All living organisms are made up of a fundamental unit called the cell.

Each cell is made up of

organic as well as inorganic compounds. The elemental analysis of the cell constituents shows that a
cell comprises carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats, Nu-
cleic acids are known as Biomolecules. Each biomolecule is essential for body functions and manufac-
tured within the body. They can vary in nature, type, and structure where some may be straight chains,
some may be cyclic rings or both. Also, they can vary in physical properties such as water solubility,
melting points.

Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3

Name the differ-

ent forms of bio- Identify the differ-
logical molecules Give the sources
ent structures of
and give their of biomolecules.
biomolecules.
importance in
living organisms.
C. Biomolecules
What are Biomolecules?
Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the maintenance and
metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are the actual foot-soldiers of the
battle of sustenance of life. They range from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabo-
lites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

OVERVIEW: Molecules of Life

Elements found in the body (13 Principal elements in the body)
Oxygen (O) Sulfur (S) Carbon (C)
Sodium (Na) Hydrogen (H) Chlorine (Cl)
Nitrogen (N) Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca)
Iron (Fe) Phosphorus (P) Iodine (I)
Potassium (K)

ELEMENTS WITH UNFILLED ELECTRON SHELL ARE REACTIVE

 To become stable they form chemical bonds
 Three main types of chemical bonds
Intramolecular:
Ionic bonds( charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of electrons )
Covalent bonds (electrons are shared)
Intermolecular:
Hydrogen bonds
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
 The body is mostly water , so all chemical reaction in the body occurs in water
 Covalent bonds are much stronger than ionic bonds in water.
 Water can dissolve inorganic and organic molecules making a solution.
 Water is needed for chemical reactions

ESSENTIALS MOLECULES
Nutrients — Essential molecules obtained from food (you have to eat them to get them)
Metabolites — Molecules made or broken down in the body
Organic — Always contain carbon, with hydrogen or sometimes oxygen ad often soluble in water
Inorganic — Electrolytes, minerals and compounds that do not contain carbon with hydrogen.
Vitamins and minerals — They are essential nutrients that are required in very small amounts for
healthy growth and development.
 Vitamins
Organic substances necessary for metabolism.
There are 13 known vitamins
Are coenzymes that carry the reactions of me-
tabolism.
Minerals
Inorganic compound ( often salts or elements )
necessary for proper body function
Can be bulk or trace elements
Are co-factors in metabolic reaction

VITAMIN DEFICENCIES

Beri beri – Vitamin B1 Rickets– Vitamin D

Scurvy– Vitamin C Pellagra– Vitamin B3

OVERVIEW: Macromolecules
 All living things are made up of four classes of large biologi-
cal molecules (macromolecules) : carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.
 Carbon is the building block of the four major macromole-
cules.
 Functional Groups- groups of accessory elements attached
to molecules that give them a different structure and thus a
different function.

Macromolecules
Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers. A polymer is a long molecule consisting of
many similar building blocks. (Poly=many). These small building-block molecules or repetitive molecules
are called monomers. (mono=one)
Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
A dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water
molecule. Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the re-
verse of the dehydration reaction.

1. Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material

 Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars. Ending with suffix –ose.
 The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars.
 Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers
composed of many sugar building blocks
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
 Have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O
 Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide
Monosaccharides are classified by
The location of the carbonyl group (as aldose or ketose)
The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
Carbohydrates: Disaccharides
 A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two
monosaccharides.
 This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage
Carbohydrates: Disaccharides

Carbohydrates: Polysaccharides
 Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles.
 The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers and the po-
sitions of glycosidic linkages.

Storage of Polysaccharides
 Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists
entirely of glucose monomers. The simplest form of
starch is amylose.
 Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals.
 Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly
in liver and muscle cells.

Structural Polysaccharides
 The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component of
the tough wall of plant cells.
 Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the
glycosidic linkages differ.
 Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in
the exoskeleton of arthropods.
 Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls
of many fungi.
Functions of Carbohydrates
1. The main function of carbohydrates is to provide en-
ergy and food to the body and to the nervous sys-
tem.
2. Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic compo-
nents of food, including sugars, starch, and fibre
which are abundantly found in grains, fruits, and milk
products.
3. Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates and so on.
4. It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
5. Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of energy.
6. An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose, finally to produce
energy for metabolism.

Sources of Carbohydrates
1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.
2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese, pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing small amounts of vitamins and min-
erals.

2. Lipids serves as energy storage and structural support

These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar sol-
vents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule. In the human body, these molecules
can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods, and also in
some red meats.
 Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers; are a diverse
group of hydrophobic molecules.
 The unifying feature of lipids is having little or no affinity for water.
 Lipids are hydrophobic because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent
bonds.
 The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids
Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield
high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body. Listed below are
some important characteristics of Lipids.
1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and insolubili-
ty in water.
5. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form for a mechanical barrier dividing a cell from
the external environment known as the cell membrane.
Lipids: Fats
 Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids.
 Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.
 A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton.
 Fats separate from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and ex-
clude the fats.
 In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or
triglyceride

Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds.
Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds.
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
 A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits.
 Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen.
 Hydrogenating vegetable oils also creates unsaturated fats with trans double bonds.
 These trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease.
 These must be supplied in the diet.
 These essential fatty acids include the omega-3 fatty acids, required for normal growth, and
thought to provide protection against cardiovascular disease
Role of Fats
Fats play several major roles in our body. Some of the important roles of fats are mentioned below:
1. Fats in the correct amounts are necessary for the proper functioning of our body.
2. Many fat-soluble vitamins need to be associated with fats in order to be effectively absorbed by
the body.
3. They also provide insulation to the body.
4. They are an efficient way to store energy for longer periods.
Lipids: Phospholipids
 In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate
group are attached to glycerol.
 The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phos-
phate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic
head.
 Major component of the cell membrane.
Lipids: Steroids
Our bodies possess chemical messengers known as hormones, that are basically organic com-
pounds synthesized in glands and transported by the bloodstream to various tissues in order to trigger
or hinder the desired process.
Cholesterol
 Cholesterol is a wax-like substance, found only in animal source foods.
 Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a sterol, which means that cho-
lesterol is a combination of steroid and alcohol. In the human body, cholesterol is synthesized in
the liver.
 It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the basis for the synthesis of other
steroids, including the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone, as well as other steroids such as
cortisone and vitamin D.
 Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascu-
lar disease.
3. Protein
We often see bodybuilders and physical trainer drinking whey protein along with milk to build-up
metabolism and strength. When it comes to our body, our hair and nails are mostly made of proteins.
Basically, proteins are the fundamental building blocks of our body. They are large and complex macro-
molecules or bio-molecules which perform a major role in the functioning and regulating of our body
cells, tissues and other organs in the human body. They are also used in providing strength to our body
in producing hormones, enzymes, and other metabolic chemicals. They are also involved in functioning
and regulating of our body cells, tissues and organs.
Proteins are composed of amino acids, arranged into different groups. These fundamental amino
acids sequences are specific and its arrangements are controlled by the DNA. Since our body cannot
synthesize these essential amino acids by its own, we should have plenty of protein foods in our every-
day diet to keep our body metabolisms stable.

Functions of Proteins
1. Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take place within a cell.
They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and carry out complex processes.
2. Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which help in balanc-
ing the components of the body. For example hormones like insulin, which helps in regulating
blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process and formation of digestive
juices.
3. Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is majorly used
by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria. They often work together
with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from increasing until the white blood
cells destroy them completely.
4. Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our body. It is im-
portant to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein, when con-
sumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.
Role Of Protein
 To place these ideas in the proper context, remember that some proteins are enzymes that aid
cells by catalyzing chemical reactions. These chemical reactions occur after the enzyme binds its
substrate at the enzyme’s active site. The enzyme’s active site matches the substrate molecule in
size, shape, and chemical properties.
 The size, shape, and chemical properties of an enzyme’s active site are due to the combination of
the enzyme’s amino acids, which are the individual subunits of the enzyme. For the cell to reliably
make an enzyme, the cell must be able to control the placement of amino acids in a protein during
the synthesis of enzymes.
 Proteins play a critical role in how cells successfully meet the challenges of living. Cells use proteins
to maintain their shape and to speed up important chemical reactions such as photosynthesis and
respiration.
 A cell will not live long if it cannot reliably create the proteins that it needs for survival.

Proteins: Amino Acids Monomers

 Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups.
 It is the building blocks of protein.
 Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups
Proteins: Amino Acid Polymers
 A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids.
 Amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
 Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers.
 Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids, with a carboxyl end (C-terminus)
and an amino end (N-terminus)
Proteins: Polypeptides
 A protein is a biologically functional molecule that consists of
one or more polypeptides.
 If a polypeptide can function by itself, then it is a protein.
 If a polypeptide can’t function on its own and needs to be
associated with other polypeptides in order to function, it is
a polypeptide but not a protein

4. Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell
that carries all the hereditary information from parents to proge-
ny. There are two types of nucleic acids namely, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of nu-
cleic acid is the transfer of genetic information and synthesis of
proteins by processes known as translation and transcription. The
monomeric unit of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base, pentose
sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester bond. The nitrogen base
attached to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major nitrogenous bases found
in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil. The DNA struc-
ture is described as a double-helix or double-helical structure which is formed by hydrogen bonding be-
tween the bases of two antiparallel polynucleotide chains. Overall, the DNA structure looks similar to a
twisted ladder.
ROLES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
 There are two types of nucleic acids
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 DNA provides directions for its own replication
 DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
 Protein synthesis occurs in ribosome
THE COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

 Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides

 Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate
groups. The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside.
 Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar
 There are two families of nitrogenous bases
• Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and
uracil) have a single sixmembered ring
• Purines (adenine and guanine) have a
six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
 In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA,
the sugar is ribose
 Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

REFERENCES:
UNIT 3 BIOMOLECULES LECTURE OF ESTOCAPIO, EIAOM
Basic Biology