M.T.M.

Ramees,
Complex Numbers B.Sc(Hons) in
Mathematics
Once upon a time…

−1 = no real solution
In the set of real numbers, negative numbers do not have square roots.
Imaginary numbers were invented so that negative numbers would have
square roots and certain equations would have solutions.
Imaginary Numbers
• Consider the equation 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0. ------ (A)
• This can be written as 𝑥 2 = – 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ± −1
• But there is no real numbers which satisfy 𝑥 2 = – 1. In other words,
we can say that there is no real numbers whose square is − 1.
• In 1748, a great mathematician, L. Euler named a number '𝑖' as Iota
whose square is − 1.
• Therefore, we can denote the solution of (A) as 𝑥 = ± 𝑖
• This Iota or '𝑖' is defined as imaginary unit. With the introduction of the
new symbol '𝑖', we can interpret the square root of a negative number as
a product of a real number with 𝑖.

• Thus, – 9 = – 1 9
∴ −9 = (−1)( 9) = 𝑖 2 . 32 = 3𝑖

• The imaginary numbers consist of all numbers 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑏 is a real

number and 𝑖 is the imaginary unit, with the property that 𝑖² = −1.
• The first four powers of 𝑖 establish an important pattern.
Powers of 𝑖

i =i
1
i = −1
2
i = −i
3
i =1
4

Divide the exponent by 4

No remainder: answer is 1.
remainder of 1: answer is i.
remainder of 2: answer is –1.
remainder of 3:answer is –i.
Example : Find 𝑖 38

Solution : 𝑖 38 = 𝑖 36 . 𝑖 2 = (𝑖 4 )9 . 𝑖 2 = 1 9 . −1 = −1

Exercise :
1. Find 𝑖 23
2. Find 𝑖 2018
3. Find 𝑖 37
4. Find 𝑖 828
Definition of Complex Number
• For real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 , the number 𝒂 + 𝒃𝑖 is a complex number.
Equality of Complex Numbers
• Consider the two complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 written in
standard form,
• 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑

Example : If (𝑎 + 7) + 𝑏𝑖 = 9 − 8𝑖, find 𝑎 and 𝑏.

Solution :
Since 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 = 𝒄 + 𝒅𝒊 if and only if 𝒂 = 𝒄 and 𝒃 = 𝒅,
𝑎 + 7 = 9 and 𝑏 = −8.
Thus, 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = −8.
Addition and Subtraction of Complex
Numbers
To add or subtract complex numbers:

1. Write each complex number in the form a + bi.

2. Add or subtract the real parts of the complex numbers.

3. Add or subtract the imaginary parts of the complex numbers.

(a + bi ) + (c + di ) = (a + c) + (b + d)i

(a + bi ) – (c + di ) = (a – c) + (b – d )i
Example :
Example :
Product of Two Complex Numbers

The product of two complex numbers is defined as:

(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 ) = (𝑎𝑐 – 𝑏𝑑 ) + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑖

1. Use the FOIL method to find the product.

2. Replace 𝑖2 by – 1.

3. Write the answer in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖.

Example :
Conjugate of a Complex Number
• The complex conjugate (or simply conjugate ) of a complex number
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is defined as the complex number 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
• It is denoted by 𝑧ҧ
• Thus if 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 then 𝑧ҧ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
• The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign
of the imaginary part. For instance,
Dividing Complex Numbers
A rational expression, containing one or more complex numbers,
is in simplest form when there are no imaginary numbers remaining in
the denominator.
Example :
Example :

−3+ 2𝑖
Exercise : Simplify
2−𝑖
 The Complex Plane

Just as real numbers can be represented by points on the real

number line, you can represent a complex number z = a + bi as
the point (a, b) in a coordinate plane (the complex plane).
 The Complex
Plane

The horizontal axis is

called the real axis
and the vertical axis is
called the imaginary
axis, as shown below.

Fig. 1
 Absolute Value of a Complex Number

• The absolute value of the complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is defined as the

distance between the origin (0, 0) and the point (𝑎, 𝑏).

• When the complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is a real number (that is, when 𝑏 = 0),
this definition agrees with that given for the absolute value of a real
number
𝑎 + 0𝑖 = = |𝑎|.
Example : Plot 𝑧 = – 2 + 5𝑖 and find its absolute value.

Solution:
The number is plotted in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

It has an absolute value of −2 + 5𝑖 = −2 2 + 52 = 29

 Trigonometric Form (Polar Form) of a Complex
Number

• You have learned how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex
numbers.

• To work effectively with powers and roots of complex numbers, it is

helpful to write complex numbers in trigonometric form.
The Argument of a Complex Number

a + bi
No, you
Shut up! shut up!

No, you No, you

shut up! No, you shut up!
shut up!
Let 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) represent the complex number
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, and 𝑂𝑃 makes
an angle 𝜃 with the positive direction of 𝑥-
axis.

Draw 𝑃𝑀 ⊥ 𝑂𝑋
Let 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟

In right ∆ 𝑂𝑀𝑃

𝑂𝑀 = 𝑎
𝑀𝑃 = 𝑏 Fig. 3
Therefore,
𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 𝑎
𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑏
Then 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 can be written as 𝑧 = 𝑟 (cos𝜃 + 𝑖 sin𝜃)
Where
𝑟 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
and
𝑏 −1 𝑏
tan 𝜃 = Or 𝜃= tan
𝑎 𝑎

This is known as the polar form of the complex number 𝑧, and 𝒓 and 𝜽
are respectively called the modulus and argument of the complex
number.
Multiplication and Division
• The trigonometric form adapts nicely to multiplication and division of
complex numbers.

Suppose you are given two complex numbers

𝑧1 = 𝑟1(cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2(cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ).
The product of z1 and z2 is given by

𝑧1𝑧2 = 𝑟1𝑟2(cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )(cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1𝑟2[(cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 – sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )
+ 𝑖(sin𝜃1 cos𝜃2 + cos𝜃1 sin𝜃2 )].

Using the sum and difference formulas for cosine and sine, you can rewrite
this equation as

𝑧1𝑧2 = 𝑟1𝑟2[cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )].

Example : Find the product z1z2 of the complex numbers.

Solution :

Multiply moduli
and add arguments.
and are coterminal.
Powers of Complex Numbers and DeMoivre’s
Theorem
• The trigonometric form of a complex number is used to raise a complex
number to a power.
• To accomplish this, consider repeated use of the multiplication rule.
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

𝑧2 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 𝑟 2(cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)

𝑧3 = 𝑟 2(cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= 𝑟 3(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)
 𝑧4 = 𝑟 4 (cos 4𝜃 + sin 4𝜃 )

𝑧5 = 𝑟 5(cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃)

• This pattern leads to DeMoivre’s Theorem, which is named after the

French mathematician Abraham De Moivre
 12
Example : Use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find −1 + 3𝑖

Solution :
The absolute value of 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝑖 is

And the argument 𝜃 is given by

Since 𝑧 = −1 + 3𝑖 lies in Quadrant II,

So, the trigonometric form is

Then, by DeMoivre’s Theorem, You have

Exercises: Use DeMoivre’s Theorem to find
(Caution : Be aware of the Quadrant of point in each case)
12
1. 1 + 3𝑖
12
2. −1 + 3𝑖
12
3. −1 − 3𝑖
12
4. 1 − 3𝑖
Exercise : What is Binomial Theorem ?
Exercise : Use Demoivre’s theorem, together with the complex binomial theorem,
to show that
Roots of Complex Numbers
As we know that a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is that a
polynomial equation of degree 𝑛 has 𝑛 solutions in the complex number system.

So, an equation such as 𝑥6 = 1 has six solutions, and in this particular case you can
find the six solutions by factoring and using the Quadratic Formula.

𝑥6 – 1 = 0

(𝑥3 – 1)(𝑥3 + 1) = 0

(𝑥 – 1)(𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥2 – 𝑥 + 1) = 0

• Consequently, the solutions are

𝑥 = ±1, and

• Each of these numbers is a sixth root of 1. In general, the nth root of a

complex number is defined as follows.
Example : Find all the sixth roots of 1.

Solution:
• First write 1 in the trigonometric form 1 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0).

• Then, by the nth root formula with n = 6 and r = 1, the roots have the
form
 cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1
cont’d

Exercise : Find all the third roots of 1

Exercise : Find all the fifth roots of 1+𝑖
Euler’s Formula and Euler Form of a Complex
Number
Consider the expression 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . If complex numbers really do obey the
rules of algebra, then we can write 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 as a Maclaurin series,
Hence, we get Euler’s formula :

Multiplying by 𝑟 we obtain the polar representation of 𝑧 in its most

useful form :
Euler form of complex number 𝑧 is

𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Application of Euler’s formula also gives the rather startling result of de
Moivre’s theorem,

Exercise : Represent the complex number 𝑒 1+𝑖𝜋 in polar form and 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

form
Loci in the Complex Number
• Since any complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 correspond to point (𝑥, 𝑦) in
complex plane, there are many kinds of regions and geometric figures
in this plane can be represented by complex equations or
inequations.
• A locus in a complex plane is the set of points that have specified
property.
• A locus in a complex plane could be a straight line, circle, ellipse and
etc.
Equation of circle with centre at the origin and radius, 𝑟

z − z0 = r
x P on circumference:
x2 + y2 = r 2
z − z0 = r
r P outside circle:

O(0,0 )
y z − z0  r
P inside circle:
P ( x, y )
z − z0  r
Example : What is the equation of circle in complex plane with radius 2
and centre at 1 + 𝑖

Solution : z − (1 + i ) = 2
x
( x − 1)2 + ( y − 1)2 = 4

r
Distance from center to z 0 (1,1)
any point P must be the
same y
P ( x, y )
Example : Find the equation of locus if : z +i = z −2

Solution : (x + yi ) + i = (x + yi ) − 2
x + i ( y + 1) = ( x − 2 ) + iy

x + ( y + 1) = (x − 2) + y 2
2 2 2

x 2 + ( y + 1) = ( x − 2 ) + y 2
2 2

x2 + y2 + 2 y +1 = x2 + y2 − 4x + 4
3
y = −2 x +
2
A straight line with 𝑚 = −2
 x

3
y = −2 x +
4
 3
 0, 
 2
y
3  (2,0)
 ,0 
(0,−1) 4 
P ( x, y )

Distance from point (0,-1)

and (2,0) to any point P must
be the same
Exercise : Find the equation of locus if:
z − 2i
i) =1
z −1

ii ) z − 3 + 2i = 5