Rhetorical Devices used in the

Advertisements of Beauty Products in Pakistan

BACHALORES OF SCIENCE
IN
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

BY

Dania Zaman
Roll No: 035
Session: 2019-2023
__________________________________________________________________
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
LAHORE GARRISON UNIVERSITY, PAKISTAN
CONTENTS
Chapter 1..........................................................................................................................................1
Introduction......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study........................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................................5
1.3 Aims of the study...................................................................................................................6
1.4 Research Objectives...............................................................................................................6
1.5 Research questions.................................................................................................................6
1.6 Significance of the study........................................................................................................6
1.7 Limitations of the study.........................................................................................................7
1.8 Definitions of the Key Terms.................................................................................................7
1.8.1 Conceptual Definitions....................................................................................................7
1.8.2 Operational Definitions...................................................................................................9
Chapter 2........................................................................................................................................11
Literature Review..........................................................................................................................11
2.1 Critical Discourse Analysis..................................................................................................11
2.2 Rhetorical Device.................................................................................................................11
2.3 Beauty Products...................................................................................................................12
2.4 Advertisements.....................................................................................................................12
2.5 Types of Advertisements.....................................................................................................13
2.6 Rhetorical Devices in Advertisement..................................................................................14
2.7 Summary of Related Literature............................................................................................14
2.8 Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................15
2.8.1 Perrine’s Theory (1969)................................................................................................15
2.9 Conceptual Framework........................................................................................................24
Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................26
Research Methodology..................................................................................................................26
3.1 Research Paradigm...............................................................................................................26
3.2 Research Method..................................................................................................................26
3.3 Research Design...................................................................................................................27
3.4 Data Source..........................................................................................................................27
3.5 Data Collection....................................................................................................................27
3.6 Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................28
References......................................................................................................................................29
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of the background of the study, statement of the problem, aims of
the study with specific objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study,
limitations of the study, and definitions of key terms conceptually and operationally.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Discourse is a recognized way of thinking that can be expressed through the use of
language. There are two types of discourse written discourse and spoken discourse. A spoken
discourse is a form of language that is expressed directly using the spoken word orally, usually
followed by a tone and body language. Spoken language can be found in speeches and
conversations on mobile phones in advertisements. While written language is conceptually and
operationally text which is organized and grammatical. It can be found in books, novels,
newspapers, magazines, posters, etc.

Discourse analysis is a method to study the language beyond the text to understand how
its meanings in a social context. While on the other hand, critical discourse analysis is a research
method for studying written or spoken language in about social setting. It goals to understand
how language is used in real-life situations. Critical discourse analysis is a significant method as
it helps to uncover the motivation behind a text by letting researchers view a problem from a
higher posture. It is useful for studying the fundamental meaning of a spoken or written text as it
reflects the social and historical contexts.

CDA was introduced by Norman Fairclough in 1989 and later adapted in 1995.
Fairclough (1996: 287) defines it is like a perception that is linked often with impermeable
connections that hold between language and some other features such as culture and society.
CDA has a political agenda that aims to diverge excessive dispersals in modern societies such as
financial, cultural, and political goods (Kress 1996:15). On the other hand, CDA is seen as a
 2

method whose target is conceptual. It is keen on the cases of social justice in addition to its aim
to state and discuss consumption and the distortion of power (Widdowson 2004:158). To achieve
this purpose, it was to put a system of power differences and then to discover its effects and
workings throughout analyzing the cultural objects-texts. CDA is highlighted basically on socio-
political authority that includes aspects of social transformation and development, distortion of
power, conceptual annoyance, and social dissimilarity attained by analyzing language as social
action (Bhatia et.al 2008:11).

Sometimes to make communication effective one can talk with others by using a figure of
speech meaning the use of rhetorical devices or figurative language to make an interesting effect
on the listener. Rhetorical devices are another form of figurative language as both make the
language effective and attractive. Figurative language is a branch of stylistics because it has the
style of language. Perrine (1993: 581) states that figurative language is a language that cannot be
taken literally. Figurative language is used by the author because it can say the words that the
author wants to say with interest implicitly and attractively rather than saying them directly. This
style of language is more creative and attractive. It also adds passion so this style of language is
called figurative language. Perrine (1983: 578) states, "Figurative language often provides more
effective means of saying what we mean than direct statement.

Rhetorical devices are rhetorical figures which make the language effective and beautiful
to persuade the reader or the viewers. Language is an important part of human life. A human
cannot communicate without language as it is a tool for communication and certainty in human
life. Through language, people can express their feelings, their thoughts, and imaginations. To
communicate with other people, there are different ways to communicate with different people
by using their language. It can be based on the structural and social nature. In other words,
everyone has languages based on their culture and family background. Language is a system of
signs and symbols through which people communicate. The symbols may be spoken, written, or
signed with the hands (Kreidler, 1998: 19). In addition, a language is only one of the common
activities of a society (Kreidler, 1998: 19). A language will be understood if the speaker speaks
clearly or to convey his message to the listener. It means that everyone must deliver their
intention, message, and information to other people by choosing an appropriate language.
 3

It can be described that to deliver messages through words or sentences, one must have good
communication skills. If the speaker has no problem inside of himself/herself, he can easily
communicate and deliver his/her message to others. About the discussion about language, the
study concludes that good communication is created by good sentences or words. The speaker’s
language shows well-formed sentences in a particular situation. A good sentence will be easier to
understand than a bad one with no grammatical structure. In communication, there are many
styles of language that humans use to make communication more attractive and expressive.
Humans use any language style to deliver their feelings, emotions, thoughts/ideas, and specific
intentions. A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that employs a particular type of sentence
structure, sound, or pattern of meaning to appeal to a particular reaction from an audience.
According to Kenney and Scott (2003), “Usually, rhetoric was considered ‘the fashionable
province of verbal language”. Regarding Shen (2006), he points out that a rhetorical device is
also called a trope, a figure of speech, or a rhetorical figure. It is composed of a sequence of
words that are derived from the exact meaning of the words, or the familiar usage of words. In
this sense, they are called 'Flores rhetorical which means 'the flowers of rhetoric'. According to
McQuarrie & Phillips (2014:26), rhetorical figures grasp the audience’s attention to understand
the message.

Advertisements can be a source or platform for public communication for the promotion
of anything which can be a specific product, service, brand, or event. The basic purpose of
advertisement can be to promote a product to the people and persuade them to buy the product
by using a strategy like using beautiful language or hiring celebrities for the advertisements. The
Advertising Association of the UK defined advertising as a means of communication with the
user of the product or service. Advertisements are messages paid for by those who send them and
are proposed to influence people who receive them. In today's world, advertising uses every
medium of media to get its message through radio, press, internet, direct selling, hoardings,
mailers, contests, sponsorships, posters, clothes, events, colors, sounds, visuals, and even people
social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, and google, etc.
Advertisements are used for different products, for example, beauty products, car
advertisements, cooking oil products, advertisements for food, clothes, shoes also for bags, etc.
but this study only focused on beauty product advertisements. In 1947 soon after the
 4

independence there had been very few mediums of advertising and all of these are only covering
the local population at the time. The advertising industry in Pakistan grew over time. There are
many advertisements in women’s magazines that advertise beauty products influencing women
and beauty has become a complete religious authority for women, thus persuading them to thread
their beauty (Baudrillard, 2005). Advertisers used different types of strategies and techniques to
manipulate the viewers specially to persuade females to purchase the product. To control the
minds of people advertisers used different rhetorical devices and hiring celebrities also play an
important role to persuade the customer.

Beauty products are products used for different purposes like skincare, personal care, hair
care, and many other purposes. Now it can be a cliché that beauty products are for females or
females can only use them for beauty because men are also very protective and caring about their
skin, their hair, and even their beauty so they are also using the beauty products for such
purposes. The concept of “The Beauty Myth” has been given by Naomi Wolf (1990). Her basic
posture is that the images of beauty are used against women. According to her the social power
and distinction of women have increased in the modern period. Women are playing productive
roles in the economy and politics of their respective societies. But they are being forced through
the social values of physical beauty. The social standards of beauty have become stronger due to
the profitable effect of mass media.

Wolf (1990) takes the fashion and beauty industries as manipulative of women as they set
the values of physical beauty to increase their sales, such as products made to achieve slim
bodies, white skins, shiny teeth, golden hair, etc. So, she concludes that Beauty Myth is not about
women; it is about men’s establishments and official power. The concept of beauty in any culture
has weakened women emotionally but it is useful for the businesspersons who run billion
dollars’ cosmetic industry. According to Wolf (1990), women should have the choice to do
whatever they want to do with their faces and bodies without being forced by any thought that
executes economic burden and different arrogances which undermine them psychologically and
politically.
 5

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problems arose by the people towards the advertisements are based on the ignorance
of advertisers for not considering the cultural values of the target audiences. Most of the
advertisements fail because of the use of ineffective language for the promotion of products. It is
argued that even among familiar nations, there are differences in terms of figurative language
strategies in advertisements (Morris & Waldman, 2011). Arab counties are continuously and
growingly using figurative language and cultural values in advertisements to capture the
audience's attention and deliver their persuasive messages. Rhetorical devices or rhetorical
figures are special tools used by writers to evaluate a specific kind of sentence structure, to
deliver a message and meaning, and the creation of sounds to create an intended response from
the listeners or audience. The problem a reader may face when reading a text containing
rhetorical devices can be addressed better if the reader or audience is linguistically and
stylistically competent in the languages involved. A person needs to have a certain power to
influence others through his language. This study deals with the analysis of these rhetorical
devices and will explore the importance the creative and effective language in the life of human
beings.

Another problem is regarding the advertisements through some famous actors but not the
common people who are facing the issues with their beauty. In this society people with power
and money do not face any problem to their beauty as they do not have many things to do in their
life. Philips as cited by Kannan and Hongshuang (2017) stated that organizations have
increasingly shift towards the integration of video advertisement as they have come to the
realization on the importance of generating a “digital relationship” with their audience. Besides,
it can be seen that a lot of researches have done in order to identify the factors which could
contribute to the audience’s understanding towards video advertisement yet not much on its
persuasiveness.

A study which was conducted by Rodriguez (2017), explored the language which were
considered important by audience in cultivating their comprehension on print advertisements.
These cues include music, tone of voice, physical appearance of the actors and the scenery.
Regardless, the preference towards cues in video advertisements depends on another external
 6

factor which was one’s race or ethnicity. Corresponding with that, the researchers believe there is
a need to examine whether the above-mentioned cues also carry the ability to increase the
persuasion level in video advertisement. This is due to the fact that; advertisements are created
mainly to persuade the audiences while influencing their purchase intention on the specific
product. Thus, this study would provide an insight on the factors which can assist in creating a
print advertisement that has a high level of persuasion.

1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY

The current study aims to examine the effectiveness of figurative language used in
advertisements for beauty products. It seeks to find the role of rhetorical devices and their use in
beauty product advertisements. It also discusses the meaning of rhetorical devices or figurative
language to persuade the customers.

1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the rhetorical devices used in advertisements of beauty products in

Pakistan.
2) To analyze the implicit meanings of these rhetorical devices used in the advertisements of
beauty products in Pakistan.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1) What rhetorical devices are used in advertisements of beauty products in Pakistan?

2) What are the implicit meanings of these rhetorical devices used in advertisements of
beauty products in Pakistan?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study in this research will be both practical and academic.
Academically, the research is expected to give influence readers who are interested in analyzing
figurative language in different main data. The researcher also hopes that the study can give a
contribution to the lecturer to develop the knowledge of the students in analyzing figurative
language. Practically, the research can give a better understanding of the analysis of figurative
 7

language that will become a reference to other researchers in analyzing figurative language to the
several main data such as poetry, advertisement, script, newspaper, and song lyrics. In other
words, hopefully, the research study can encourage other researchers to develop or conduct other
research in the same scope with different subjects.

On the other side, the people of Pakistan are not much aware and easily convinced by the
media. Advertisers can take advantage of this and make advertisements to persuade people
through different rhetoric techniques. This study makes people aware of the use of language in
advertisements. Also using this research, firstly, the researcher hopes that this study gives
information about the literary work for the next researcher. Secondly, the researcher hopes that
the study can use as a reference in their work. Furthermore, the next researchers can write a
related thesis with a different topic in their research.

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The limitations of this research are that there are forty-four types of rhetorical figures and
rhetorical devices according to (Corbett-1990 and Leech-1969) in numbers but this study only
focuses on fifteen types of rhetorical figures in beauty products advertisements in Pakistan.
Figurative language can be found in any source, such as in literary works like stories, novels, and
dramas, and can be found in any country advertisements of beauty products but this study only
focuses on the figurative language used in beauty products advertisements in Pakistan.

Besides the reason above, the research picked up the beauty product advertisements because
there are a lot of hidden meanings advertisers used to persuade customers to buy the products, so
this study investigated more deeply to be able to know the meaning. Therefore, this study
focused on figurative language commonly used in beauty product advertisements in Pakistan.

1.8 DEFINITIONS OF THE KEY TERMS

1.8.1 Conceptual Definitions

i. Critical Discourse Analysis

 8

Critical discourse analysis CDA or discourse analysis is a method for studying written or spoken
language in about social context. It goals to understand how language is used in real-life
situations. Fairclough (1996: 287) defines it is like a perception that is linked often with
impermeable connections that hold between language and some other features such as culture
and society. According to Van Dijk (2004), Critical Discourse analysis CDA is a type of
discourse analytical research that largely studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and
inequality are endorsed, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in social and political contexts.
CDA has a political agenda that aims to diverge excessive dispersals in modern societies such as
financial, cultural, and political goods (Kress 1996:15). Critical Discourse Analysis helps to
study the context or content of the text and its social relations.

ii. Beauty Products

Kumar (2002) defined beauty as a property linked with human beings, this could be considered
even as a characteristic. Kumar said that beauty is used to express nice-looking women as
opposed to hand-some for men.

iii. Advertisement

According to Frank Presbrey, Advertisement is a printed, written, oral, and illustration art of
selling. Its objective is to encourage sales of the advertiser’s products and to create in the mind of
people, individually or collectively, an impression in favour of the advertiser’s interest.
American Marketing Association AMA defined it as advertising means any paid form of non-
personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods, products, or services by a known promoter.

iv. Rhetorical Devices

A rhetorical device otherwise known as a stylistic device, figurative language, or more simply,
rhetorical figures is a technique or type of language that is used by a speaker or an author to
evoke a particular reaction from the listener or reader or persuade them to think in a certain way.
Regarding Shen (2006), he points out that a rhetorical device is also called a trope, a figure of
speech, or a rhetorical figure. It is composed of a sequence of words that are derived from the
exact meaning of the words, or the familiar usage of words. In this sense, they are called 'Flores
 9

rhetorical which means 'the flowers of rhetoric. Perrine (1993: 581) states that figurative
language is a language that cannot be taken literally. Figurative language is used by the author
because it can say the words that the author wants to say with interest implicitly and attractively
rather than saying them directly. The style of language is more imaginative and attractive. It also
adds intensity so this style of language is called figurative language. There are a lot of rhetorical
figures of language but Perrine (1987:61-109) separated some of these rhetorical figures into
three categories.

1.8.2 Operational Definitions

i. Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies
the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by
text and talk in the social and political context. According to Ven Dijk, “CDA is a type of
discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way power abuse, dominance, and
inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in a social and political context.
It goals to understand how language is used in real-life situations. Critical discourse analysis is a
significant method as it helps to uncover the motivation behind a text by letting researchers view
a problem from a higher posture. It is useful for studying the fundamental meaning of a spoken
or written text as it reflects the social and historical contexts.

ii. Beauty Product

Beauty products are products used for different purposes like skincare, personal care, hair care,
and many other purposes. Kumar (2002) defined beauty as a property linked with human beings,
this could be considered even as a characteristic.

iii. Advertisements

Advertisements can be a source or platform for public communication for the promotion of
anything which can be a specific product, service, brand, or event. The basic purpose of
advertisement can be to promote a product to the people and persuade them to buy the product
 10

by using a strategy like using beautiful language or hiring celebrities for the advertisements. The
Advertising Association of the UK defined advertising as a means of communicating with the
product or service user.

iv. Rhetorical Devices

A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that employs a particular type of sentence structure,
sound, or pattern of meaning to invoke a particular reaction from an audience. These devices
make the language attractive which is helpful to persuade the reader. According to Kenney and
Scott (2003), “Traditionally, rhetoric was considered ‘the exclusive province of verbal
language”. There are a lot of rhetorical devices, for instance, Logos, Pathos, Analogy,
Hypophora, Hyperbole, Anaphora, Kairos, and Alliteration, etc. but this only focuses on
Alliteration, Analogy, Anaphora, Hyperbole, Parallelism, and Simile.
 11

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is going to present a review of the related literature of this study and review of
important variables of the study. Besides, this chapter consists of many important aspects
concerning the conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and systematic review of related
literature.

2.1 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse analysis is a method to study the language beyond the text to understand how
its meanings in a social context. While on the other hand, critical discourse analysis is a research
method for studying written or spoken language in about social setting. It goals to understand
how language is used in real-life situations. CDA was introduced by Norman Fairclough in 1989
and later adapted in 1995. Fairclough (1996: 287) defines it is like a perception that is linked
often with impermeable connections that hold between language and some other features such as
culture and society. CDA has a political agenda that aims to diverge excessive dispersals in
modern societies such as financial, cultural, and political goods (Kress 1996:15).

CDA is seen as a method whose target is conceptual. It is keen on the cases of social
justice in addition to its aim to state and discuss consumption and the distortion of power
(Widdowson 2004:158). To achieve this purpose, it was to put a system of power differences and
then to discover its effects and workings throughout analyzing the cultural objects-texts. CDA is
highlighted basically on socio-political authority that includes aspects of social transformation
and development, distortion of power, conceptual annoyance, and social dissimilarity attained by
analyzing language as social action (Bhatia et.al 2008:11).

2.2 RHETORICAL DEVICE

A rhetorical device is a linguistic tool that employs a particular type of sentence structure,
sound, or pattern of meaning to appeal to a particular reaction from an audience. Figurative
 12

language, also known as a figure of speech is often found in linguistics studies as well as in
literary works, such as songs, novels, or even drama. According to Perrine (1969), figurative
language is an unusual way of saying something. He further discusses that language employs
figures of speech that are not meant to be taken literally. In addition, the literal meaning of words
and sentences in figurative language differs from the meaning which is intended (Glucksberg,
2001). Simply put, the figurative language encourages people to think beyond what is written.
The word used has a non-literal meaning. Other than that, Reaske (1982) conveyed that
figurative language allows for fresh ways of imaginative description and it is usually evident if a
writer is employing figurative or literal language. So, no wonder the discovery of figurative
language can be in any form of communication, such as advertisements, songs, novels, and daily
conversation.

2.3 BEAUTY PRODUCTS

Beauty products are products used for different purposes like skincare, personal care, hair
care, and many other purposes. Kumar (2002) defined beauty as a property linked with human
beings, this could be considered even as a characteristic.

2.4 ADVERTISEMENTS

Advertisements can be a source or platform for public communication for the promotion
of anything which can be a specific product, service, brand, or event. The basic purpose of
advertisement can be to promote a product to the people and persuade them to buy the product
by using a strategy like using beautiful language or hiring celebrities for the advertisements. The
Advertising Association of the UK defined advertising as a means of communication with the
user of the product or service. Advertisements are messages paid for by those who send them and
are proposed to influence people who receive them. In today's world, advertising uses every
medium of media to get its message through radio, press, internet, direct selling, hoardings,
mailers, contests, sponsorships, posters, clothes, events, colors, sounds, visuals, and even people
social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, and google, etc.
 13

2.5 TYPES OF ADVERTISEMENTS

There are several types of advertising that professionals can use to place advertisements and
campaigns for an internet audience.

i. Paid Search Advertising

Paid search advertising involves bidding on keywords so that advertisements related to specific
keywords are placed at the top of the search engine results page (SERP).

ii. Social Media Advertising

Social media advertising serves promotions via social media platforms. Advertising on social
media gives you a quick ROI because everything on social is done in real-time. 

iii. Native Advertising

Native advertising is a form of paid advertising in which the ads match the look, feel, and
function of the media format where they appear.

iv. Display Advertising

Display advertising refers to the process of advertising a product or service through visuals like
images and videos on networks of publisher websites.

v. Print Advertisements

Print advertising means advertisements that are printed in hard copy in publications (newspapers,
magazines, journals) likely to be read by your target audience. 

vi. Broadcast Advertisement

Broadcast advertising is the advertising of services or products that uses out-of-home mediums
to reach broad audiences: i.e. T.V., Radio, Billboards, etc.

vii. Outdoor Advertisements

 14

Outdoor advertising, also known as out-of-home advertising, is advertising that reaches the
consumer while they are outside of their home. Examples of outdoor advertising include
billboards, bus shelters, kiosks, and transit advertising.

2.6 RHETORICAL DEVICES IN ADVERTISEMENT

Fitratunnas’s paper (UIN Maulana Malik Ibrahim, Malang, 2017) entitled Analysis on
Advertisement of the Jakarta Post Newspaper. Fitratunnas focuses on observing the words by
using Reask’s theory which consists of simile, metaphor, metonymy, alliteration, and hyperbole.
Fitratunnas’s paper and the researcher’s paper have the same method of analysis which is
descriptive qualitative. The result of her paper found seventeen sentences that contain figurative
language in the advertisement. Fitratunnas’s paper found that five kinds of figurative language
appeared in advertisements of the Jakarta post newspaper such as alliteration, metonymy,
metaphor, simile, and hyperbole. The differentiation between both papers is the theory and the
main data. Fitratunnas’s main data is an advertisement in a newspaper and the researcher’s main
data is beauty products advertisements.

2.7 SUMMARY OF RELATED LITERATURE

S. Author (Year) Title Country Sample Findings

No
Fitratunnas Analysis of the Jakarta, This paper found
1 (2017) Advertisements of Indonesia that 5 kinds of
the Jakarta Post figurative
Newspaper. language
appeared in
advertisements of
the Jakarta post
newspaper such
as alliteration,
metonymy,
metaphor, simile,
 15

and hyperbole.

2.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This research aims to highlight the types of rhetorical devices in selected advertisements
of beauty products in Pakistan. There are two research questions which are needed to be
answered. The first question is; What are the types of rhetorical devices that are used in the
advertisements of beauty products in Pakistan? Besides, the second question is; What are the
implicit meanings of these rhetorical devices used in the advertisements of beauty products? For
answering the first question about the rhetorical devices that have been used in advertisements,
this research used Perrine’s theory of figurative language and for the second question,
Fairclough’s CDA Model is used.

2.8.1 Perrine’s Theory (1969)

The researcher presents the theoretical approach in analyzing the research study by
presenting Perrine’s theory (1969). Perrine introduces the theory of figurative language in 1969
which he also named rhetorical figures. According to Perrine’s theory (1969: 571) that a figure
of speech is any way of saying something other than the ordinary way. A figure of speech
defines as a way of saying one thing and meaning another (Perrine 1969: 571). Perrine states that
figurative language is a language that cannot be taken literally. Figurative language is a kind of
language that emphasize in language. Kennedy (1979) stated that figure of speech may be said
whenever a writer or speaker, for the sake of emphasis or freshness, departs from the ordinary
denotations of words. From the above quotation, figurative language is a way to reflect the
characteristic of the film and the way the writer thinks. Figurative language used not in usual
literal sense but imaginative way. Figures of speech are not devices to state what is demonstrably
untrue. Indeed, they often state truths, and they lend emphasis. Figurative language created by
authors to provide aesthetics element in the stories. The authors also express their thoughts,
feeling, and ideas use figurative language in order to make the reader may be interested. Brown
Amanda (2006) said that in written and spoken language there are certain effective ways of
saying things without saying them directly. That is called figures of speech or figurative
 16

language, they are used to emphasize, clarify, and embellish what is being said. Most figures of
speech simply take what is well known and use it to depict what is less familiar.

Perrine (1974:49) defines figure of speech is the unusual way of uttering something
which can be said that the speaker intentionally refers to another meaning from one thing. In
other words, figurative language is a way of saying something from the uncommon way. By
using this type of language, the speaker wants to add some special effect to their words. The
function of using figurative language is to create an interesting image.

Wren (1981) states figurative language is a departure from the ordinary form of language
or the ordinary course of ideas in order to produce a better effect. It means that figurative
language is a language that can be substituted by the variations of ideas which successfully to
imply a hidden meaning by giving an effect greatly different from what it literally. Or the other
words we can say that figurative language is the expressive use of language in which words are
used to give a particular emphasis or to generate a special effect. Figurative language is one
which literally in compatible term, forces the readers to attend the connotation rather than to the
denotation.

Kreidler affirms (1998), the connotation is part of meaning, the effective or emotional
associations is eliciting, which clearly not be the same for all people who know and use the
word. It is referring to the personal aspect of meaning, the emotional associations that the word
arouses. The denotation identifies the central aspect of word meaning, which everybody
generally agrees about. The words that have emotional meaning and denotation meaning are
combination of sounds.

The Webster’s New World College Dictionary (1996) explains that figurative speech is
an expression (as metaphor or euphemism) that substitutes a variation of points of view by which
things or notions which is referred to as if it is different in some ways (in identify, degree, shape)
from what it actually is or seems to be but so related to the expression successfully implies an
intended meaning of effect either or greatly different from what is utterly said.

There are some of the salient features of theory:

 17

i. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the
usual meanings of the component words.
ii. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts and may
involve exaggerations.
iii. Figurative language is a type of language that uses words or expressions different from
the literal meaning.
iv. It is one of many techniques used to express the inner feelings of people.
v. Figurative language can be utilized to persuade, engage and connect with an audience and
amplify your intended message.
vi. Implementing figurative language takes some careful thought and close observations to
successfully convey your intended meaning.
vii. Figurative language is used to compare two, unlike ideas to increase understanding of
one.
viii. It helps to describe ideas sometimes difficult to understand.
ix. It is used to influence the audience.
x. Literal and figurative language is a distinction in traditional systems for analysing
language.
xi. Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning.
xii. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the
usual meanings of the component words.

According to Perrine (1969: 65), figures of speech are any way of saying something other
than the ordinary way, and he has classified them into three categories. The first one is figures of
speech by comparison, which are metaphor, simile, apostrophe, and personification. Second,
there are figures of speech by the association which consist of metonymy, synecdoche, symbol,
and allegory. The last classification is figures of speech by contrast which include paradox,
irony, hyperbole, and litotes.

a. Figures of Speech by Comparison

Figures of speech, by comparison, are comparing words to other words which are considered as
having similarities. This type of figure of speech can be applied to concrete and abstract things
 18

which share the same quality to make the readers easily understand the feeling described in the
text. The figures of speech, by comparison, are presented as follows.

i. Metaphor

Metaphors come from Greek which means carrying from one place to another. Glucksberg
(2001: 4) states that a metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted for
an object or action different from its applicable meaning. Also, it may be considered as a
representative of absent tri-concepts which cannot be easily described. To make this comparison,
there must be some similarities between the two objects compared. Metaphor puts the
characteristics of a concrete object into a more abstract thing. It helps readers have a new
perspective of one object by comparing it to another object.

ii. Simile

Metaphors and similes are both used as a means of comparing things that are essentially unlike
(Perrine, 1969: 65). In similes, the comparison is expressed directly by the use of a connector
word. Ortony via Glucksberg (2001: 29) says that metaphor is an indirect comparison, while a
simile is a direct comparison. A simile is a type of figure of speech that compares two things
with the use of connector words so the readers can easily understand the comparison (Gill, 2004:
25). Connector words that are usually used in simile are “like” such “as” then, similar to,
resembles, and seems.

iii. Personification

Personification gives the attributes of a human being to an animal, an object, or a concept

(Perrine, 1969: 67). By Perrine, Kovecses (2002: 35) says personification occurs when human
qualities are put into a word or phrase to non-human entities. It gives more sense of imagination
to non-human entities in a text because they lack human traits. An animal, an object, or a concept
can be described as having human actions or emotions. Kennedy (1979: 495) adds some
description that personification delivers a dramatic effect when non-human entities are given
human qualities. Personification adds vividness to an expression as readers can look at their
world from a human perspective.
 19

iv. Apostrophe

Closely related to personification is an apostrophe. Johnson (1986: 185) states that an apostrophe
is when a speaker puts voice, life, and human ability into the addressee. It is a figure of speech
which addresses someone absent, dead, or something non-human as if that person or thing were
present and could reply (Perrine, 1969: 67). Through apostrophes readers may feel the presence
of the absent and dead, also imagine that non-human things can react to the summons.

b. Figures of Speech by Association

This figure of speech gives references to words used out of literal meaning by relating them to
words that have close meaning to them by context. There are four types of figures of speech by
association described as follows.

i. Metonymy

Gibbs via Glucksberg (2001: 6) states that a metonymic expression can function as a metaphor
when it involves transference by bridging or mapping between the abstract and the concrete.
Examples from Glucksberg (2001: 6) are the substitution of a bench for the law, a car bomb for
terrorism, a pen for a writer, and the oval office for the presidency. When a referring expression
functions solely to identify an entity and nothing more, then it is not considered metaphoric.
Leech (1969: 69) argued that metonymy associates the name of one thing with something else. It
is functioned to connect the name of the thing in people’s minds with something else.

ii. Synecdoche

Kovecses (2001: 152) says that it is a kind of figure of speech in which a part acts for the whole
or the whole represents a part. Synecdoche and metonymy are so much alike that it is hard to
distinguish between them. According to Leech, both synecdoche and metonymy have a common
characteristic which is replacing something refers to one of its parts or replacing something that
is a part (1968: 150).

iii. Symbol
 20

A symbol is a word that points to or stands for more meaning than its literal meaning (Gill, 2004:
30). There are two kinds of symbols, i.e. traditional and new symbols. The traditional symbol has
existed for a long time ago and has been recognized by most people. Meanwhile, a new symbol
is created by a literary man.

iv. Allegory

Allegory is a type of figurative language or rhetorical figure which is a description of the hidden
meaning in the text. Allegory (Perrine, 1969: 91) is less popular in modern literature than it was
in medieval writing. An allegory is a narrative or description that has a second meaning beneath
the surface. The forms of allegory can be seen in a story, a play, a poem, a picture, or other
works in which the characters and events represent particular qualities or ideas such as morality,
religion, or politics.

c. Figures of speech by contrast

This figure of speech is used to emphasize the meaning or sense of words by contrasting it to
other words. Paradox, irony, hyperbole, and litotes are types of figures of speech by contrast.

i. Paradox

The first-time readers understand the condition or situation in a paradox, they feel it is
impossible to happen. However, the readers then may find it as entirely able to happen and
nothing is strange. McArthur (1996: 348) says that paradox is a term in rhetoric for a situation
that seems self-opposing and even absurd, but may contain an insight into life. The value of
paradox is its shock value. At a glance, it drags the reader’s attention with its absurdity which
underlies the truth of what is being said.

ii. Irony

The irony is often confused with satire and sarcasm, but it can be used with either a satirical or
sarcastic intent (McArthur, 1996: 523). It is because irony is often used as a device for sarcasm
and satire. Sarcasm, which in Greek means to treat flesh has the intention to wound feelings. It is
simply a bitter or cutting speech. Satire is a way of criticizing people or ideas humorously. Katz
 21

(1998: 3) shares an example of irony. When one says what a fine friend it intends to convey that
the friend is no good.

Perrine (1969: 115) states that there are three types of irony which are verbal irony, dramatic
irony, and situational irony. Verbal irony is saying the opposite of what means. Dramatic irony
describes a speech or action in a story that has much greater significance to the audience or
reader than to the character because the audience possesses knowledge that the character does
not have. Situational irony occurs when actual circumstances and those that would seem
appropriate differ from what one anticipates and what comes to pass.

iii. Hyperbole

The function of hyperbole in a text is to emphasize a certain point exaggeratedly (Kvasses, 2002:
22). It is used to magnify a fact or emotion to make an emphasis of its importance. For example,
when one just meets a friend after a long time and says it has been ages since they met, the
speaker may just not see his friend for days or weeks. However, ages‖ are used to amplify the
long wait. Hyperbole is concerned with personal values and emotions that make a subjective
embellishment (Leech, 1968: 168). A writer over-states the truth for showing a certain interest.
By using hyperbole, the writer makes common human feelings amazing in that they do not
remain normal. This technique is employed to catch the reader’s attention.

iv. Litotes

Paradoxically, one can emphasize truth either by overstating it or by understating it. Litotes or
irony is different from hyperbole. It does not exaggerate a point, it is instead saying less than
what a speaker means (Perrine, 1969: 111). For example, when one stops by a friend’s neat
house then one says your house is not unclean‖; he is maintaining something less than the truth.
In litotes, a positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions. Leech & Short
(2007: 169) state that litotes use a negative expression where a positive one would have been
more forceful and direct.

The rhetorical devices present in the advertisement will find out according to the
definitions of the rhetorical devices mentioned in the theory presented by Perrine in 1969.
 22

Through this, I will find the rhetorical devices used in the advertisements to persuade viewers.
Only the devices which are found in the lyrics would be highlighted the researcher would not be
finding all the rhetorical devices given by Perrine.

2.8.2 Norman Fairclough’s 3D Model

Norman Fairclough’s is a British professor of linguistics and the English language who
introduced his three-dimensional model for critical discourse analysis in 1989 and later adapted
it in 1995. Fairclough’s work has been highly influential in the field of language and power, and
he is widely regarded as the pioneer of critical discourse analysis CDA. His model is considered
a hub around which the wheel of CDA revolves. He was the first to introduce a theoretical
framework of CDA and gave guidelines for text analysis.

Fairclough’s model consists of three steps process of analysis which is tied to three inter-
related dimensions of discourse which are given below:

i. The object of analysis includes verbal, visual, or verbal and visual texts.
ii. The process through which the object is produced and received by human subjects.
iii. The socio-historical conditions which switch these processes.

For all of these dimensions, Fairclough proposed that the discourse be analysed in three
stages: description, interpretation, and explanation.

i. Description (Text Analysis)

The very first analytical attention of Fairclough’s Model is Text. According to Fairclough
(1995), text analysis includes linguistic analysis. Fairclough (1995) also states that the analysis
of the text itself, including grammar, syntax, lexicon, phonological features, literary devices (e.g.
rhetorical questions), and images. It is based on the linguistic description of the formal properties
of text. Text is a form of data that is used for linguistic analysis. All the description of grammar
is based on text. When people speak or write they produce text with which readers and listeners
engage end understanding.

ii. Interpretation (Processing Analysis)

 23

This stage analyses how discourse is produced and distributed and then consumed by the
reader/listener, i.e. the collaboration that occurs. At this stage, the discourse is recognized as a
discursive practice. Reading is a product of an interface between the properties of the text and
the interpretative resources and practices which the interpreter brings to bear upon the text. The
range of potential interpretations will be constrained and delimited according to the nature of the
text.

iii. Explanation (Social Analysis)

This stage is a relationship between discourse and social and cultural reality. The immediate
condition from which a text evolves is important for the authentic interpretation of the text. Here,
the discourse should be placed within a wider society and considered a social practice. This
analysis focuses on the language and individual words that shape a text. This approach does not
mind if the analyst begins the analysis by selecting the step of his own choice.

The language (text) used in the advertisements will be analysed according to the stages of
Fairclough’s 3D Model explained above. The language of the advertisements will be analysed by
keeping in mind the vocabulary, grammar, semantics, social, historical, and cultural context. The
processing analysis will help to understand the processes between the language and situations in
the advertisements for which language was produced.
 24

Applications
Introduction The rhetorical devices
present in the
Perrine’s theory
advertisements will find Outcomes
(1969: 571) that a
out according to the
figurative language is The outcome of using
definitions of the
used in any way of theory of rhetorical
rhetorical devices
saying something devices by Perrine
mentioned in the theory
other than the ordinary would provide deeper
presented by Perrine in
way. understanding of
1969.
Fairclough’s 3D rhetorical devices and
The language used in the how to analyze them.
model of CDA has
advertisements will be
been presented as a The outcome would be
analyzed according to the
famous research tool providing a deeper
stages of Fairclough’s 3D
Fairclough in 1997, a understanding of the
Model 1995. The language
critical discourse implicit meanings of
of the advertisements will
analysis examines rhetorical devices used
be analyzed by keeping in
relations between in advertisements.
mind the vocabulary,
discourse and
grammar, semantics,
language
social, historical, and
cultural context.

Model of Theoretical Framework

2.9 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Two objectives will be analyzed in this study first one is to determine rhetorical devices
used in the advertisements of beauty products in Pakistan. This objective uses Perrine’s Theory
of Figurative Language from the book Literature (Structure, sound, and Sense 1996). The second
objective is to analyse the implicit meaning of these rhetorical devices used in the advertisements
by using Norman Fairclough’s 3D model from the book Language and Power 1989. Perrine
states that the functions of figures of speech are to give imaginative pleasure, to bring additional
 25

imagery, to add emotional intensity, and to concrete the meaning in a brief compass.
erin 'stheoryT
P r ofy
fig rativeluC om angueD
3N
A
D odF
M
ircl (196)l5ugh's

heou tcom
T esOu w ouldbem s
devicunrspo vidngasthe depirm lcofht icalt beS utyprodlecaD
n uctsfrom
vein
ar daw
V ntsofib
le
ofad ertisvbauypm roductsinaveg nP akistem dby tsn a giznes
m

p icaldevn
d
hetorIn
R tV cesriab
l

Model 0f Conceptual Framework

 26

CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter consists of the methodology of this study. Firstly, cover the research
paradigm, research design, research instrument, data source, and data collection technique.

3.1 RESEARCH PARADIGM

The research paradigm for this study is Constructivism. Constructivism is basically an

emphasis on individuals’ new perceptions about the problem rather than the problem itself. It is
defined as Constructivism is the theory that says learners construct knowledge rather than just
passively take in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those
experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-
existing knowledge. It is the social and historical construction of meaning as the paradigm base
on participant’s views and perceptions. The goal of this research is to rely as much as possible on
the participants’ views of the situation being studied. Constructivist researchers often addresses
the process of interaction among individuals. They also focus on the specific context in which
people live and work in order to understand the historical and cultural setting of the participants.

3.2 RESEARCH METHOD

Research methods are the strategies, processes, or techniques utilized in the collection of

data or evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or create a better
understanding of a topic. This study used a qualitative method. The qualitative method is a
method based on the quality of the text. This method was chosen for the data analysis as the data
will be analysed in the form of quality rather than numbers or values. This method focuses on a
single concept or phenomenon and brings personal values into the study. Besides, this method
studies the context or setting of participants. It validates the accuracy of findings, makes
interpretations of the data, create an agenda for change or reform, and collaborates with the
participants.
 27

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

The qualitative content analysis is being done in this research. Content analysis is
basically a research tool used to determine the presence of particular words, functions, elements,
themes, features, or concepts within some given qualitative data (i.e. text). Qualitative content
analysis goes beyond simply counting words to examining language intensely to classify large
numbers of text into an efficient or effective number of categories that represent similar
meanings (Weber, 1990).

The advertisements for beauty products from Pakistani print media Dawn magazine will
be analysed as the content. The adopted research design is considered appropriate for the
analysis of the rhetorical devices used in advertisements. In this research, the main theory of this
figurative language analysis is Perrine's theory (1969). It aims to analyse the phenomena of
figurative language discovered in beauty product advertisements. To be precise, it aimed to
analyse the types and implicit meanings of rhetorical devices in advertisements of beauty
products in Pakistan.

3.4 DATA SOURCE

Data will be collected from beauty products advertisements from print media of Dawn
magazines. The researcher will randomly select advertisements of products related to beauty
creams, soaps, face washes and cosmetics, etc.

3.5 DATA COLLECTION

Data Collection is a process in which a researcher collects information from all relevant sources
to find answers to a research problem and questions to test a theory and evaluate the outcome. It
may be primary data or secondary data. So, the data collection in the study is done by a careful
systematic procedure. Several advertisements from different brands are listed and viewed
together before choosing the best option. The advertisement that is being chosen is taken due to
the clear representation of the use of rhetorical devices. The Process of data collection the
researcher first collected the data from Dawn Magazines and then identify the rhetorical devices
in the data collected and analyze the advertisements by applying Perrine’s theory of figurative
 28

language and the 3D model of discourse analysis by Fairclough. Through systematic random
sampling, 20 advertisements of beauty products (10 of each gender) will selected from all these
magazines.

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS

After all the data is selected the next step is to analyze data. The qualitative content
analysis will be done through deductive thematic analysis. Thematic analysis was first developed
by Gerald Holton in 1970s and has recently been accepted as a “distinctive method with a clearly
outlined set of procedures in social science” (Braun & Clarke, 2013, p.178). According to these
authors, thematic analysis is a data analysis method that helps a researcher to identify themes and
patterns of meanings across a dataset in relation to a particular research question. Data will be
analysed in six phases of thematic analysis. These phases include familiarizing yourself with
your data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming
themes and producing the report.
 29

REFERENCES