and volcanic sea mountains. He realized
that the Earth's crust had been moving away on each side of
oceanic ridges, down the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, long
and volcanically active.
Harry Hess observed that the rate of formation of new
seafloor at the mid-ocean ridge is not always as fast as the
destruction of the old seafloor at the subduction zone. This
explains why the Pacific Ocean is getting smaller and why
the Atlantic Ocean is getting wider.
Magnetic reversal happened many times in the past. The
occurrence of the magnetic reversal can be explained
through the magnetic patterns in the magnetic rocks. These
magnetic patterns allow our scientists to understand the ages
and rate of movement of the materials from the mid-oceanic
ridge.
The magnetic reversal, also called the "magnetic flip" of the
Earth, happens when the North Pole is transformed into the
South Pole, and the South Pole becomes the North Pole.
This event happens because of the changing direction of the
flow of materials in the Earth's liquid outer core.
Over the last 10 million years, there had been an average of
4 to 5 reversals per million years. New rocks are added to
the ocean floor at the ridge with approximately equal
amounts on both sides of the oceanic ridge.
By the 1970s, geologists had agreed to use the term "plate
tectonics" for what had become the core paradigm of their
discipline. They used the term "plates" because they had
found evidence that not just continents move, but so do
whole plates of the Earth's crust.
A plate might include a continent, parts of a continent, and
or undersea portions of the crust. Alfred Wegener's idea of
continental drift had been developed and refined together
with the Seafloor Spreading of Harry Hess.

If the subduction zone is faster than the seafloor spreading,

the ocean shrinks. He published his theory in History of
Ocean Basins (1962), and it came to be called "seafloor
spreading." In the early 1960s, dating of ocean-core samples
showed that the ocean floor was younger at the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge but progressively older in either direction, confirming
the reality of seafloor spreading.

Magnetic Reversal

Further evidence came along by 1963, as geophysicists

realized that Earth's magnetic field had reversed polarity
many times, with each reversal lasting less than 200,000
years. Rocks of the same age in the seafloor crust would
have taken on the magnetic polarity at the time that part of
the crust formed. Sure enough, surveys of either side of the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge showed a symmetrical pattern of
alternating polarity stripes. A magnetic compass can tell
direction. The needle of a magnetic compass usually points
to the North Pole of the Earth, which is actually the South

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