M.Sc. Infrastructure Eng./ M.Sc. Civil Eng.

Railroad Engineering
College of Engineering
University of Kerbala

Lecture 2
Characteristics of Railroad Locomotives & Trains
• Static Characteristics of Railroad Locomotives
• Dynamic Characteristics of Trains

Lecturers : Prof. Dr. Hussein A. Ewadh

Assist. Prof. Dr. Raid R. A. Almuhanna

2021-2022
 1- Static characteristics of railroad
locomotives
:-
• Locomotives may generate their power from fuel
(wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas), or they may
take power from an outside source of electricity.
• It is common to classify locomotives by their source of
energy:

• Electric locomotive
• Diesel – electric locomotives
 A- Electric locomotive
• Electric locomotives are quiet compared to diesel locomotives and
less mechanical noise., reducing track maintenance.
• Power plant capacity is far greater than any individual locomotive
uses, so electric locomotives can have a higher power output than
diesel locomotives and they can produce even higher short-term
surge power for fast acceleration.
• Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with
frequent stops.
• Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently
high traffic volumes,
• The chief disadvantage of electrification is the high cost for
infrastructure: overhead lines or third rail, substations, and control
systems..
 B- Diesel-Electric Locomotives
Introduction Of Diesel electric locomotive:
• diesel electric locomotives
1.Easy maintenance
2.Diesel engine in large traction
3.Low cost
4.Electronic controls
 B- Diesel-Electric Locomotives
• The power supply to a diesel-electric locomotive consists of a
diesel engine prime mover that is directly connected to a dc
generator.
• having its own power plant and traction motor.
• This gives diesel–electric locomotives an advantage over the
electric locomotive in that the extensive power distribution
that is required for the electric locomotives is not necessary
for the diesel–electric alternative.
• Diesel–electric locomotives can also be used in single units or
in multiple units that are controlled from one cab.
• Single units are used mainly in railroad yard operations, while
the multiple units are used for line-haul operation.
 C- Steam Locomotives
• A steam locomotive is a type of railway locomotive that produces
its pulling power through a steam engine.
• These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material –
usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce steam in a boiler.
• The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically
connected to the locomotive's main wheels (drivers).
• Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either
on the locomotive itself or in wagons (tenders) pulled behind.
• These locomotives receive their power from reciprocating steam
engines that are much less efficient than the diesel–electric system
and have therefore been widely replaced by diesel–electric
locomotives.
• This system is now mainly used in developing countries because of
its relatively lower capital cost per unit of horsepower.
 C- Steam Locomotives
The major limitations or disadvantages of a steam engine or
external combustion engine are given below :

• A steam engine is huge and heavy. ...-

• A steam engine does not start at once. ...
• A steam engine is unsafe to use. ...
• A steam engine has low efficiency.
The disadvantages of steam locomotive systems , such as , low
fuel efficiency, poor technical performance, maintenance of a
large number of water supply facilities, and high maintenance
cost makes them to be replaced by alternative traction systems
and hence the electric traction.
 D- Magnetic Levitation Trains (Maglev)

• In this type of locomotive, there is no contact between the

bearing structure and the vehicle.
• The power is derived from sets of magnets and coils that are
suitably placed to produce the forces that are required for
levitation, propulsion, and guidance.
• Tests have shown that these trains are capable of traveling at
very high speeds and can traverse relatively higher
longitudinal grades.
 D- Magnetic Levitation Trains
(Maglev)
Basic of operation of Maglev:
Electromagnetic Suspension:
• Maglev works on the principle of electromagnets. Like
poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each
other in a magnet.
• a Maglev suspension system is designed. It consists of
the following components:
a) a large electrical source
b) Metal coils along a track
c) large guidance magnets attached to the base of the
train.
Basic principles of magnetic levitation.
Basic operation of Maglev
 Traction Systems

• A system which causes the propulsion of vehicle in

which tractive or driving force is obtained from various
devices such as diesel engine drives, steam engine
drives, electric motors, etc. is called as traction system.
• It can also be defined as the railway vehicle that
provides the necessary traction power to move the
train is referred as the traction or locomotive.
• This traction power can be diesel, steam or electric
power.
• The traction system can be classified as:
1. non-electric and
2. electric traction systems.
 1- Non-electric Traction System

• A traction system that doesn’t use electrical energy for the

movement of vehicle at any stage is referred as non-electric
traction system.
• The steam locomotive system uses the superheated steam to
produce mechanical energy for the movement of vehicle.
• This may use coal or petroleum as fuel, liberates thermal energy to
produce the steam pressure and then it is converted into kinetic
energy so that mechanical movement of the vehicle is produced.
• The following are the two types of non electric traction systems
for railways:
a. Steam engine drive based vehicles
b. Maglev trains
 2- Electric Traction System

• Electric traction involves the use of electricity

at some stage or all the stages of locomotive
movement.
• This system includes straight electrical drive,
diesel electric drive and battery operated
electric drive vehicles.
• In this, electrical motors are used for
producing the vehicle movement and are
powered by drawing electricity from utilities
or diesel generators or batteries.
 2- Electric Traction System
Advantages
• Cheapness. It is cheapest method of all other methods of traction.
• Cleanliness. It is free from smoke and flue gasses
• Maintenance cost. Maintenance and repair cost is about 50% of steam
traction system.
• Starting time. It can be started without loss of time.
• High starting torque. This system uses of d.c. and a.c. series motors which
has a very high starting torque.
• Braking. In electric traction , regenerative breaking is used which feeds
back 40%of the energy.
• Saving in high grade coal. No coal is required for electric traction.
 2- Electric Traction System
Disadvantages
• Higher initial expenditure.
• Failure of supply is a problem.
• Additional equipment are required for breaking purposes.
• The electrically operated vehicles have to move only on electrified track.
• Interference with telegraphs and telephone lines.
 Traction Systems According to Efficiency

1. Steam locomotive 5-7%

2. Gas turbine electric locomotive 10%
3. Diesel electric locomotive 26-30%
4. Electric locomotive with thermal power plant 34-36%
5. Electrical locomotive with Hydroelectric power plant 40-42%
 Principles for Train Movement
Key Points to Remember
• Locomotive tractive effort must be greater then the
train resistance forces.
• Train resistance is impacted by the train itself, curves,
gradients, tunnels, etc.
• Tractive effort (force) reduces with speed, and will
reach a point where it "equals" the train resistance,
and thus the train will not be able to go any faster.
• This point will vary as the train resistance varies due
to changing track conditions.
• For steam locomotive, the theoretical tractive effort is
determined by the boiler pressure, cylinder size, drive
wheel diameters, and will vary between locomotives.
 Dynamic Characteristics of Trains

The forces that act on a train while it is in motion are:

• the air resistance,
• the grade resistance,
• the rolling resistance, and
• the curve resistance.
 Air Resistance on Trains

• Air resistance is one of the main causes of inefficiency.

• Air Resistance is one of the biggest factors that limit train
speed.
• The relationship between air resistance and speed is
exponential.
• Subways can use the advantage of their underground
tunnels to create a vacuum, greatly increasing the potential
for speeds and electricity savings.
• The equation for the air resistance on trains is similar to
that for automobiles, except that since trains are much
longer than automobiles, the frictional resistance along the
length of the train should also be considered. It is given as
Air Resistance on Trains
 Air Resistance on Trains

The constant Ct1 depends on the shape of the front and rear of the
train, and Ct2 depends on the condition of the train surface.
Various railway authorities have therefore developed empirical
formulae for rolling resistance that also account for air resistance.
 Grade Resistance

• A vehicle traveling on an upgrade is resisted by a force

acting in the opposite direction (i.e., downgrade).
• This force is the component of the vehicle’s weight
acting downward along the plane of the vehicle’s
travelway.
• This force is the grade resistance.
• The grade resistance will tend to reduce the speed of
the vehicle if an accelerating force is not applied.
• The speed achieved at any point along the grade for a
given rate of acceleration will depend on the grade and
type of vehicle.
 Grade Resistance
• The gradient resistance is the extra force required to lift a train up a
gradient, or conversely is the extra force "pushing" the train down a hill.
• It is a positive quantity when going up the grade and a negative quantity
for going down the grade.
• As shown in the diagram below the work of lifting a weight W up a
distance represented by BC is equal to the work required to overcome the
resistance R (due to grade only) through a distance AB,
ie W x BC = R x AB.
• Thus the following formula can be used to calculate grade resistance:
• Grade Resistance = W x (vertical rise) / (length of incline)
• Grade Resistance = W Sin(ɵ)
• For small angles Sin (ɵ) = Tan (ɵ) = grade in decimal
 Grade Resistance
• The impact of grade resistance is of more significance in the
highway mode than in the railway and air modes.
• The reason is that grades are much more restricted in the
railway and air modes as the weights of vehicles used in these
modes are much higher than those for automobiles.
• For example, maximum grades of airports do not exceed 2%,
those for rail tracks do not exceed 4%, but highway grades can
be as high as 9%
 Rolling Resistance

• Rolling Resistance is the net of the forces that must be

overcome by the tractive effort of the locomotive in order to
move a train on level tangent track,
These resistive forces include:
• Rolling friction between wheels and rail that depends mainly
on the quality of track.
• Bearing resistance which varies with the weight on each axle
and, at low speed, the type, design and lubrication of the
bearing.
• Factors that influence this resistance include the speed of the
vehicle and the condition of the travelway.
Rolling Resistance on Trains
The American Railway and Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way
Association suggests that the rolling resistance for trains could
be estimated from Equation: piggyback
 Example

Determine the rolling resistance on a train with conventional

equipment traveling at 130 km/h on a straight and level track
section if the load per axle is 18.14 metric tons and the train
consists of 16 cars each having four axles.
- Determine resistance: Since the train is on a straight and level
track section, the resistance is the level tangent resistance.
 Curve Resistance on Trains
• When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to
overcome the resistance offered by the curvature of the track.
• The vehicle cannot adapt itself to a curved track because of its rigid wheel
base. This is why the frame takes up a tangential position as vehicle tries
to move in a longitudinal direction along the curve.
• On account of this, the flange of the outer wheel of the leading axle rubs
against the inner face of the outer rail, giving rise to resistance to the
movement of the train.
• Certain components of these forces tend to retard the forward motion of
the vehicle.
• The sum effect of these components is the curve resistance.
• This resistance depends on the friction between wheel flange and rail, the
wheel slippage on the rails, and the radius of curvature.
Curve Resistance on Trains
 Curve Resistance on Trains
• Based on the results of tests performed with actual trains in the United
States, the American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) has adopted
a recommended value of 4 N/metric ton/ ◦ of curve for three-piece trucks
without wheel/rail lubrication on standard gage tracks.
• This is reflected in Equation , which is recommended by Canadian National
Railways and can be used to determine curve resistance on any given
track:
Fc = 0.279 x (gage)
Where:
Fc = curve resistance on trains; (N/metric ton) per degree of curvature
gage =gage of track in m
• It should be noted that curve resistance developed when starting a train is
about twice the value for the train in motion.
• This should be taken into consideration in the design of a curvature if
trains are expected to be stopping at those curves.
 Running Resistance

• The force that should be applied to overcome the various

resistances is the running resistance, which is determined by
summing the values for all the resistances derived by
computing the appropriate equations.
 Power Requirements
• The force that should be applied to overcome the various resistances
is the running resistance, which is determined by summing the
values for all the resistances derived by computing the appropriate
equations.
• The performance capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of the
horsepower the engine can produce to overcome the different
resistances and put the vehicle in motion.
• The horsepower is the rate at which work is done, and 1 horsepower
is 746 N.m/s.
• The power delivered by the engine is:
P = 0.278 F u / 76.04
where
P= horsepower delivered (hp)
F =sum of resistances to motion (kg)
u = speed of vehicle (km/h)
 Problems
1. Determine the power that is required to operate a train of 32 cars on
a level tangent if the total load including the locomotive is
supported by 128 axles carrying an average of 22.65 metric
tons/axle with conventional equipment traveling at 153 km/h.
2. If train conventional equipment, consisting of 10 cars, is traveling
at 137 km/h on a curve of 2º, determine the total resistance on the
train if the load/axle is 22.65 metric tons with 4 axles/car. Assume
that the track gage is 1.37 m.
3. A train is expected to travel on a railroad having a maximum
horizontal curve of 3.5º and a maximum grade of 3%. If the load on
each axle is 18.14 tons, with 4 axles/car, determine the maximum
number of cars that can be pulled along the track by a single
locomotive that has a tractive force of 405000 N, traveling at 105
km/h, with a track gage of 1.37 m.
 Problems
4. A freight train consisting of 75 cars each having 4 axles with each
axle carrying a load of 22.5 metric tons on a gage of 1.37 m is expected
to travel at a speed of 137 km/h on a section of level track with a
maximum horizontal curve of 3º. Determine the number of
conventional equipment locomotives that will be required if the
available locomotives have a maximum tractive force of 225000 N
each.
5. Repeat Problem (4) if the tractive force of the locomotive is 360000
N, the maximum grade is 4% and the maximum horizontal curve is 3.5º
. Discuss your results with respect to that obtained for Problem 4.