ASSIGNMENT NO # 1

Program: B.ED (1.5 YEARS)

Course Name: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

Course Code: 8614-1

Student Information

Student Name: Ayesha Maqbool

Father Name: Maqbool Hussain
ID No: 0000074128
Semester: 3rd (2023)

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Question No.1:-

Why is Statistics important for a teacher or researcher?

Definitions of Statistics:-

“Statistics comprises the collection, tabulation, presentation and analysis of an aggregate of the
facts, collected in methodical manner, without bias and related to predetermined
purpose.” Sutcliffe

The word “statistics” is derived from the Latin word “status”, which means political condition or
status. Hence, it follows that the method of enumeration by which a state,’ condition is known
called statistics. And is reality it is through statistics that we find out a state, population and its
various sources of income and expenditure.

Data analysis provides a powerful tool for understanding and interpreting information generated
in the education sector. In today’s data-driven world, making informed decisions about education
is essential for improving learning outcomes. In this article, we will explore the role of statistics
in education and how it can help improve learning outcomes.

The concept of statistics does not exist in oblivion, as it has its origin traceable to the existence
of man and education. Every discipline has some unique and special importance in any field of
learning. The Importance of Statistics in Education is referred to as ‘the essence and significance
of statistics to every field of learning’ concerning mathematics, education, business, science,
computer, history, etc. most especially the importance and role of statistics in educational
research.

Probably, no subject other than statistics demonstrates the existence of several kinds of
intelligence in different fields. Hence, statistics, if clearly understood, is a fascinating subject that
has tremendous importance in computer, philosophy, mathematics, medical sciences,
psychology, and education in general.

Statistics is a concept that is used most often in every field such as Economics, Marketing, and
Programming. It works hand-in-hand with Mathematics. Hence, running away from Statistics is
like running away from mathematics, you will be tired at a moment. This article brilliantly

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discusses the role, importance, relevance, and significance of Statistics in Education, and other
fields of learning in extension.

Statistics in Education:-

Statistics in education refers to the application of statistical methods to analyze and interpret data
generated in the education sector. This data can include student performance, school attendance,
teacher effectiveness, and many other types of information. By using statistical analysis,
educators and policymakers can make informed decisions about curriculum, teaching methods,
resource allocation, and much more.

Statistics Can Improve Learning Outcomes:-

Here are some ways that statistics can help improve learning outcomes:

Identify Areas for Improvement:-

Statistical analysis can help educators identify areas where students are struggling and where
improvements need to be made. This information can help educators adjust their teaching
methods and curriculum to better meet the needs of their students.

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Evaluate the Effectiveness of Teaching Methods:-

Statistical analysis can help educators evaluate the effectiveness of different teaching methods
and interventions. For example, statistical analysis can help determine whether a specific
teaching method is improving student performance or whether an intervention is having a
positive impact.

Monitor Student Progress:- 

Statistical analysis can help educators monitor the progress of individual students and identify
students who may need additional support or intervention. This information can help educators
provide targeted support to those students and ensure that they are not left behind.

Optimize Resource Allocation:-

Statistical analysis can help policymakers and school administrators optimize resource allocation
by identifying which programs and initiatives are having the greatest impact on student learning
outcomes. This information can help them allocate resources more effectively and efficiently.

Evaluate the Impact of Policy Changes:-

Statistical analysis can help policymakers evaluate the impact of policy changes on learning
outcomes. For example, statistical analysis can help determine whether a new curriculum is
improving student performance or whether changes to the school system are having the intended
effect.

Importance of Statistics for Teachers:-

Statistics are important to teachers for several reasons, and not just for the obvious one of
keeping tabs on students and their progress in school. These reasons could include:

 Monitor student's progress.

 Monitor the teacher's progress or success.
 Check the effectiveness of a subject.
 Ensuring the quality of education is being kept high.

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Statistics can be helpful in any number of situations as they make it possible to analyze sets of
data and come to informed conclusions about that data. The first and possible the most important
reason why teachers use statistics is so that they are able to monitor student's progress throughout
the school year. By giving students small unofficial tests every now and then, as well as the big
end of year exams, teachers are able to keep track of students and see if they are coping well.

The information that they can get from statistics such as test scores can be very beneficial to the
student in question as it will allow the teacher to offer extra help with a subject that a student
appear to be struggling with. Statistics can also be used by education institutions in general so
that they can see whether or not a particular subject is doing well amongst the students. It can
also show where there is possible room for improvement and by analyzing this data; these
improvements can be implemented as soon as possible.

The benefits of statistics that are gathered in classrooms can have great effects on education
institutions and can provide lots of improvements that will probably have been overlooked. If
these statistics are looked at and analyzed in the proper way then people will have the power to
improve in the areas that appear weakest. If this goes on every year, the quality of education will
continue to improve every year.

Statistics Important for a Teacher or Researcher:-

1.Institution Evaluation:-

The achievements of a category are not uniform in every challenge. Its miles observed that one
elegance is progressing quicker is one subject even as every other is progressing is a
extraordinary one. Even the numerous sections of a particular magnificence do now not
development uniformly.

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2. Individual Comparison:-

Records allows within the man or woman evaluation of college students differing in admire of
their long time, competencies and intelligence tiers. It is records which tell us why for this reason
college students who are comparable in each other recognize yet do no longer show similar
success is one unique difficulty.

3. Instructional and Vocational Steering:-

each individual pupil differs from others in his highbrow potential, hobbies, attitude and mental
skills college students are given instructional and vocational guidance so that they make the best
use of those abilities and the process of guidance is based totally upon data most effective.

4. Academic Experiments and Research:-

With a change in area, line and instances, the aims, curricula and methods of schooling keep on
converting. The work of research and experimentation cannot end up dependable and legitimate
without the usage of records.

5. Crucial for Professional Performance:-

The teacher’s responsibility does now not end while he teaches a specific concern in the school
room. His responsibility consists of coaching the students, acquiring the desired degree of
information for himself and assessing the achievement of change in behavior additionally.

6. Graphical illustration of facts:-

A graphic illustration is the geometrical photo of a fixed of statistics. it is a mathematical

photograph. It enables us to consider a statistical hassle in visual phrases. A photo is stated to be
greater effective than phrases for describing a specific aspect or phenomenon.

Consequently the image illustration of data proves pretty an effective and a monetary tool for the
presentation, expertise and inter predation of the collected statistical records. The statistical
statistics can be represented via diagram, charts and many others., so that the importance

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attached to those facts may also immediately be grasped, of path, the diagrams need to be
smartly and correctly drawn.

Question No.2:-
Discuss different types of data. Also elaborate differences between primary
and secondary data.

Data Definition:-

Dictionary meaning of Data is “facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations and
statistics collected together for reference or analysis.”

In Data Science, we aim to do different experiments with raw data and find some good insights
from the data. To drive any business on the right path, data is very important or we can say that
“Data is the fuel”. It can at least provide some actionable insights that can help to:

 Strategize current campaigns

 Easily organize the launch of new products
 Try out different experiments

Data Types:-

There are different types of data in Statistics that are collected, analyzed, interpreted and
presented. The data are the individual pieces of factual information recorded, and it is used for
the purpose of the analysis process. The two processes of data analysis are interpretation and
presentation. Statistics are the result of data analysis. Data classification and data handling are
important processes as it involves a multitude of tags and labels to define the data, its integrity
and confidentiality.

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Qualitative or Categorical Data:-

Qualitative data, also known as the categorical data, describes the data that fits into the
categories. Qualitative data are not numerical. The categorical information involves categorical
variables that describe the features such as a person’s gender, home town etc. Categorical
measures are defined in terms of natural language specifications, but not in terms of numbers.
Sometimes categorical data can hold numerical values but those values do not have a
mathematical sense. Examples of the categorical data are birthdate, favorite sport, school
postcode. Here, the birthdate and school postcode hold the quantitative value, but it does not give
numerical meaning.

Nominal Data:-

Nominal data is one of the types of qualitative information which helps to label the variables
without providing the numerical value. Nominal data is also called the nominal scale. It cannot
be ordered and measured. But sometimes, the data can be qualitative and quantitative. Examples
of nominal data are letters, symbols, words, gender etc.

The nominal data are examined using the grouping method. In this method, the data are grouped
into categories, and then the frequency or the percentage of the data can be calculated. These
data are visually represented using the pie charts.

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Ordinal Data:-

Ordinal data/variable is a type of data that follows a natural order. The significant feature of the
nominal data is that the difference between the data values is not determined. This variable is
mostly found in surveys, finance, economics, questionnaires, and so on.

The ordinal data is commonly represented using a bar chart. These data are investigated and
interpreted through many visualization tools. The information may be expressed using tables in
which each row in the table shows the distinct category.

Quantitative or Numerical Data:-

Quantitative data is also known as numerical data which represents the numerical value.
Numerical data gives information about the quantities of a specific thing. Some examples of
numerical data are height, length, size, weight, and so on. The quantitative data can be classified
into two different types based on the data sets. The two different classifications of numerical data
are discrete data and continuous data.

Discrete Data:-

Discrete data can take only discrete values. Discrete information contains only a finite number of
possible values. Those values cannot be subdivided meaningfully. Here, things can be counted in
whole numbers. Example: Number of students in the class

Continuous Data:-

Continuous data is data that can be calculated. It has an infinite number of probable values that
can be selected within a given specific range. Example: Temperature range

Primary Data Definition:-

Primary data is the data that is collected for the first time through personal experiences or
evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as raw data or first-hand information. The
mode of assembling the information is costly, as the analysis is done by an agency or an external
organization, and needs human resources and investment. The investigator supervises and

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controls the data collection process directly. The data is mostly collected through observations,
physical testing, mailed questionnaires, surveys, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, case
studies, and focus groups, etc.

Secondary Data Definition:-

Secondary data is a second-hand data that is already collected and recorded by some researchers
for their purpose, and not for the current research problem. It is accessible in the form of data
collected from different sources such as government publications, censuses, internal records of
the organization, books, journal articles, websites and reports, etc.

This method of gathering data is affordable, readily available, and saves cost and time. However,
the one disadvantage is that the information assembled is for some other purpose and may not
meet the present research purpose or may not be accurate.

Primary and Secondary Data:-

In statistical analysis, collection of data plays a significant part. The method of collecting
information is divided into two different sections, namely primary data and secondary data. In
this process, the primary data is assembling data or information for the first time, whereas the
secondary data is the data that has already been gathered or collected by others. The most
important characteristics of the primary data is that it is original and first-hand, whereas the
secondary data is the interpretation and analysis of the primary data.

Differences between Primary and Secondary Data:-

The differences between the primary and secondary data are represented in a comparison format
as follows:

Primary Data Secondary Data

Primary data are those that are collected for the Secondary data refer to those data that have
first time. already been collected by some other person.

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These are original because these are collected These are not original because someone else
by the investigator for the first time. has collected these for his own purpose.

These are in the form of raw materials. These are in the finished form.

These are more reliable and suitable for the These are less reliable and less suitable as
enquiry because these are collected for a someone else has collected the data which may
particular purpose. not perfectly match our purpose.

Collecting primary data is quite expensive both Secondary data requires less time and money
in the terms of time and money. hence it is economical.

Both precaution and editing are essential as

No particular precaution or editing is required
secondary data were collected by someone else
while using the primary data as these were
for his own purpose.
collected with a definite purpose.

Question No.3:-

Explain ‘pictogram’ as a technique to explore/explain data.

Pictogram Definition:-

Pictograms, also known as pictographs, are symbols that are used repeatedly to express data
visually. Each icon denotes a given number of units and is organized in a single line or grid.
Pictographs are considered one of the simplest methods for representing data. Using a
pictograph, we can depict the frequency of data using pertinent symbols or images. Pictographs

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are frequently used in mathematics to explain concepts like information processing and establish
the basis for data interpretation using imagery.

Parts of Pictogram:-

The following parts must be present for a pictograph to be complete.

Title:-

Typically, the graph’s title appears at the top. What the graph is about is clear from the title.

Symbols or Pictures:-

A certain amount of data is represented by the symbols.

Categories or Labels:-

The categories identify the exact type of data in the graph.

Key or Legend:-

How to Make a Pictogram?

Below are some important points in creating a pictogram:

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Collect the Data:-

The first step in creating a pictograph is to gather the relevant data that we want to show. Once
the data has been collected, arrange it in a table or list. The data categories must also be correctly
specified.

Selecting the Appropriate Symbols:-

Select visual representations for the data, such as symbols or images. The most relevant symbols
or visual representations of the provided data must be used. Fractions can be drawn for the
symbols if the frequency is not a whole number.

Assign a Key:-

Use a key to indicate the value of each image when displaying the data using images because one
image cannot adequately depict the data if the frequency of the data is too high. As a result, the
“key” numerical value, which must also be written with the pictograph, is used.

Use Columns:-

When making a pictogram, use columns to indicate the category and data. Create a pictogram
that represents the frequency of data using symbols and/or images.

Examine the Data:-

Once the pictograph has been created, check that the categories or labeling and the images must
accurately reflect the data.

Uses Pictograms:-

Pictograms are used for a variety of reasons, some of which are described below.

 Pictograms can be used to add visual significance to simple data, whether you wish to
represent a fraction or % or indicate the size of an important statistic.

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  When visualizing data in info graphics, reports, presentations, and even resumes,
pictograms can be quite useful. Pictograms can also be eye-catching and exceptionally
clean, making them more pleasing to the eye.
 Pictogram is useful when you want to make straightforward information more
aesthetically appealing, memorable, or engaging. Readers can quickly determine what a
chart is attempting to convey since they can read charts more easily than any other type
of data display.
 Since pictograms are very visual and typically simple to comprehend and interpret,
pictograms are an excellent approach to educating kids about data processing. Children
can simply count the items to determine the quantity of each item.
 With the proper use of a key in the pictograph, children and adults can easily deduce
important information from the data presented.
 Pictograms are also useful when you need an eye-catching visual but don’t have access to
a graphic designer because they are created from a collection of icons.
 Pictograms are used in much the same way outside of the classroom, assisting viewers in
connecting a bar chart to the concept it depicts.
 People can better understand the meaning of numbers in situations like when a huge
number is involved.
 Pictograms are used to summarize survey data, rate participants, and show progress
toward a goal.
 Pictograms may be used in advertisements to manage data and display the general
consensus on a given subject. Pictograms may be used in ads to demonstrate a product’s
level of appeal or a problem that it may solve for consumers.

Importance in Statistics:-

Pictographs are charts used in statistics to represent data using graphics and icons that are
appropriate to the data. A pictograph frequently has a key that describes what each symbol or
image stands for. The pictogram’s icons must all have the same size, but we can use a fraction of
an icon to represent each fraction of the total.

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Since pictograph communicates the interpretation of statistical data via pictorial symbols, they
should be utilized with care because they could unintentionally or intentionally mislead the data.
For this reason, a pictograph needs to be accurate. Pictograms use a statistical infographic to
make bland statistics or data points more interesting. The pictogram’s stylized representation is
used in statistics and research for the purpose of quick and effective information transfer without
the use of language or words.

Question No.4:-

Pie Chart is a common way to depict data. Discuss its usage and drawbacks.

Pie Chart:-

A pie chart is a graphical representation technique that displays data in a circular-shaped graph.
It is a composite static chart that works best with few variables. Pie charts are often used to
represent sample data with data points belonging to a combination of different categories. Each
of these categories is represented as a “slice of the pie.” The size of each slice is directly
proportional to the number of data points that belong to a particular category.

The “pie chart” is also known as a “circle chart”, dividing the circular statistical graphic into
sectors or sections to illustrate the numerical problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part
of the whole. To find out the composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time. In
most cases, pie charts replace other graphs like the bar graph, line plots, histograms, etc.

Pie Chart Formula:-

The pie chart is an important type of data representation. It contains different segments and
sectors in which each segment and sector of a pie chart forms a specific portion of the total. We
know that the total value of the pie is always 100%. It is also known that a circle subtends an
angle of 360°. Hence, the total of all the data is equal to 360°. Based on these, there are two main
formulas used in pie charts:

To calculate the percentage of the given data, we use the formula: (Frequency ÷ Total
Frequency) × 100

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To convert the data into degrees we use the formula: (Given Data ÷ Total value of Data) × 360°

How to Construct a Pie Chart?

Steps of construction of pie chart for a given data:

 Find the central angle for each component using the formula given on the previous page.
 Draw a circle of any radius.
 Draw a horizontal radius
 Starting with the horizontal radius, draw radii, making central angles corresponding to the
values of respective components.
 Repeat the process for all the components of the given data.
 These radii divide the whole circle into various sectors.
 Now, shade the sectors with different colors to denote various components.
 Thus, we obtain the required pie chart.

Example:-

Here the pie chart shows the type of books preferred by the students of a class. 

Given below is a pie chart showing the type of books preferred by the students of a class?

Observe the chart and answer the questions given below. 

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The pie chart shows the favorite subjects of students in a class. Using the information given in
the pie chart, find the percentage of students who chose English.

Solution:-

Let’s first determine the percentage of students who chose English by looking at the pie chart.

We know that 144° + 36° + 72° + 108°= 360°

The percentage of students who chose English: (72/360) × 100 = 20

Therefore, the percentage of students who chose English = 20%

Uses of Pie Chart:-

Whenever some data has to be represented visually as a fractional part of a whole, we use pie
charts. It is used to compare the data and see why one is smaller/greater than the other.
Therefore, when we are dealing with a limited number of buckets and discrete data sets, it’s
better to use a pie chart. Listed below are a few uses of a pie chart:

 In a business, it is used to compare the growth areas such as profit and loss.

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  In school, pie charts are used to show the time allotted to each section, the grades of
students in a form of percentages, etc.
 Pie charts are used in comparing the relative size of data of people owning the same
vehicles, similar houses, etc.
 They are used to represent the marketing and sales data for the comparison of brands.
 Pie Chart advantages
 Given beneath are the blessings to a pie chart which can be the reasons for the good sized
software of pie charts in distinct fields.
 A pie chart is an easy and easy-to-understand approach to represent the information
visually as a fractional part of a whole.
 It offers a powerful verbal exchange tool visually less difficult than other styles of
graphs.
 Pie chart helps in information evaluation for the audience at a look to provide an
instantaneous evaluation or to quickly recognize facts because of widespread use in
commercial enterprise and the media.

Pie Chart Drawbacks:-

There are few demerits in pie charts. These are as given underneath:

 A pie chart can't display a variety of values without separating the visual encoding from
the records they represent, this is they may be now not very effective whilst the quantity
of values in a records set increases.
 It does now not without difficulty reveal specific values inside the data set.
 To expose the changes in the data, many pie charts may be wanted. It, consequently, fails
to provide an explanation for the reasons, outcomes, or patterns.

Question No.5:-

What do you understand by ‘measure of dispersion’? Also briefly discuss

some common measures of dispersion.

Measures of Dispersion:-

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Measures of dispersion are non-negative real numbers that help to gauge the spread of data about
a central value. These measures help to determine how stretched or squeezed the given data is.
There are five most commonly used measures of dispersion. These are range, variance, standard
deviation, mean deviation, and quartile deviation.

The most important use of measures of dispersion is that they help to get an understanding of the
distribution of data. As the data becomes more diverse, the value of the measure of dispersion
increases. In this article, we will learn about measures of dispersion, their types along with
examples as well as various important aspects related to these measures.

Measure of Dispersion in Statistics:-

Measures of dispersion help to describe the variability in data. Dispersion is a statistical term that
can be used to describe the extent to which data is scattered. Thus, measures of dispersion are
certain types of measures that are used to quantify the dispersion of data.

Measures of Dispersion Definition:-

Measures of dispersion can be defined as positive real numbers that measure how homogeneous

or heterogeneous the given data is. The value of a measure of dispersion will be 0 if the data
points in a data set are the same. However, as the variability of the data increases the value of the
measures of dispersion also increases.

Measures of Dispersion Example:-

Suppose we have two data sets A = {3, 1, 6, 2} and B = {1, 5, 9, 10}. The variance (population)
of A is 3.5 and the variance (population) of B is 12.68. This implies that data set B is more
variable than data set A. Thus, the variance helps to draw a comparison between the two data
sets A and B on the basis of variability.

Types of Measures of Dispersion:-

The measures of dispersion can be classified into two broad categories. These are absolute
measures of dispersion and relative measures of dispersion. Range, variance, standard deviation
and mean deviation fall under the category of absolute measures of deviation. These measures

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have the same unit as the data that is being scrutinized. Coefficients of dispersion are relative
measures of deviation. Such dispersion measures are always dimensionless. The upcoming
sections will further elaborate on these measures.

Absolute Measures of Dispersion:-

If the dispersion of data within an experiment has to be determined then absolute measures of
dispersion should be used. These measures usually express variations in a data set with respect to
the average of the deviations of the observations. The most commonly used absolute measures of
deviation are listed below.

Range:-

Given a data set, the range can be defined as the difference between the maximum value and the
minimum value. We can calculate range as: Range = Highest value of the data – Lowest value of
the data

Variance:-

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The average squared deviation from the mean of the given data set is known as the variance. This
measure of dispersion checks the spread of the data about the mean.

Ϭ2 = Ʃ (X – X) 2 / n

Where X is the mean, n is the number of data values and X stand for each of the scores, and Ʃ
means add up all the values.

Standard Deviation:-

The square root of the variance gives the standard deviation. Thus, the standard deviation also
measures the variation of the data about the mean.

Standard deviation Ϭ = √ Variance

Or Ϭ = √ Ʃ (X – X) 2 / n

Ϭ is a Greek letter “Sigma”

Mean Deviation:-

The mean deviation gives the average of the data's absolute deviation about the central points.
These central points could be the mean, median, or mode.

For ungrouped data:

M. D = Ʃ X - X / N

For grouped data:

M. D = Ʃ f X - X / Ʃ f

Quartile Deviation:-

Quartile deviation can be defined as half of the difference between the third quartile and the first
quartile in a given data set.

Q D = Q3 – Q1

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Where Q1 = the first quartile (lower quartile) Q3 = third quartile (upper quartile)

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Relative Measures of Dispersion:-

If the data of separate data sets have different units and need to be compared then relative
measures of dispersion are used. The measures are expressed in the form of ratios and
percentages thus, making them unit less. Some of the relative measures of dispersion are given
below:

Coefficient of Range:-

It is the ratio of the difference between the highest and lowest value in a data set to the sum of
the highest and lowest value.

Coefficient of Variation:-

It is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean of the data set. It is expressed in the form of a
percentage.

Coefficient of Mean Deviation:-

This can be defined as the ratio of the mean deviation to the value of the central point from
which it is calculated.

Coefficient of Quartile Deviation:-

It is the ratio of the difference between the third quartile and the first quartile to the sum of the
third and first quartiles.

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