Journal of Management Development

Leadership style desired by youth in Asia

Nurul Afiqah Nor Amin, Chin Han Wuen, Amiruddin Ismail,
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JMD
36,10
1206
Received 2 February 2017
Revised 10 June 2017
18 July 2017
Accepted 26 July 2017
Downloaded by Universiti Brunei Darussalam At 22:19 23 December 2018 (PT)
Journal of Management
Development
Vol. 36 No. 10, 2017
pp. 1206-1215
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0262-1711
DOI 10.1108/JMD-01-2017-0028
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/0262-1711.htm
Leadership style desired
by youth in Asia
Nurul Afiqah Nor Amin
School of Business and Economics,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Chin Han Wuen
School of Business,
Universiti Teknologi Brunei, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, and
Amiruddin Ismail
School of Business and Economics,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the styles that are desirable in a leader in the
perspective of youth in Asia, particularly Brunei Darussalam and South Korea. Thus, by investigating it
using the Path Goal Theory as its approach, this study provides leaders with the desirable leadership style to
motivate and influence the youth.
Design/methodology/approach – The research used a quantitative method with a proportionate stratified
sampling method using the criteria of age of youth defined by UNESCO. The data then collected using a
face-to-face method of a questionnaire from February 2016 till June 2016.
Findings – The evidence depicts that Bruneian youth prefers directive leadership while South Korean youth
prefers supportive leadership. This finding is based on the selected styles that are desirable by the youth and
their choice is also influenced by culture. This may imply that culture has a large impact which can determine
the leadership styles best suited to the environment.
Research limitations/implications – Since the research has limited sample sizes and geographical
location, this can lead to future research by considering more regions of different continents to determine
whether different leadership preference still persists. This study can also be used as a basis to consider other
factors in investigating leadership preference in Asian countries.
Originality/value – This paper identifies and encourages the need to study leadership style that is desirable
among youth.
Keywords Culture, South Korea, Leadership, Youth, Brunei, Asian studies
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The relationship between leaders and youth has become crucial. As youth perceives
leaders as someone who “bring people together to get things done” and someone who
“stands up for their beliefs and values” (O’Connor, 2010), it is evident that leaders should
engage the youth constructively to enhance future economic and social development of a
country. For leaders to be desired by the youth, they must adjust their behaviors and
strategies based on the current environment (Nahavandi, 2006). One of the environmental
aspects for leadership is culture as Jogulu and Wood (2008) described it to have influence
over followers’ action. Kamisah and Syed (2015) added that such influences are based on a
variety of backgrounds, attitudes and mindset from different countries. While leadership
has been studied extensively in the western world, empirical studies of Asian leadership
This research has been sponsored by Asean University Network and Korean Association of
South East Asia Studies; they will only publish the authors’ study in proceeding and even encourage
the authors to submit it for publication. This manuscript has not been published and is not under
consideration for publication elsewhere.
 are few, especially from the youth’s perspective. This demonstrates the importance Leadership
of studying leadership style desired in Asian regions due to the increasing demand of style desired
leadership in democratic governance, public participation, individual privacy and by youth
social equality as a result of rapid development of technology, economy and education
(Berman and Haque, 2015). This research aims to investigate leadership style preferences in Asia
among youth in Asia, specifically Brunei Darussalam and South Korea by applying
the Path Goal Theory as the foundation. By using this approach, it can identify the 1207
leadership style preferences among the youth as leadership style are important for leaving
either a positive or negative impression among the youth in a working environment
for motivation.

Literature review
Leadership and Path Goal Theory
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Leadership is the process of influencing followers to gain mutual understanding and

agreement in order to achieve objectives (Yukl, 2002). Therefore, leaders must develop
and adjust their leadership styles to better suit their followers (Chuang, 2013). For this
reason, this paper is developed based on the Path Goal Theory to investigate leadership
style that is flexible and adaptive to the current situation. House (1971) identified directive,
supportive, participative and achievement oriented as the four leadership style.
Directive leadership is when the leader commands the followers and expects their
compliance when the roles and tasks are clarified (Howell and Costley, 2001). It is
practiced by leaders because it starts with minimal performance, but eventually results in
high performance due to improve team learning, coordination, empowerment and mental
mode of development (Lorinkova et al., 2012). Directive leadership, however, is descending
due to the change in the world’s current expectation because many people perceived their
tasks as a mean of personal fulfillments rather than paychecks (Manz and Sims, 2001).
It also influence the followers’ abilities to be overlooked by their leaders (Awan et al., 2008;
Belas, 2013). Supportive leadership depicts the leaders creating a pleasant working
environment by showing concern to their followers. Past studies have shown a
positive relationship between supportive leadership and its followers in terms of positive
well-being (Newton and Maierhofer, 2005), job satisfaction (Awan et al., 2008) and team
cohesiveness as the leaders encourage their followers to discuss their personal problems
(Hemakumara, 2011). However, it can reduce challenges in the follower’s task due to
interference from their leaders (Awan et al., 2008). Participative leadership is when leaders
consult their followers before taking actions. It creates efficient communication for
decision making by involving the followers (Buble et al., 2014; Mohamad et al., 2009).
It also assists leaders in generating empowerment and gaining trust over their followers
(Huang et al., 2009). However, such leadership is time consuming and creates overlapping
decision making which can damage the followers’ perception of their leaders
(Nemaei, 2012). Finally, achievement-oriented leadership showcases the leaders setting
goals for their followers to develop the capability and performance. This is effective when
the leaders set challenging goals, provide clarification and reformation of performances to
assure the followers are acting according to standards (Yazdanpanah and Afrassiabi, 2014).
However, achievement-oriented leadership is only suitable for an environment where the tasks
are simple and the authority is strong (Lussier and Achua, 2010).
It has become evident that the theory investigates the fluidity of the four leadership
styles (Lumbasi et al., 2016). Although one leadership style may not be suitable in
particular situation, it can be applied in another specific favorable situation
(Northouse, 2013). It is apparent that from the Path Goal Theory, a certain type of
leadership style is related to the followers’ commitment (Yiing and Ahmad, 2009) and
performance (Zabihi and Hashemzehi, 2012).
 JMD Culture and leadership styles preferences
36,10 Preference toward leadership styles varies because it depends on the social constructs and
cultural aspects of the followers (House et al., 2004; Lord et al., 2001). It is a cultural
phenomenon which influences leadership attributes (Shaw, 1990). As a result, leadership
preferences differ due to cultural differences (House et al., 2004; Schwartz et al., 2001) which
lead to different leadership preference style across the world (Gerstner and Day, 1994).
1208 According to Hofstede (1980), the value difference between cultures is defined by one’s
nationalities and organization membership. Bogdanic (2012) added that the most crucial
cultural aspects for predicting leadership variable within the national and organizational
level are humane orientation whereby the followers need to adhere to the expectation of
organization or society based on fairness, altruistic, friendliness, generosity and kindness
for leaders to create incentives for encouraging followers’ participation.
Countries with similar political background were found to have significant differences
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in their leadership style (Brodbeck et al., 2000). Thus, in Asia, even though leadership is
based on social position, authority and seniority (Lok and Crawford, 2004), the leadership
style still varied across Asian regions (Swierczek, 1991). For instance, in Eastern Asia
(China, Japan and Korea), directive leadership is preferred for complex tasks, while
participative leadership is suitable for simpler tasks. Meanwhile, in Southern Asia
(India, Nepal and Pakistan), directive leadership is dominantly used for delegating tasks.
The author further argued that authoritarian leadership is used to govern South East Asia
region. Based on these arguments, it is apparent that leadership preferences in one culture
can be counterproductive in another (Irawanto, 2009). Therefore, the following section will
explain the leadership style within South Korea and Brunei Darussalam based on the
country’s past leadership experiences in terms of the leaders’ influence on their followers
in the expected norms.

Understanding leadership in South Korea and Brunei Darussalam

Since the 1980s, South Korea has transitioned from various stages which included 386
generations’ views and values during the democracy period. South Korea is currently a
country with regional power that demonstrates a powerful economic democratic society
and technologically advanced nation with various cultural influences throughout the
region. This transition is strengthened by strong leadership capabilities (Dinerman, 2010)
but the question remains as to what kind of leadership stimulus such growth.
Their culture reflects South Korean leaders to be paternalistic and protective (Yoon, 2010).
The perception of the leaders being gentle, nurturing and caring has proved to be effective
to the followers (Cheng et al., 2014). The leaders are expected to maintain harmonious
relationship, thus contingent punishment by the leader is perceived as a drawback
(Steers et al., 1989). The leaders are expected to evaluate followers leniently to avoid
criticism and undermine harmonious relationship (Chen, 1995). Moreover, their culture of
showing absolute loyalty to the rulers resulted in the followers becoming respectful and
obedient (Estes, 2012; Steers et al., 1989). Although the South Korean followers are
obligated to respect their leaders regardless of their negative feeling, this has resulted in
the followers to feel reluctance out of reverence to follow certain instructions.
Kim (2016) emphasized the importance for South Korean leaders to understand that the
youth will eventually become the future leaders. With this reason, the South Korean youth
is craving for leaders to have the same desire for changes and connection at a personal
level (Estes, 2012).
Leadership style practiced in Brunei is fatherly leadership because the country is
governed under a monarch system (Low and Zain, 2008). Since Brunei is a small country,
the leader can lead with a father and children relationship which depicts a leader showing
a caring attitude toward the followers’ welfare and well-being, which in return, caused the
 population to display their loyalty (Low and Zain, 2008). According to Low and Ang (2012) Leadership
and Zain et al. (2015), there are several key principles adopted by Bruneian leaders such as style desired
leading by examples, leader’s capabilities, having trustworthy and nurturing attributes to by youth
achieve such support and commitment. With these principles, the Bruneian followers
desire a leader who is proactive, interactive with the followers, considers followers’ in Asia
perspective and provide support and initiatives (Kifle and Low, 2009). Given the
leadership importance, the responsibility of future leaders should emphasize on the ability 1209
to initiate and lead changes in the socioeconomic development of Brunei Darussalam. For
instance, during the 30th National celebration, the theme “Visionary Generation” is to
inspire the youth with vision by becoming the country’s pillars for striving a better future
for the next generation.
Although culture has been embedded in the youth, it is apparent that they desire
more than the traditional leadership. Given the situation, both countries have acknowledged
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the youth as the future generation, and hence, the leader has to consider and attain the
leadership type suitable for the youth’s preference.

Methodology
The data were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data provided
strong internal validity because of the clear data collection system, while the secondary data
supported the primary data by strengthening the external validity (Ibert et al., 2001).
This research used a quantitative approach as the foundation of clear verification of the
Path Goal Theory to test on leadership preferences. With the lack of studies regarding the
leadership style desired by youth, a descriptive content-based research was used in this study.
It hopes to improve the understanding of the leadership phenomena by describing them,
especially in a relatively unexplored area (Grenier and Josserand, 2001).
A traditional method for a sample selection process was used which covered from
defining the population, sampling method choice and data collection method to reduce
biases (Royer and Zarlowski, 2001). First, the samples of the study covered the youth aged
between 15 and 24 years based on the international definition by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizations (2017) for statistical consistency across
regions and reducing any sample bias. The sample population is based in South Korea
and Brunei Darussalam to investigate the leadership preferences. Next, proportionate
stratified sampling was used as a sampling method as it involved the age criteria of
youth defined by UNESCO. Royer and Zarlowski (2001) explained that stratified sampling
is used to find the correlation between the criteria chosen and the phenomenon
of the studies. This is suitable for finding the leadership preferences among the youth.
Central Intelligence Agency (2017) reported that the youth population for 2016 in
Brunei Darussalam and South Korea are 0.07 million and 6.66 million, respectively.
The attempt on the collection of data was made based on the limited timeframe allowed
which garnered the response rate of 70 percent whereby 350 of the 500 questionnaires
were responded from each country.
After the sample population and sizes were identified, the primary data were collected
with questionnaires as it was efficient and preserved the anonymity of data sources
(Ibert et al., 2001). A pilot study was conducted among a small numbers of samples to ensure
that the respondents understand the questions as a leadership topic can be difficult to
understand, especially among the younger youth. Next, a face-to-face methodology was
conducted to administer the questionnaire to allow the interviewer to answer any queries by
the respondents. The data were collected during the period of February 2016 and June 2016.
This research allows for a one year gap for the sample population to take account of the
duration needed for processing the results to prevent listing errors by using the sample that
no longer fits the criteria.
 JMD Findings
36,10 Reliability of measure
Based on the reliability analysis conducted, after one of the items is deleted from each
supportive and achievement-oriented leadership variables, all of the leadership styles scored
more than 0.600 and thus is considered to have a reliable internal consistency. Table I
indicates the results from the reliability analysis for each leadership style.
1210
Differences between South Korean and Bruneian leadership style preference
The result was analyzed by using comparative means and standard deviation. This procedure
investigated the pattern emerging from the data, in this case, the “mean” to find the most
common use of central tendency provides the most common value. Table II reports the results
from the mean and standard deviation analysis. The table shows that most Bruneian
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youth preferred a directive leadership with the mean of 3.92 and least preferred supportive
leadership with the mean of 3.72. While most South Korean youth preferred
supportive leadership with the mean of 4.31 and least preferred achievement-oriented
leadership with the mean of 3.64. On the other hand, the standard deviation indicates that
the values are either concentrated around the mean or scattered. All of the results from
Brunei shows high standard deviation in comparison to the data set from South Korea which
depicts the data set is dispersed, while directive leadership under South Korea has the lowest
standard deviation indicating that its data set is clustered.

Discussion and implications

The Path Goal Theory emphasized on the fluidity of leadership style that can be employed
by leaders to best fit the followers within a given situation. As a result, the research
approach has identified the leadership style that is desired by youth. The research findings
provide important theoretical implications as they support the Path Goal Theory approach,

Variables Number of items Number of items deleted Cronbach’s α

Directive 5 – 0.658
Table I. Supportive 5 1 0.615
Validity and Participative 5 – 0.683
reliability test Achievement oriented 5 1 0.712

Mean SD

Directive
South Korea 3.86 0.53
Brunei Darussalam 3.92 0.74
Supportive
South Korea 4.31 0.70
Brunei Darussalam 3.72 0.79
Participative
South Korea 4.18 0.57
Brunei Darussalam 3.80 0.79

Table II. Achievement oriented

Mean and South Korea 3.64 0.66
standard deviation Brunei Darussalam 3.88 0.78
 in which the leaders can develop their style to influence their followers. It also supports the Leadership
theory that culture plays a major role in influencing leadership preferences within a country, style desired
as different Asian regions have different cultures (Schwartz et al., 2001). Based on the result, by youth
the future leadership style desired by youth in Asia differs as the Bruneian youth prefers a
directive leadership over supportive leadership, while South Korean youth prefers in Asia
supportive leadership over achievement-oriented leadership. Although Brunei and
South Korea are Asian countries, the result showed that both countries have different 1211
preferences. This means that our study supports the earlier research works conducted by
Brodbeck et al. (2000), Gerstner and Day (1994), House et al. (2004) and Schwartz et al. (2001)
which illustrate leadership style differences in Asian regions due to the various cultural
values. Hence, it shows that one culture can be counterproductive in another (Irawanto,
2009). This implies that culture has a large impact which determines the leadership styles
suitable for the current environment.
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Since there was a lack of initial study with a similar approach for investigating the
leadership style preferences among Bruneian youth, it can be concluded that they prefer
directive leadership, in which, the leader directs and clarifies a task (Howell and
Costley, 2001; Lorinkova et al., 2012). This study also agrees with a research conducted by
Swierczek (1991) in South East Asia that observed the dominant leadership style to be
authoritarian leadership showing traits of directive leadership in terms of leaders giving
directions and followers obeying to perform their tasks. This reflects a fatherly leadership
embedded in the leaders as they direct their followers and, in return, the followers are
obliged to obey and be loyal (Low and Zain, 2008; Low and Ang, 2012). Since Brunei is under
a monarchy rule, the youth considered directive leadership as a norm in their society, thus
the preference toward directive leadership is supported. Although this type of leadership is
not agreeable with the current world’s expectation (Manz and Sims, 2001), leaders can use
this type of leadership style to their advantage by expecting high performance from the
followers (Lorinkova et al., 2012). For instance, there were numerous policies that required
Bruneian youth involvement, such as the introduction of National Youth Policy which
focused on the youth development through education and training programs. The success of
these policies required the youth’s support and participation and thus the organizers could
implement the suitable leadership style to gain their support and commitment. The findings
also have an impact toward education as Leithwood et al. (2004) identified that leadership is
one of the important aspects for student’s education through setting direction for the
students as well as providing support to ensure a greater education quality. It also
strengthens the socialization of education by deciding the content and method of teaching.
In doing so, they can internalize the expected and appropriate behavior of Bruneian society.
This study has identified South Korean youth preferring supportive leadership.
Although there was no initial study done with this approach, the literature has shown that
their culture of showing absolute loyalty to the rulers has influenced the followers’
preference for leaders with similar desire as themselves, but difficult to connect with the
leaders. Hence, it is reasonable that South Korean youth prefer supportive leadership as
they require leaders that are approachable to strengthen the relationship between the
followers and leader (Awan et al., 2008; Hemakumara, 2011; Newton and Maierhofer, 2005).
In this study, it is apparent that South Korean leaders use this type of leadership to increase
communication by involving followers (Buble et al., 2014; Mohamad et al., 2009), which will
generate empowerment and trust among the followers (Huang et al., 2009). This can
evidently be seen where the newly appointed President Moon Jae-In has gained the supports
of youth with the promise of alleviating unemployment issues, which further supports an
argument by Estes (2012) that South Korean youth craved for leaders that can relate to the
followers at personal levels. This, in turn, relates to economic development of the country as
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development on Local Economic and
 JMD Employment Development (2015) explained that the leaders can engage with the youth
36,10 stakeholders to gain economic support by aligning their needs and interests for visioning
and agenda building.

Limitation, future recommendation and conclusion

This study is not without any limitation as the main focus of the leadership preference is
1212 based heavily on cultural aspects. Although this study has shown that cultural aspects have
significant impacts toward leadership preference in Brunei Darussalam and South Korea,
there are other factors to consider for understanding leadership preference. Kamisah and
Syed (2015) observed that power distance between the leaders and followers, level of job
uncertainty, collectivism/individualism society and masculinity/femininity society have
influence on the leadership preferences. As a recommendation for future studies, these
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factors can be considered to investigate leadership preferences in Asian countries.

Moreover, this can lead to potential future research on leadership preferences within other
regions and/or countries to pinpoint the exact role of culture in leadership.
Another limitation found within this study is the uneven sample size for Brunei and
South Korea. The sample shows a high population gap between these countries that
indicates that a larger sample size for South Korea is needed to improve the accuracy
of the result. Therefore, a larger sample size is recommended to enhance the study of
leadership preference.
However, despite the limitation, the explanation and theory built throughout this study
have provided a clear definition of the leadership style needed by both countries in the
future, hence reducing the gap as the study aimed to identify the leadership style and skills
needed that is suitable for the youth in South Korea and in Brunei. It can be concluded that
South Korean youth prefers a supportive leadership style, while Bruneian youth prefers a
directive leadership style. These results, regardless of the fact that both are Asian countries,
have shown that different leadership styles are desired by the youth. Moreover, such desire
arises due to the cultural impact toward the youth on leadership preferences at the current
time and environment. The study has also discovered various literal constructs using
the Path Goal Theory, and on the basis of leadership styles preferences, a leader can
change the leadership style that is desired by the youth.

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About the authors

Nurul Afiqah Nor Amin received the Master’s in Management Degree in Corporate Management from
the University of Brunei Darussalam in 2015. In 2014, she received a second upper class degree and
received the prestigious Dean’s List in 2011. She is also a part-time Tutor at a local institution since
2011. She is currently a PhD Student, that is, active in conducting research activities in strategic
management and leadership. Nurul Afiqah Nor Amin is the corresponding author and can be contacted
at: nurulafiqah1304@gmail.com
Chin Han Wuen received the Master’s in Management Degree under the Universiti Brunei
Darussalam in 2015. In 2012, he received the Bachelor of Arts and Social Science Degree (Major in
English Language Studies and Minor in Economics). Before his graduate studies, he was an Assistant
Manager with Archipelago Express Sdn Bhd and a Legal Secretary for Ibrahim Chee Teo and Ho
Advocates and Solicitors. He is currently a PhD Student, that is, active in conducting research activities
in strategic performance in SMEs.
Amiruddin Ismail received the Master’s in Manager Degree in Public Management from Universiti
Brunri Darussalam in 2015. His current research interests and activities include the area of new public
management, accountability in the public sector and the work-life balance of public sector’s employees.
He has been a part-time Tutor at a local institution since 2014.

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