Sonata form

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the Sonata as a complete multi-movement structure, and related musical forms, see Sonata.

Simplest sonata form pattern and its relation to binary form.[1]

Classical sonata form in minor.[2]

"Early examples of sonata form resemble two-reprise continuous ternary form."[3]

Sonata form (also sonata-allegro form or first movement form) is a large-scale musical

structure used widely since the middle of the 18th century (the early Classical period).

While it is typically used in the first movement of multi-movement pieces, it is sometimes used in

subsequent movements as well—particularly the final movement. The teaching of sonata form in
music theory rests on a standard definition and a series of hypotheses about the underlying
reasons for the durability and variety of the form—a definition that arose in the second quarter of
the 19th century.[4] There is little disagreement that on the largest level, the form consists of three
main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation; [5] however, beneath this,
sonata form is difficult to pin down in a single model.

The standard definition focuses on the thematic and harmonic organization of tonal materials that
are presented in an exposition, elaborated and contrasted in a development and then resolved
harmonically and thematically in a recapitulation. In addition, the standard definition recognizes
that an introduction and a codamay be present. Each of the sections is often further divided or
characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form.

Since its establishment, the sonata form became the most common form in the first movement of
works entitled "sonata", as well as other long works of classical music, including
the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and so on.[5] Accordingly, there is a large body of theory
on what unifies and distinguishes practice in the sonata form, both within eras and between eras.
 Even works that do not adhere to the standard description of a sonata form often present
analogous structures or can be analyzed as elaborations or expansions of the standard
description of sonata form.

Contents
  [hide] 

 1 Defining 'sonata form'

o 1.1 Definition as a formal model
 2 Outline of sonata form
o 2.1 Introduction
o 2.2 Exposition
o 2.3 Development
o 2.4 Recapitulation
o 2.5 Coda
 3 Variations on the standard schema
o 3.1 Monothematic expositions
o 3.2 Expositions that modulate to other keys
o 3.3 Expositions with more than two key areas
o 3.4 Modulations within the first subject group
o 3.5 Recapitulations in the "wrong key"
o 3.6 Truncated sonata form
 4 Sonata form in concerti
 5 The history of sonata form
 6 Sonata form and other musical forms
 7 Theory of sonata form
 8 Musical criticism and sonata form
 9 See also
 10 References
 11 Further reading

Defining 'sonata form'[edit]

According to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sonata form is "the most important
principle of musical form, or formal type, from the Classical period well into the 20th century".[6] As
a formal model it is usually best exemplified in the first movements of multi-movement works from
this period, whether orchestral or chamber, and has, thus, been referred to frequently as "first-
movement form" or "sonata-allegro form" (since the typical first movement in a three- or four-
movement cycle will be in allegro tempo). However, as what Grove, following Charles Rosen,
calls a "principle"—a typical approach to shaping a large piece of instrumental music—it can be
seen to be active in a much greater variety of pieces and genres,
from minuet to concerto to sonata-rondo. It also carries with it expressive and stylistic
connotations: "sonata style", for Donald Tovey as for other theorists of his time, was
characterized by drama, dynamism, and a "psychological" approach to theme and expression. [6]

Although the Italian term sonata often refers to a piece in sonata form, it is essential to separate
the two. As the title for a single-movement piece of instrumental music—the past participle
of suonare, "to sound," as opposed to cantata, the past participle of cantare, "to sing"—"sonata"
covers many pieces from the Baroque and mid-18th century that are not "in sonata form".
Conversely, in the late 18th century or "Classical" period, the title "sonata" is typically given to a
work composed of three or four movements. Nonetheless, this multi-movement sequence is not
what is meant by sonata form, which refers to the structure of an individual movement.

The definition of sonata form in terms of musical elements sits uneasily between two historical
eras. Although the late 18th century witnessed the most exemplary achievements in the form,
above all from Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, compositional theory of the time
did not use the term "sonata form". Perhaps the most extensive contemporary description of the
sonata-form type of movement may have been given by the theorist H. C. Koch in 1793: like
earlier German theorists and unlike many of the descriptions of the form we are used to today, he
defined it in terms of the movement's plan of modulation and principal cadences, without saying a
great deal about the treatment of themes. Seen in this way, sonata form was closest to binary
form, out of which it probably developed.[6] The model of the form that is often taught currently
tends to be more thematically differentiated. It was originally promulgated by Anton
Reicha in Traité de haute composition musicale in 1826, by Adolf Bernhard Marx in Die Lehre von
der musikalischen Komposition in 1845, and by Carl Czerny in 1848. Marx may be the originator
of the term "sonata form".

This model was derived from study and criticism of Beethoven's piano sonatas.

Definition as a formal model[edit]

A sonata-allegro movement is divided into sections. Each section is felt to perform specific
functions in the musical argument.

It may begin with an introduction, which is, in general, slower than the main movement. In terms
of structure, introductions are an upbeat before the main musical argument.

The first required section is the exposition. The exposition presents the primary thematic material
for the movement: one or two themes or theme groups, often in contrasting styles and in
opposing keys, connected by a modulating transition. The exposition typically concludes with
a closing theme, a codetta, or both.

The exposition is followed by the development where the harmonic and textural possibilities of the

thematic material are explored.

The development then re-transitions back to the recapitulation where the thematic material

returns in the tonic key, and for the recapitulation to complete the musical argument, material that
has not been stated in the tonic key is "resolved" by being played, in whole or in part, in the tonic.

The movement may conclude with a coda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation.

The term 'sonata form' is controversial and has been called misleading by scholars and
composers almost from its inception. Its originators implied that there was a set template to which
Classical and Romantic composers aspired, or should aspire.

However, sonata form is presently viewed as a model for musical analysis, rather than
compositional practice. Although the descriptions on this page could be considered an adequate
analysis of many first-movement structures, there are enough variations that theorists such as
Charles Rosen have felt them to warrant the plural in 'Sonata forms.' [7]

These variations include, but are not limited to:

 a monothematic exposition, where the same material is presented in different keys, often
used by Haydn;
 a 'third subject group' in a different key than the other two, used by Schubert, Brahms,
and Bruckner;
 the first subject recapitulated in the 'wrong' key, often the subdominant, as in
Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545 and Schubert's third symphony;
 the second subject group recapitulated in a key other than tonic, as in Richard
Strauss's 2nd symphony.
 and an extended coda section that pursues developmental, rather than concluding,
processes, often found in Beethoven's middle-period works, such as his third symphony.

Through the Romantic period, formal distortions and variations become so widespread
(Mahler, Elgar and Sibelius among others are cited and studied by James Hepokoski) that
'sonata form' as it is outlined here is not adequate to describe the complex musical structures that
it is often applied to.

In the context of the many late-Baroque extended binary forms that bear similarities to sonata
form, sonata form can be distinguished by the following three characteristics: [6]

 a separate development section including a retransition

 the simultaneous return of the first subject group and the tonic
 a full (or close to full) recapitulation of the second subject group

Outline of sonata form[edit]

The standard description of the sonata form is:

Introduction[edit]
Main article: Introduction (music)

The Introduction section is optional, or may be reduced to a minimum. If it is extended, it is, in

general, slower than the main section, and frequently focuses on the dominant key. It may or may
not contain material that is later stated in the exposition. The introduction increases the weight of
the movement, and also permits the composer to begin the exposition with a theme that would be
too light to start on its own, as in Haydn's Symphony No. 103 ("The Drumroll") and
Beethoven's Quintet for Piano and Winds Op. 16. The introduction usually is not included in the
exposition repeat.
On occasion, the material of introduction reappears in its original tempo later in the movement.
Often, this occurs as late as the coda, as in Mozart's String Quintet in D major K. 593, Haydn's
"Drumroll" Symphony, or Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 ("Pathétique").

Exposition[edit]
Main article: Exposition (music)

The primary thematic material for the movement is presented in the Exposition. This section can
be further divided into several sections. The same section in most sonata form movements has
prominent harmonic and thematic parallelisms (although in some works from the 19th century and
onward, some of these parallelisms are subject to considerable exceptions), which include:

First theme (G major) and transition (to D major) from Haydn's Keyboard Sonata, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 1–12   
Play (help·info) .[8]

 First subject group, P (Prime) – this consists of one or more themes, all of them in the
tonic key. Although some pieces are written differently, most follow this form.

Start of second subject (D major) of Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 13–16   Play (help·info).

 Transition, T – in this section the composer modulates from the key of the first subject to
the key of the second. If the first group is in a major key, the second group will usually be in
the dominant key. However, if the first group is in minor key, the second group will usually be
the relative major.

End of second subject and Codetta (D major) of Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 17–28   
Play (help·info)

 Second subject group, S – one or more themes in a different key from the first group. The
material of the second group is often different in rhythm or mood from that of the first group
(frequently, it is more lyrical).
 Codetta, K – the purpose of this is to bring the exposition section to a close with a
perfect cadence in the same key as the second group. It is not always used, and some works
 end the exposition on the second subject group. The exposition is commonly repeated,
particularly in classical works, and more likely in solo or chamber works than for concerti.
Often, though not always, the last measure or measures of the exposition are slightly different
between the repeats, one to point back to the tonic, where the exposition began, 
 and the second to point towards the development.

Development[edit]
Main article: Musical development

Development Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 29–53   Play (help·info).[9]

In general, the development starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may move
through many different keys during its course. It will usually consist of one or more themes from
the exposition altered and on occasion juxtaposed and may include new material or themes –
though exactly what is acceptable practice is a point of contention. Alterations include taking
material through distant keys, breaking down of themes and sequencing of motifs, and so forth.

The development varies greatly in length from piece to piece and from time period to time period,
sometimes being relatively short compared to the exposition (e.g., the first movement of Eine
kleine Nachtmusik, K 525/i by Mozart) and in other cases quite long and detailed (e.g., the first
movement of the "Eroica" Symphony by Beethoven). Developments in the classical era are
typically shorter due to how much composers of that era valued symmetry, unlike the more
expressive romantic era in which development sections gain a much greater importance.
However, it almost always shows a greater degree of tonal, harmonic, and rhythmic instability
than the other sections. In a few cases, usually in late Classical and early Romantic concertos,
the development section consists of or ends with another exposition, often in the relative minor of
the tonic key.

At the end, the music will usually return to the tonic key in preparation of the recapitulation. (On
occasion it will actually return to the sub-dominant key and then proceed with the same transition
as in the exposition). The transition from the development to the recapitulation is a crucial
moment in the work.
Retransition Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 54–57   Play (help·info) .[10]

The last part of the development section is called the retransition: It prepares for the return of
the first subject group in the tonic, most often through a grand prolongation of the dominant
seventh. In addition, the character of the music would signal such a return. [clarification needed]

Exceptions include the first movement of Brahms's Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 1. The general key of
the movement is C major, and it would then follow that the retransition should stress the dominant
seventh chord on G. Instead, it builds in strength over the dominant seventh chord on C, as if the
music were proceeding to F major, only to take up immediately the first theme in C major.

Occasionally, the retransition can begin with a false recapitulation, in which the opening material
of the first theme 

group is presented in a key other than the tonic. The surprise that ensues when the music
continues to modulate toward the tonic can be used for either comic or dramatic effect.

Recapitulation[edit]
Main article: Recapitulation (music)

Recapitulation Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 58–80   Play (help·info) .[11]

The Recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition, and consists of:

 First subject group – normally given prominence as the highlight of a recapitulation, it is

usually in exactly the same key and form as in the exposition.
 Transition – Often the transition is carried out by introducing novel material, a kind of brief
additional development section; this is called a secondary development.
 Second subject group – usually in roughly the same form as in the exposition, but now in
the home key, which sometimes involves change of mode from major to minor, or vice versa,
as occurs in the first movement ofMozart's Symphony No. 40 (K. 550). More often, however,
it may be recast in the parallel major of the home key (for example, C major when the
movement is in C minor like Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, op. 67/I).Key here is
 more important than mode (major or minor) – the recapitulation provides the needed balance
even if the material's mode is changed, so long as there is no longer any key conflict.

Exceptions to the recapitulation form include Mozart and Haydn works that often begin with the
second subject group when the first subject group has been elaborated at length in the
development.

After the closing cadence, the musical argument proper is said to be completed. If the movement
continues, it is said to have a coda.

Coda[edit]
Main article: Coda (music)

Coda Mozart's Sonata in C Major, K. 309, I, mm. 148–155   Play (help·info) .[12]

The Coda is optional. After the final cadence of the recapitulation, the movement may continue
with a coda which will contain material from the movement proper. Codas, when present, vary
considerably in length, but like introductions are not part of the "argument" of the work. The coda
will end, however, with a perfect authentic cadence in the original key. Codas may be quite brief
tailpieces, or they may be very long and elaborate. An example of the more extended type is the
coda to the first movement of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony.

Explanations for why an extended coda is present vary. One reason may be to omit the repeat of
the development 

and recapitulation sections found in earlier sonata forms of the eighteenth century. Indeed,
Beethoven's extended codas often serve the purpose of further development of thematic material.
Another role that these codas sometimes serve is to return to the minor mode in minor-key
movements where the recapitulation proper concludes in the parallel major, as in the first
movements of Beethoven's 5th Symphony or Schumann's Piano Concerto - or, rarely, to restore
the home key after an off-tonic recapitulation, such as in the first movements of Brahms' Clarinet
Quintet and Dvorak's Symphony No. 9.

Variations on the standard schema[edit]

Monothematic expositions[edit]
It is not necessarily the case that the move to the dominant key in the exposition is marked by a
new theme. Haydn in particular was fond of using the opening theme, often in a truncated or
otherwise altered form, to announce the move to the dominant, as in the first movement of his
Sonata Hob. XVI No. 49 in E flat major. Mozart also occasionally wrote such expositions: for
instance in the Piano Sonata K. 570 or the String Quintet K. 593. Such expositions are often
called monothematic, meaning that one theme serves to establish the opposition between tonic
and dominant keys. This term is misleading, since most "monothematic" works have multiple
themes: most works so labeled have additional themes in the second subject group. Rarely, as in
the fourth movement of Haydn's String Quartet in B-flat major, Op. 50, No. 1, did composers
perform the tour de force of writing a complete sonata exposition with just one theme. A more
recent example is Edmund Rubbra's 2nd Symphony.

The fact that so-called monothematic expositions usually have additional themes is used by
Charles Rosen to illustrate his theory that the Classical sonata form's crucial element is some sort
of dramatization of the arrival of the dominant.[citation needed] Using a new theme was a very common
way to achieve this, but other resources such as changes in texture, salient cadences and so on
were also accepted practice.

Expositions that modulate to other keys[edit]

The key of the second subject may be something other than the dominant (for a major-mode
sonata movement) or relative major (for a minor-key movement). A second option for minor-mode
sonata form movements was to modulate to the minor dominant; this option, however, robs the
sonata structure of the space of relief and comfort that a major-mode second theme would bring,
and was therefore used primarily for a bleak, grim effect, as Beethoven did with some frequency.

About halfway through his career, Beethoven also began to experiment with other tonal
relationships between the tonic and the second subject group. The most common practice, for
Beethoven and many other composers from the Romantic era, was to use
the mediant or submediant, rather than the dominant, for the second group. For instance, the first
movement of the "Waldstein" sonata, in C major, modulates to the mediant E major, while the
opening movement of the "Hammerklavier" sonata, in B-flat major, modulates to the
submediant G major, and the thirteenth string quartet in the same key modulates to the flattened
submediant G-flat major.

Beethoven began also to use the submediant major with more frequency in minor-key sonata-
form movements, as in the first movements of the ninth symphony, the final piano 

sonata, and the eleventh and fifteenth string quartets. Interestingly, the latter case transposes the
second repeat of its exposition by a fifth, starting on the minor dominant (instead of the tonic) and
finishing on the major mediant (instead of the submediant). The first movement of Richard
Strauss's second symphony, in F minor, modulates to the submediant D-flat major, as do the F
minor first movements of Brahms' first clarinet sonata and piano quintet; all three works balance
this downward third by moving up to the major mediant (A-flat major) for the key of the second
movement.

Rarely, a major-mode sonata form movement will modulate to a minor key for the second subject
area, such as the mediant minor (Beethoven Sonata Op. 31/1, i), the relative minor (first
movements of Beethoven Triple Concerto and Brahms Piano Trio No. 1) or even the minor
dominant (Brahms Piano Concerto No. 2, i). In such cases, the second theme will often return
initially in the tonic minor in the recapitulation, with the major mode restored later on.

During the late Romantic period, it was also possible to modulate to remote tonal areas to
represent divisions of the octave. In the first movement of Tchaikovsky's fourth symphony, the
first subject group is in the tonic F minor but modulates to G-sharp minor and then to B major for
the second subject group. The recapitulation begins in D minorand modulates to F major, and
goes back to the parallel F minor for the coda.

Expositions with more than two key areas[edit]

Main article: Three-key exposition

The exposition need not only have two key areas. Some composers, most notably Schubert,
composed sonata forms with three or more key areas. The first movement of
Schubert's Quartet in D minor, D. 810 ("Death and the Maiden"), for example, has three
separate key and thematic areas, in D minor, F major, and A minor.
[13]
 Similarly, Chopin'sPiano Concerto in F minor uses F minor, A-flat major, and C minor in its
first movement's exposition. In both cases, the transition is i-III-v, an elaboration of the minor
schema of either using i-III or i-v.

Modulations within the first subject group[edit]

The first subject group need not be entirely in the tonic key. In the more complex sonata
expositions there can be brief modulations to fairly remote keys, followed by reassertion of
the tonic. For example, Mozart's String Quintet in C, K. 515, visits C minor, D-flat major, and
D major, before finally moving to the dominant major (G major), and many works by Schubert
and later composers utilized even further harmonic convolutions. In the first subject group of
Schubert's Piano Sonata in B-flat, D. 960, for example, the theme is presented three times, in
B-flat major, in G-flat major, and then again in B-flat major. The second subject group is even
more wide-ranging. It begins in F-sharp minor, moves into A major, then through B-flat major
to F major.[14]

Recapitulations in the "wrong key"[edit]

In the recapitulation section, the key of the first subject group may be in a key other than
tonic, most often in the subdominant, known as a "subdominant recapitulation". In some 

pieces by Haydn and Mozart, such as Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545, the first subject
group will be in the subdominant and then modulate back to tonic for the second subject group
and coda. It is also possible for the first subject group to begin in tonic but modulate to another
key and then back to tonic for the second subject group. In the finale of the original 1872 version
of Tchaikovsky's 2nd Symphony, the recapitulation begins with the first subject group in the
tonic C major but modulates to remote keys, first to E-flat major and then E major, and then
modulates back to tonic for the second subject group. It is also possible to have the second
subject group in a key other than tonic while the first subject group is in the home key. For
instance in the first movement of Richard Strauss's 2nd symphony in F minor, the recapitulation
begins with the first subject group in tonic but modulates to the mediant A-flat major for the
second subject group before modulating back to F minor for the coda.

Truncated sonata form[edit]

Occasionally, especially in some Romantic works, the sonata form extends only as far as the end
of the exposition, at which point the piece transitions directly into the next movement instead of a
development section. One example is Henryk Wieniawski's Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor.
Another example is Fritz Seitz's Violin Concertos for students, where such a truncated sonata
form is used ostensibly to cut down on the first movements' length. Sometimes, the third
movement of such works is the recapitulation of the first movement (one example being Franz
Strauss' Horn Concerto in C Minor), making the entire work effectively a single-movement sonata.