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Using GeoInformation in European Geography education

Contents

Introduction: Using GeoInformation in European Geography education 2

1. Teaching Geography - Instructing with GIS and about GIS 3
2. Spatial Thinking to Understand Europe - The Global GIS Project 19
3. Problem Based Learning, e-learning and GIS teaching and training 29
4. Putting GIS in its place: proactive approaches for classroom beginners 37
5. GIS, Map Reading and Geographical Visualisation 43
6. What kind of GIS should we implement in high school curriculum? 50
7. Geographical Information Systems Applications for Schools (GISAS) 61
8. The YoungNet Project - GeoInformation and Edutainment 64
9. EDUSPACE - the European Space Agency multilingual earth observation Web site for
Secondary schools 69
10. Objectives of GIS Teaching in Higher Education - developing experts or training
teachers? 74
11. Developing Undergraduate GIS Study-units 82
12. Aspects of GIS Education for Environmental and Informatics Engineering 90
13. Problem Based Learning - From Theory to Application in Geoinformation 96
14. Web Atlas Engineering as a tool for integrating Geographical Information Technologies
into Geography 103
15. UNIGIS studies in Poland – learning GIS at a distance 109
16. GIS Distance Learning at the National Technical University of Athens, Greece 116
17. Teaching GIS in Bulgaria – Using PBL and time for rethinking the concepts 122
18. Quality Aspects in Postgraduate Distance Education - an Example from UNIGIS Salzburg
125
19. Mobile Learning and GPS - From Geocaching to Participatory GIS 132
List of contributors 145

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Introduction: Using GeoInformation in European Geography education
Edited by: Karl Donert

Karl Donert, UK National Teaching Fellow at Liverpool Hope University. He is coordinator of the
HERODOT thematic network for Geography in higher education. He is President of EUROGEO.

Using GeoInformation in European Geography education is a collection of international peer-reviewed

chapters on the ways that different aspects of geoinformation and GIS in higher education is being used
in Europe, as universities and teacher training organisations adopt the Bologna process and adapt their
curricula and courses accordingly.

Using GeoInformation in European Geography education represents the strengthening relationship

between the HERODOT Thematic Network and ESRI Europe. The HERODOT network has strongly
supported the education track at ESRI Europe User Conferences since 2002 and several of these
chapters result from these events and especially from the user conferences and meetings in Stockholm,
Copenhagen, Warsaw and Athens.

The HERODOT network has more than 230 members from 55 countries. Through its activities, it
influences higher education courses, curricula, systems and structures as the network for Geography in
higher education.

Using GeoInformation in European Geography education demonstrates that Geography is a spatial

science, which bridges human and physical aspects. It operates in social, environmental, economic and
political spheres. Society increasingly requires a workforce that understands and can use spatial tools.
Geography courses must increasingly incorporate GIS to ensure that graduates are spatially literate. As
a result they are experiencing significant curricula innovation and renovation of teaching methods.
Using GeoInformation in European Geography education reflects some of best practises involved in
these changes.

This publication has been produced by the HERODOT Thematic Network with financial support from
the European Commission, Socrates Action and with support from the Home of Geography and ESRI
Europe.

ISBN

The HERODOT project has been funded with support from the European
Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein.

2
 1. Teaching Geography - Instructing with GIS and about GIS
Kostis C. Koutsopoulos
Professor, National Technical University of Athens
koutsop@survey.ntua.gr

Abstract
The goal of this chapter is to highlight the role of GIS as appropriate instruments in teaching Geography. Based on
scientific reasoning, application results and common sense, two conceptual frameworks are formulated. The first
showing that GIS is able to answer all the questions that knowledge, understanding and application in Geography
requires so that GIS can be directly utilised in teaching Geography (instructing with GIS). The second is that GIS
because of its capabilities is inherently an excellent vehicle in expressing the five themes of Geography or GIS can be
used as a platform to enhance indirect instruction in Geography (instructing about GIS).

Key words: GIS pedagogy, Geography, education

1. Introduction
It is universally accepted that Geography teachers, including university professors, need to have an understanding
of the ways in which Information Technology (IT) can enhance teaching and learning. That is, Geography as a subject
in which “IT can make a genuine and worthwhile contribution” [1] is a very appropriate scientific endeavour to
harness the benefits of IT for its students. This is particular true of the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) which
represents an expression of IT approaches and tools that help geographers specifically, since they are focused, and thus
differentiated from other IT components, on the spatial point of view of events, phenomena, places and of course of
the physical environment.

The question that comes to mind then is: how can teachers of Geography benefit from GIS in order to enhance
their student learning? Although the subject matter and the basic concepts that make up the essence of Geography
remain relatively constant through time [2], the means that underpin and contribute towards geographical
understanding change rapidly. In other words, as Freeman [1] has stated, “changes in technology pervade the pedagogy
and methodology of geography” and therefore we can no longer ignore the fact that teaching geography with the aid of
GIS is a necessary approach to follow. Kemp et al. [3] went a step further by making a case for teaching GIS within
and for the benefit of the discipline of Geography based on the following four arguments: Geography as the home
discipline for GIS (due to its unique spatial perspective); GIS as a collection of marketable skills (because GIS
enhances geography and increases awareness of GIS as a potential career); GIS as an enabling technology for
geography (for GIS, although it does not primary create new knowledge, it does reinforce spatial learning); and
Geographic Information Systems as an intellectual theme within Geography (in that geographic information has
become synonymous with learning in the context of geography).

The role of GIS as an enabling technology in teaching geography, however, as it can be seen and from the
arguments of Kemp et al, can follow two complementary approaches. Namely, we can use the powers of GIS to teach
Geography, for GIS can help us understand our world through both the natural and man-made manifestations [4]
which are the essence of Geography. On the other hand in teaching GIS an excellent platform is created that can help
us expose the basic geographic tenets to our students. That is, in teaching GIS a positive effect can be created on the
development of spatial thinking and reasoning.

This chapter is aimed at investigating the role of GIS as a tool to invigorate instruction and provide innovative
content delivery in teaching geography as well as in using them as pretence to increase students’ spatial perception and
reasoning. In other words, this chapter will be focused on instruction with GIS (direct teaching) as well as instruction
about GIS (indirect teaching) as pedagogical approaches to Geography. In order to accomplish this goal the next
section, after reviewing the basic geography components, examines the value of GIS to geography education. The third
3
section is devoted to reviewing and evaluating the pedagogical role of GIS as well as exploring their value in
facilitating students’ development of spatial thinking. In the fourth section some thoughts are presented concerning the
ways GIS can be utilised as geography instruction tools. The chapter concludes by bringing out some of the problems
related to the educational role of GIS.

2. Teaching Geography
As was mentioned earlier, the basic principles of Geography have been constant. At the same time, however, there
has never been a period of stability in geographic education. That is, reform and innovation rather than consolidation
and entrenchment have been the key elements in teaching Geography. This is especially the case with the arrival of IT
and GIS in particular as instructional tools. Within this situation, therefore, in teaching Geography consideration
should be given: to identifying the major components of geography and how they can be taught; in elaborating the
cognitive processes that correspond to these components and how they can be facilitated; and finally in providing the
appropriate instruction tools to teach them both, utilising the capabilities of GIS.

2.1. The science of geography

Most Geographers will agree that the science of Geography is composed of three independent and unique, yet
interrelated and inseparable components: skills, subject matter and perspectives. As the U.S. Geography Education
Standards Project (GESP) has pointed out, all three are necessary in order to be “geographically informed” [5], but
none can stand alone. Therefore, in dealing with the science of Geography all three components should be examined.
The reason is that the subject matter is the foundation, the essence and the concentrated knowledge of the science of
Geography and forms the basis upon which the geographic skills are brought to bear, particularly in terms of solving
real world problems. As a result, in teaching geography, at any level in the educational spectrum, all these components
need to be included, in order for the instruction to be considered comprehensive.

Such an approach to geography education, however, should foster “comprehensive knowledge, understanding and
application of geography’s skills, contents and perspectives” [6]. In other words, geography education should be
concerned with the cognitive processes of knowing, of understanding and of applying in spatial terms. Therefore, in
teaching geography it is imperative that there is an active participation in these processes.

Moreover, taking into consideration that “there is no subject better suited to many uses of computer than
geography” [7] and the fact that GIS is an “educational delivery system for improving the student’s knowledge of the
world in which he or she lives” [8], it can be easily shown that the geography instruction processes mentioned
previously can be best carried out through the use of GIS. The combination of all these components, as shown by
Figure 1.1 (end of chapter), represents a framework in teaching and learning geography with GIS and is elaborated
next.

2.1.1. Geographic skills

The study of Geography requires the use of numerous tools and techniques lumped into the term geographic skills.
They are central to Geography’s distinctive approach to recognising and exploring patterns, processes and
relationships in geographic space. In this process geography practitioners should be able to ask geographic questions,
to acquire spatial information and to organise it. Because, as GESP has pointed out, geography is distinguished by the
kinds of questions it asks – the “where” and “why there”-, the means to acquire such spatial information and the ways
to organise them [5].

As a result, it is important to Geography that tools and techniques should be available: First, in asking geographic
questions related to why things are where they are. Second, in acquiring information by locating, observing and
systematically recording places, people and environments, given that geographic information relates to the process of
knowing about locations, the physical and human characteristics as well as the activities on those locations. Third, in
organizing and displaying information in ways that help the analysis and the applications, since geographic
information once collected will need to be processed.

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 In sum, what is put forward is that the tools and techniques, mentioned here as geographic skills, allow
Geographers to derive spatial knowledge. That is, to know the world around them by participating in the process of
knowing (Figure 1.1).

Up to this point, in discussing geographic skills no mention has been made of those which are related to analysing
and answering geographic questions. The reason is obvious and is shown in Figure 1.1. Namely, analysing geographic
information involves understanding patterns, relationships and connections, a step forward from just knowing about
facts, their organisation and representation, for they lead into synthesising, drawing inferences, identifying trends,
relationships and sequences. That is, all those aspects that constitute what is termed here the process of
understanding, which basically reflect the subject matter of geography and will be the focus of the next section. As
for answering geographic questions, these skills involve the ability to use the results of the analysis to solve problems
or form judgments about a problem, which in turn reflects geographic perspectives and thus express the process of
applying examined in another section.

2.1.2. Subject matter of geography

The subject matter of Geography is divided, according to the Geography Education Standards Project, into the
following six essential or basic elements:
a) The world in spatial terms
b) Places and regions,
c) Environment and society,
d) Physical systems
e) Human systems and
f) Uses of geography

a) The world in spatial terms is the element that refers to the interest of Geography in the relationships between
people, places and environments and how to structure information about them into a spatial context. That is, this
element essentially is expressing the process of knowing since it is focused on maps (including mental maps) and
other geographic representations as tools to acquire, organise process and report spatial information (Figure 1.1).

b) Places and regions, the second element, refers to the basic units of Geography related to where people are
rooted (places) and the means people use to interpret earth’s complexity (regions). More specifically, it is concerned
with how places have been endowed with meaning by humans since individuals and whole populations are rooted in
specific places or regions which themselves are human constructs. As a result, this element focuses on understanding
the physical and human characteristics of places that can be accomplished by analyzing conditions related to what
characteristics are located at certain places and the reverse, what are the places which have certain characteristics.

c) Physical systems, the next element, is concerned with the physical processes that shape the Earth’s surface
and the way they interact with flora and fauna creating functional units known as ecosystems. That is, this element is
focused on how the Earth serves as the home of all plants and animals including humans, the interactions and
relationships present as well as the changes occurring within that system. In other words, it is interested in
understanding the relationships and changes that maintain the physical environment and give rise to patterns of
spatial organization.

d) Human systems, the fourth element, is focused on human activities, considering people as the centrepiece of
Geography. More specifically, it is interested in understanding, among other things, the dynamics of population
characteristics and their distribution, the ways in which people choose to live where they live, the role culture plays in
the spatial organization of modern society, the spatial dimensions of economic activities and the fundamental functions
of human settlements. This wide spectrum of issues, within the understanding, process can be feasible through the
analysis of patterns, processes and changes in human populations and their characteristics and functions.

5
 e) Environment and society, the fifth element, emphasises the interaction and interrelationships between
physical and human systems. In other words, how humans modify the physical environment and are affected by it. As
a result, this element stresses the need to understand the opportunities and limitations present in the relationships
between human needs and physical environment. That is, the potential of a physical environment to meet human needs
and the limitations of that same environment in fulfilling them. Such an understanding, of course, requires the
analysis of the patterns, process and changes in the Environment-Society system.

It should be evident that these elements of the subject matter of Geography by drawing inferences and analysing
relationships, changes, patterns and processes taking place in space, actually reflect what has been termed as
understanding (Figure 1.1).

f) Uses of geography, the sixth and final element, enables people “to be informed of the past, interpret the
present and plan for the future” [5]. In other words, to apply geography or comprehend the relationships between
people, places and environments. But such an approach surely is addressing the process of applying which is more
reflective of the geographical perspectives and will be examined next.

2.1.3. Geographic perspectives.

A geographic perspective is a collective (geographers’) point of view interpreting the meaning of patterns,
processes and relationships which involve people, places and environments. That is, a geographic perspective (which
according to GESP is mainly spatial and ecological) is simply a lens through which geographers look at the world.
Although most geographers think of a geographic perspective as a frame of reference for knowing the world by
determining the Geographers’ skills and for understanding the surface of the earth by specifying their subject matter,
nevertheless a geographic perspective is much more than those. More specifically, it involves the ways that knowledge
and understanding can be used to solve geographic problems or the process of applying. That is, the spatial dimension
of human experience on earth, which brings people, places and environment under the lens of geography, provides the
means for solving spatial problems by actively participating in the process of applying (Figure 1.1).

2.2. Basic processes in teaching geography

The discussion up to this point has shown that in teaching geography (i.e. instructing students the necessary skills,
the appropriate subject matter and in applying them to solve geographic problems) the instruction should be focused on
“learning the concepts and vocabulary of geography (knowing) so they may begin to think about what they mean
(understanding) and apply to real problems (applying)” [6]. That is, geography skills, subject matter and perspectives
correspond to the processes of knowing, understanding and applying as shown in Figure 1.1.

2.2.1. The process of knowing.

This process in spatial terms is expressed by two questions: “What is it?” and “Where is it?”. That is, through
instruction geography students should be able to participate in two related functions with respect to
managing/processing geographic information: observing and recalling. In other words, geography students are
expected to be able through observing and recalling to acquire information, to arrange and organise them and finally to
represent them. In doing this, they should be able to answer the fundamental questions of the knowing process
mentioned previously, as a result of having the necessary geography skills.

2.2.2. The process of understanding.

This process is expressed by at least three questions: “Why is there?”, “How did it get there?”, “What is its
significance?”. In terms of geography teaching, therefore, the focus is on students to be able to attribute meaning to
what they observe and mainly to explain it. That, of course, involves the teaching of all the analytical concepts and
principles that provide them with the ability to comprehend, to see connections between diverse pieces of geographic
information and to use that information to explain patterns and processes in space; in other words, to understand the
subject matter of geography.

6
2.2.3. The Process of applying.
This process is expressed by the well known question: “How can knowledge and understanding be used to solve
spatial problems?”. This process involves forming problem-solving models, formulating solutions to problems and in
general applying geographic knowledge in a practical manner to real life situations that influence the world around us.
As a result, geography students have to comprehend and deal with sophisticated contemporary issues by knowing their
skills and understanding their subject matter to solve everyday problems. And in doing so, to interpret the world
through their own perspectives. The question then that needs to be answered is: how can we teach these processes?

2.3. Teaching with GIS

It is strongly believed that GIS, as an excellent set of “tools by geographers to better observe the earth, to measure
natural or human actions and the technology impacts on the environment” [9], they represent an appropriate instruction
framework for Geography. Indeed, GIS can answer a series of questions that express Geography’s skills, subject
matter and perspectives and reflect the processes of knowing, understanding and applying (see Figure 1.1) or as the
GESP has put it “at its simplest, a geographic information system does what geographers have always done” [5].

The literature fully supports this position. Rhind [10] has put forward a classification of six types of generic
questions that GIS users utilise in their investigations (Table 1.1). On the same line of reasoning, but putting emphasis
on the power of GIS as spatial databases, the GESP [5] selects five of the six types of Rhind’s generic questions
(excludes the question “which is the best way?”) to express the ability of GIS to act as supporting system in learning
and teaching geography.

In addition, Crain and McDonald [11] have developed a scheme describing three stages in the evolution of GIS.
They have suggested that the first set of activities that a GIS can perform is the inventory applications which are
focused on assembling, organising and undertaking an inventory of features of interest and thus they can be used to
answer Rhind’s first two questions. The second set is referred to the use of statistical and more complex analytical
operations (the analysis applications) which can respond to Rhind’s next three questions and the third set is focused on
GIS as a decision support system which directly respond to Rhind’s last question but indirectly the last four (Table
1.1). Finally, Koutsopoulos [12], expressing also similar ideas put forth by Cowen [13] and Maguire [14], has shown
that the capabilities of GIS can be grouped into three processes, namely processing (subdivided into cartographic and
information), spatial analysis and planning, which in turn provide answers to the questions posed by Rhind or GESP in
a manner shown in Table 1.1.

From Table 1.1 it can be seen: first, that even a cursory review of the literature (the small differences observed
result from the fact that the earlier authors were not privy to the advances made lately in GIS) firmly establishes that
GIS can answer a wide spectrum of questions encompassing all aspects of the science of geography. Second, and most
important, these questions representing three distinct processes are identical to the basic cognitive learning processes
of geography. In simpler terms, GIS is able to answer all the questions that knowing, understanding and applying in
geography require or their power can be used in instructing geography.

This thesis seems to be supported by several reports on teaching Geography using GIS at all levels. More
specifically, it has been shown that: first, the use “of GIS offers the understanding associated with developing
conceptual models of understanding” [15]; second, the skills prescribed by GESP “are easily developed through the
successful and appropriate integration of GIS into learning environment” [15]; and third, empirical results from high
schools and universities indicate that GIS are “an excellent problem-solving tool” [16].

3. Teaching GIS
As Morison [17] has pointed out, the term GIS can be broken into two constituent parts: GIS = Geographic +
Information Systems. That is, Geography or the spatial component is at least as important as the information one and
thus the value of GIS to Geography is axiomatic rather than requiring proof. What requires elaboration, however, is
GIS’s ability to provide the tools, the analytic capabilities and the means to meet the needs for decision making, for

7
these in turn determine the type of questions that can be answered. As a result, in teaching GIS with the goal to create a
platform in instructing (indirectly) Geography, there is a need to define what GIS are and what they can accomplish
(the questions they are able to answer), for in this manner it can be clarified what basic geographic tenets can be
taught. In other words, the aim is to formulate a conceptual framework, as shown in Figure 1.2 (end of chapter), on
how to teach Geography by instructing about GIS.
3.1. Defining GIS
Even at an earlier stage in the development of GIS, Rhind et al [18] wrote that “the applications of GIS are limited
only by awareness of the possibilities, the imagination of those in charge of the facilities and the costs involved”.
Indeed, the purposes that GIS can be put to use form a very wide spectrum. Based on that, several researchers have
tried to define GIS by their applications. But surely the applications cannot define what GIS are and what they can do,
for such an idea violates scientific deontology and leads towards dangerous conceptual paths. It appears that the only
satisfactory way to develop an appropriate definition of GIS is to summarise the many disparate ideas in the form of a
series of views on GIS.

From the literature it can be deducted that there are three main set of views as to what constitutes a GIS. The first
set of views, also known by Burrough and McDonell [19] as the toolbox-based definition, is expressed by the UK’s
Department of Environment which defined GIS as “a system for capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing
and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the earth” [18]. This definition emphasises GIS’s ability to
manipulate spatially referenced data or the capability to process, organise and represent precise spatial coordinate
systems. Another aspect of the same set of views was elaborated by Smith et al., who considered GIS as “a database
system in which most of the data are spatially indexed and upon which a set of procedures operate in order to answer
queries about spatial entities in the database” [19]. That is, they considered GIS as tools for the manipulation of the
structure and organization of spatial data.

In terms of this set of views, it can be said that, although there are many ways to acquire, organise, manage and
represent geographic information, two of them stand out as the most “geographic”. Mapping is the first, the most
important and an efficient vehicle to geographic knowledge. It is not by chance that geography has been called “the art
of the mappable” [5]. Making (encoding) maps, reading (decoding) maps and manipulating cartographic information
are among the most fundamental activities in managing/processing spatial information. A second way, a more recent
one, is related to IT techniques and is concerned with databases and more specific with Spatial databases necessary to
process the ever increasing volume of geographic data.

The second set of views is focused on the ability of GIS to provide a large range of analysis capabilities that can be
used in many ways. A representative of this view is the much quoted definition given by Burrough who considered
GIS as “the means for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real
world for a particular set of purposes” [19]. On the same line of reasoning, which puts analysis at least on the same
level of importance in GIS capabilities as those of storing and displaying, is Parker’s ideas who thought of GIS as “an
information technology which stores, analyzes and displays both spatial and non spatial data” [20]. These definitions
put forth the notion that having gone to the trouble of collecting and storing data and building a database, the next
issue in GIS is how to use these data to provide information in order to answer questions about the real world. This
involves a wide range of methods to accomplish analytic objectives such as: to monitor how human activities change
over space and time; to describe and compare the distribution of phenomena and the process which account for their
distribution; and to understand how people interact and communicate with each other and travel from one place to
another.

The third set of views is expressed by the definition given by Cowen who thought of GIS as “a decision support
system involving the integration of spatially referenced data in a problem solving environment” [13]. That is, GIS can
be seen as the vehicle to meet the needs of decision making activities, utilising spatial data.

It has been shown that all those views expressing the capabilities, the processes and the applications related to GIS
can be grouped into three approaches which are closely interrelated, but most importantly are complimentary [23].
8
More specifically, the first group is the Processing Approach and its aim is processing spatial data. It includes the
Cartographic Approach which is concerned with manipulating exclusively cartographic data (the input, the
processing and the output are all referred only to maps). The second subgroup is the Information Approach, which
emphasises the importance of GIS as Information Systems for managing spatial data bases. Both these subgroups are
related to manipulating spatial data (Figure 1.2).

The second group is referred as Spatial Analysis Approach and, as it is easily understood, it projects the
importance of spatial analysis. According to this approach, GIS represents part of the science of Geography and not
simply a new technological gadget (Figure 1.2).

The third group is known as Planning Approach and is focused on the ability of the GIS to help solve spatial
problems. That is, to actively participate in spatial planning (Urban and Regional) (Figure 1.2).

Finally, in terms of the educational uses of the processes shown in Figure 1.2, it should be noted that almost all of
their reported educational efforts have been directed only towards teaching about GIS, with very little work reported
on moving a step forward to using GIS to teach Geography. And that despite the fact that GIS are especially equipped
to teaching Geography, for the characteristics of both GIS and Geography stemmed from and evolved around their
spatial nature. What follows is such an attempt, by examining the questions GIS can answer, which in turn can create
the platform to instruct the basic geographic tenets or themes.

3.2. Questions answered by GIS

The approaches related to what GIS are and what they can accomplish (processing, analysis and planning) are
considered by most as independent and conflicting endeavours. However, such an approach is clearly scientifically
shallow and logically unsound. Certainly GIS are information systems but they are not exclusively manifested as such.
The same is true as to their role as analytic or planning tools. Clearly GIS are planning but not only planning tools.
They are an excellent spatial analysis methodology but they are not only that. Someone can certainly design excellent
maps using GIS but that does not exclude somebody else to execute a very complicate spatial analysis with them. In
sum, scientific reasoning, application results and common sense dictate that the three GIS approaches, mentioned
previously, are scientific fields which, having as common background the spatial dimension, are closely interrelated,
complementary and all of them are separate components of an intergraded spatial approach.

In other words, they represent a common geographic instrument showing different manifestations and capabilities
and thus able to answer different questions to cover particular needs within a spatial framework. More specifically, as
shown in Figure 1.2:

In the processing approach:

i. Querying a database to determine the types of features existing at given place answers the question “what is
at…?” (i.e. what is the population density of a given city?).
ii. Finding the location of sites which have certain characteristics responds to the question “where is it…?” (i.e.
where are the residential areas within 200m. from a specific river?).
In the analysis approach:
iii. Monitoring how things change over time provides answer to the question “what has changed…?” (i.e. what is
the change in the traffic flow along a certain highway?).
iv. Allowing the description and comparisons of the distribution of phenomena help answer the question “what is
the pattern…?”, which in turn can help in understanding the processes which account for their distribution (i.e.
is there a pattern in the distribution of crimes which are thought to be caused by poverty?).
v. Calculating the “best” (fastest, quickest, shortest etc) route between places answers the question “which is the
best way…?”, a question related to interaction on earth (i.e. which is the nearest supermarket?).

Finally, within the planning process:

9
 vi. Allowing different models of the world to be evaluated, answers are provided to the question “what
if…?” (i.e. which areas of a certain valley will be affected if there is a 50 year flood?).

3.3. The basic themes of geography

The innovative efforts of U.S. Geographers to combat students’ learning deficits and teachers’ inadequate formal
preparation in geography, who in the 80’s “realised that the task of erasing geographical illiteracy was two fold: first,
to educate the general public that geography is more than place-name knowledge and, second, that the efforts to
improve the geographic performance of American students and teachers would have to be a multi-pronged effort” [24],
resulted in a framework for Geography [25]. More specifically, they identified and developed five key themes in the
study of Geography to help those that were unfamiliar with the discipline as well as the Geography students at various
educational levels by providing them a tool for the instruction of geographical concepts [25] [26]. Since that time these
themes have been universally adopted as a method to organise geographic content, skills and perspectives and as a
framework for geography studies in all educational levels. In addition there was a strong drive in establishing that
Geography can serve as the logical entry point for GIS.

On the other side of the ocean, in most countries, geography curricula have been improved, which in some cases
could be the envy of American teachers [4], responding to similar needs. On the other hand, in these curricula a more
timid approach has been followed towards the role of GIS, which however were explicitly taken into consideration.
For example, in the United Kingdom, in the Attainment Level 10, students are to “construct a composite map for a
specific purpose by overlaying separate distributions of thematic data and evaluate its effectiveness as a Geographic
Information System” [27]. In Germany, as part of a well established geography education program, a project week is
featured in the Realschule curriculum which serves as an excellent mode for the use of GIS in the schools [27]. In
general, changes in the field of Geography differ between USA and Europe in that in Europe changes are
fundamentally driven by the increased efficiency of microprocessors as opposed to the USA that has been overtaken
by it, but the basic question that needs to be addressed on both sides remains and is: can GIS activities and concepts be
used to help express the above mentioned themes?

3.3.1. Location. Absolute and relative location are two ways of describing the positions of people and places on
the surface of the earth. Absolute location is usually determined by use of latitude and longitude coordinates, while
relative location is determined by associating a particular place with other places.

Both expressions of location can be effectively demonstrated by GIS. In terms of absolute location the position of
a feature on the Earth’s surface with respect to a known coordinate system is fundamental in GIS representation of the
real world (along with its attribute and topology). In addition, a GIS could emphasise the role of various reference
systems for establishing “absolute” location, since all features in a GIS are geographically referenced. Relative
location is also well served by GIS, given the existence of topology. Moreover, relative locations could be compared at
different scales, with varying levels of detail displayed and in changing perspective (i.e. 3-D, oblique views,
orthophoto/digital map combinations). As a result, having proved that GIS are able to answer the “what is at…?”
question, it is evident that they can certainly be used to teach the location theme of geography and thus be utilised in
instructing indirectly at least this theme of geography (Figure 1.2).

3.3.2. Place. Places are generally described by their physical or human characteristics. That is, all places on Earth
have distinctive tangible and intangible characteristics that give them meaning and character and distinguish them from
other places.

The theme place can also be creatively approached within a GIS framework. Given that in a GIS the various
characteristics of a location are placed on different layers, these layers can show what characteristics exist in each
location and how places differ. In addition, the elements determining the nature of a place can be examined in various
combinations which help to show how the theme place is subjective, though often the characteristics are objective. But
the most important issue here is that GIS by answering the “where is it…?” question in a simple or a more complicated
form, they can be used in teaching the theme place and thus be utilised in instructing geography (Figure 1.2).

10
 3.3.3. Relationships within places. All places on Earth have advantages and disadvantages for human settlement
and as a result people interact with particular places in various ways. Humans interacting with their environments
require the knowledge of the modifications and transformations of environments by human and physical causes and
the effects of physical features on the lives of people.

GIS are especially equipped to analyse all kinds of information related to the human/environment interaction at a
place. For example, a combination of layers depicting human activities can be used to monitor how these activities
change over space and time. A more sophisticated use of GIS could be an analysis of how an area can benefit or hinder
human activities and thus describe and compare the distribution of those activities and understand the processes which
account for their distribution. In simple terms, because GIS can be used to provide answers to the questions “what has
changed…?” and “what is the pattern…?”, they can be utilised to teach the theme of relationships within places (the
Human/Environment interaction) and as a result provide a powerful instruction tool for the science of Geography
(Figure 1.2).

3.3.4. Movement. Since two people can not occupy the same place on the surface of the earth and a person can not
be in two different places at the same time, humans need to interact through travel, trade, flows of information and
ideas etc.

GIS are particularly adapted in the analysis on how humans interact on earth. Network analysis (from analyses of
urban traffic patterns to seasonal flows of migrant workers) facilitates understanding of the various aspects of the
theme movement and thus can be used in teaching and instructing geography (Figure 1.2).

3.3.5. Region. The basic unit of geographic study is the region, which is a human construct representing an area
that displays unity in terms of specific criteria. Any form of planning cannot be carried out without determining the
geographic units involved. As a result, how the units of the geographic study form and organise is a fundamental
component of the planning process.

Regions can be mapped and analyzed, since they can be represented in a GIS as polygonal map features. For
example, various regions in a GIS could be overlaid to create new regions, but most importantly with the analysis
capabilities and rapid update of information available in them, regional boundaries can be manipulated. At a higher
level, attempts to display fuzzy boundaries in a GIS can help decipher the differences between discrete and continuous
variation through space. In all these examples, the use of GIS can also be seen as a vehicle to instruct geography
through the teaching of the various aspects of the theme of Region (Figure 1.2).

In sum, it should be clear that GIS, because of their capabilities, concepts and applications, are inherently an
excellent medium for exploring the types of questions mentioned previously. Therefore, they help express the five
themes of Geography in a way that increases teachers’ effectiveness in bringing geography to their students. That is,
although GIS do not primary create new knowledge but rather reinforce learning established concepts, refine skills in
analysing existing data and practice the basic methods of scientific enquiry, they serve as a reinforcer rather than an
enabler in geographic thinking. However, that does not exclude them from accessing and analysing information for
either role and provide an enhanced ability to expand the teaching of Geography by instructing the five key themes of
that science.

4. GIS and Geography Education

From the previous discussion it was made clear that GIS can serve as a unique educational tool in which the
manipulation, analysis and presentation of spatial data can support the (direct and indirect) teaching of Geography.
However, more important is the fact that when GIS are employed to improve student access to geographic information,
patterns and relationships, they empowered them to be active learners of Geography [28]. That is, GIS provide more
than simply convenient techniques for organizing, analyzing and presenting spatial information; they also facilitate the
kind of spatial reasoning that provide geographic intelligence, which in turn supports higher levels of learning [29]. In

11
other words, research findings suggest that GIS are a powerful tool to enhance the educational experiences of
geography learners and at the same time to develop higher-ordered thinking skills.

As a result, in recent years repeated calls have been heard to bring GIS into the mainstream of geographic
education with very little, unfortunately, success, despite the fact that many educators consider GIS to be one of the
most promising means for implementing educational reform. The reason is that although “GIS and educational reform
in Geography are each separately in the mainstream of research, the combination of GIS and education clearly is on
the periphery” [30].

It is strongly believed that this situation is the result of two factors: first, research thus far has emphasised teaching
separately Geography and GIS rather than teaching with GIS [31] and about GIS as it is proposed here. The second
factor is that geography educators are consumed over the issue of constructivist vs behaviourist approaches to learning
and refuse to actually move forward (an extended discussion on this issue is given by Scheurman [32]). Until that issue
is resolved by the experts, and given that “GIS appears to fit in well with constructivist environment” [16], it is
proposed that we take advantage of GIS’s abilities and start with an activity-based instruction model. That is, for the
time been we can accept the notion that knowledge within a GIS environment is constructed by the learner, based on
his or her own experiences, rather than being exclusively transferred from teacher to student and thus fully utilise GIS.

Such an approach is supported by abundant research which has shown that “students not only learn by hearing and
seeing, they also have the ability and opportunity to personally apply the knowledge using higher-order skills such as
problem solving and synthesis” [15] or as the old saying goes, which was transferred to us by the same authors: “Tell
me and I’ll forget, Show me and I may not remember. Involve me and I’ll understand”. That is, the use of GIS by
involving student activities increases their retention rates.

In agreement with that ESRI [33] has pointed out “that GIS can be incorporated into current curricula in all
grades and subjects, supporting and enhancing existing activities... These powerful tools permit teachers and students
to explore and analyze information in new ways, focusing students’ activities on the higher order thinking skills of
observation and explorations -questioning, speculation, analysis and evaluation”.

5. Epilogue
In closing, it should be noted that the use of GIS as an appropriate, powerful and effective instrument in teaching
(directly and indirectly) geography is not problem free as the discussion might have made someone believe. GIS while
capable of demonstrating all aspects of geography can create misconceptions such as:
• GIS based education, if seen as simply a digital view of the world, is both narrow and misguided.
• GIS, while capable of exemplifying the five fundamental themes of Geography, if seen as more than merely one of
the potential tools for geography education, is certainly inappropriate.
• The use of GIS technology by those serving such strands of geography as cultural, socialist, feminist etc is not
easy and in many cases it might not be appropriate (i.e. the cultural milieu of an area may best be communicated
through photos, videos and cultural artifacts).
• Considering GIS as the best means to communicate the whole of geography, as overzealous practitioners might
do, is certainly not true.
• Attaching importance to GIS on the implementation of technology merely for technology’s sake, rather than as an
educationally relevant tool (among other uses), is surely misleading.

In addition there are several inherent limitations in providing GIS based instruction.
• One set of such limitations is related to the questions on the appropriate role of technology in learning (a good
review is provided by Palladino’s Chapter 3 [4]).
• Another set is tied to the structure of data in GIS, which creates a view of information that sometimes confuses
students, who are used in simplified or even their own mental maps, which of course are less accurate in absolute
sense than those created by GIS, but are understandable and acceptable to them.

12
• A third set is related to the methods of gathering and displaying information by humanist geographers, which are
not always compatible or transferable to the mathematically structured GIS databases.

Although teaching GIS provides the opportunity for issues-based, student-centred, standards-based, inquiry-
oriented education, their effectiveness is limited by three set of obstacles [30]:
• Technical, which stems from the lack of availability of hardware, software and data, the continuous changes of
hardware and software and the increasing complexity of software.
• Pedagogical, which is related to lack of experienced faculty and teachers, and the means to train them as well as
shortage of curriculum material.
• Systemic, which consists of issues associated with faculty motivation or the systemic issues that encourage or
discourage innovation in education.

A final note, summing up this chapter, is that although GIS are not a panacea for knowing, understanding and
applying Geography and may not always be the best instrument in teaching the five fundamental themes or answering
the basic generic questions of Geography, they are, nevertheless, a very powerful vehicle for reinvigorating geography
instruction and reinforcing spatial learning. But most importantly they represent “a shift from learning about
Geography to learning to do Geography” [16] and therefore they urgently need to be brought into the mainstream of
geographic education.

The implication of that shift is far more important than simple academic necessity, given that great transformations
are occurring in the way European countries conduct their business and go about daily living [34]. That is, as they
speed in the new millennium GIS are becoming an integral part of many activities and as many applications in the
workplace. As a result, the need to “do” Geography is in jeopardy since there is a valid concern that there will not be a
sufficiently GIS educated geography workforce to make use of its potential. With the realisation that the role of
geography workforce may be slipping, especially with regards to traditional areas such as planning and infrastructure
management, the need to address GIS teaching is not only self-evident but necessary. Future employability of
Geography graduates within the new workplace environment can be strengthen if GIS skills and capabilities are
included in Geography curricula in order for Geography graduates to remain marketable and strengthen their chances
in seeking employment.

6. References
[1] D. Freeman, “Using Information Technology and New Technologies in Geography”. In Tilbury, D. and Williams,
M. (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography, London: Rutledge, pp. 202-217, 1997.

[2] B. Marsden, “The Place of Geography in the School Curriculum: A Historical Overview 1886-1976”. In Tilbury,
D. and Williams, M. (eds), Teaching and Learning Geography, London: Rutledge, pp. 7-14, 1997.

[3] K.K. Kempt, et al., “Teaching GIS in Geography”, The Professional Geographer, Vol.44, No2, pp.181-191, 1992.

[4] S. Palladino, A Role for Geographic Information Systems in the Secondary Schools: An Assessment of the Current
Status and Future Possibilities, MSc Thesis: Santa Barbara: University of California, 1994.

[5] Geography Education Standards Project, Geography for Life - National Geography Standards, Washington D.C.:
National Geographic Society, 1994.

[6] NAEP Geography Consensus Project, Geography Assessment Framework, Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of
Education, 1994.

[7] C. Fitzpatrick, “Computers in Geography Instruction”, Journal of Geography, Vol. 89, No. 4, pp. 148-149, 1990.

13
[8] D. Thompson, “GIS – A View from the other (Dark?) Side: The Perspective of an Instructor of Introductory
Geography Courses at University Level”, Cartographica, VOl.28, No.3, pp.55-64, 1991.

[9] R. Gerber, “Technology Education: An Emerging Component in Geographical Education?”. In Hill, D. (ed.),
International Perspectives on Geographic Education, Skokie, Illinois: Rand McNally, 1992.

[10] D.W. Rhind, “Global Databases and GIS”. In Foster, M.J. and Shand, P.J. (eds), The Association for Geographic
Information Yearbook, London: Taylor And Francis, pp.218-223, 1990.

[11] I.K. Crain, and C.L. McDonald, “From Land Inventory to Land Management”, Cartographica, Vol. 21, pp. 40-
46, 1984.

[12] K.C. Koutsopoulos, Geographic Information Systems and Spatial Analysis (in Greek), Athens: Papasotiriou,
2002.

[13] D.J. Cowen, “GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: What are the Differences?”, Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing, Vol. 54, pp. 1551-1554, 1988.

[14] J.D. Maguire, “An Overview and Definition of GIS”. In J.D. Maguire et al. (eds), Geographic Information
Systems, New York: Longman Scientific Technical, Vol.1, pp. 9-20, 1991.

[15] L.R. Sanders, et al., “Electronic Mapping in Education”, Journal of Research on Technology in Education,
Vol.34, No.2, pp.121-129, Winter 2001/2002.

[16] A.T. Keiper, “GIS for Elementary Students: an Inquiry into a New Approach to Learning Geography”, Journal of
Geography, Vol.98, No.2, pp.47-59, 1999.

[17] J.L. Morison, “The Organization Home for GIS in the Scientific Professional Community”. In J.D. Maguire et al.
(eds), Geographic Information Systems, New York: Longman Scientific Technical, Vol.1, pp. 91-100, 1991.

[18] W.D. Rhind, et al., “Introduction”. In Maguire et al (eds.), Geographic Information Systems Principles and
Applications, New York: Longman Scientific and Technical, Vol.2, pp. 3-10, 1991.

[19] P.A. Burrough, Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment, Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1986.

[20] Department of Environment, Handling Geographic Information. London: HMSO, 1987.

[21] T.R. Smith, “Requirements and Principles for the Implementation and Construction of Large-Scale Geographic
Information Systems”, International Journal of Geographic Information Systems, Vol.1, pp.13-31, 1987.

[22] H.D. Parker, “The Unique Qualities of a Geographic Information System: A Commentary”, Photogrammetric
Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 54, pp. 1557-1559, 1988.

[23] K.C. Koutsopoulos, What’s European about European Geography? The Case of Geoinformatics in
Europeanization, Paper presented at the HERODOT network meeting, Tartu, Estonia, June 2004.

[24] S.J. Natoli, “Preface”. In S.J. Natoli (ed.), Strengthen Geography in the Social Studies Curriculum-Bulletin 81,
Washington D.C.: National Council for the Social Studied, 1988.

14
[25] Joint Committee on Geographic Education, Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary
Schools, Washington D.C.: American Association of Geographers and National Council for Geographic Education,
1984.

[26] S.J. Natoli, and C. F. Gritzner, “Modern Geography”. In S.J. Natoli (ed.), Strengthen Geography in the Social
Studies Curriculum-Bulletin 81, Washington D.C.: National Council for the Social Studied, 1988.

[27] Department of Education and Science (DES), “Geography for Ages 5 to 16”. Proposal of the Secretary of State
for Education and Science and the Secretary of Wales, London: HMSO, 1990.

[28] M.P. Bishop, et al, “Integration of Computer Technology and Interactive Learning in Geographic Education”,
Journal in Higher Education, Vol.19, No.1, pp.97-110, 1995.

[29] J.W. Lloyd, “Integrating GIS into the Undergraduate Learning Environment”, Journal of Geography, Vol.100,
No.5, pp.158-163, 2001.

[30] J.J. Kerski, “The Implementation and Effectiveness of Geographic Information Systems. Technology and
Methods in Secondary Education”, Journal of Geography, Vol.102, No.3, pp.128-137, 2001.

[31] D.Z. Sui, “A Pedagogic Framework to Link GIS to Intellectual Core of Geography”, Journal of Geography,
Vol.94, No.6, pp.578-591, 1995.

[32] G. Scheurman, “From Behaviorist to Constructivist Teaching”, Journal of Geography, Vol.62, pp.6-9, 1998.

[33] Environmental Systems Research Institute, GIS in K-12 Education, Redlands CA: ESRI on line document, 1998.

[34] C. E. Dunn, Participatory GIS - a people’s GIS?, Progress in Human Geography, 31(5): 616–637, 2007.

15
 Figure 1.1: A Conceptual Framework in Instructing with GIS

Acquire
Asking Questions
Arrange
Acquiring Information KNOWING PROCESSING
Organise
SKILLS
Organising
Represent

Analysing Questions

Answering Questions

World in Spatial

Relationship
Places and Regions

Changes ANALYSIS
SUBJEC Physical Systems UNDERSTANDIN
T
Patterns
Human Systems
Processes
Environment &

The Uses of

Places
Spatial
PERSPE
- APPLYING Environment PLANNING
Ecological
People

16
 Figure 1.2: A Conceptual Framework in Instructing About GIS

Process, organise and Absolute and

represent precise relative
WHAT IS AT? LOCATION
spatial coordinate location on the
systems earth’s surface
PROCESSING

Manipulation of the
structure and Physical and
organization of WHERE IS IT? human PLACE
Spatial Data characteristics

Methods to monitor
how human activities WHAT HAS
change over space CHANGED?
and time
Humans
interacting on
environment RELATIONSHIPS
Methods to describe WITHIN PLACES
and compare the
distribution of
phenomena and the WHAT IS THE
processes which PATTERN?
ANALYSIS
account for their
distribution

Methods to
understand how
people interact and Human
communicate with WHAT IS THE interacting on MOVEMENT
each other and travel INTERACTION? earth
from one place to
another

Meet the needs of How the units

decision making of geographic
PLANNING WHAT IF? study form REGIONS
activities, utilizing
spatial data and organise

17
Table 1.1: Teaching with GIS

Crain &
Rhind (1990) GESP (1994) Koutsopoulos (2002) NAEP (1994) JCGE (1984)
McDonald (1984)
What is at…? What is at…? Location
(Location) (Inventory and/or Cartographic What is it?
monitoring) Inventory Processing Knowing
Where is it…? Where is it…? Applications Approach Process Place
(Condition) (Inventory and/or Information Where is it?
monitoring)
What has What has changed…?
changed…? (Inventory and/or Why is it there?
(Trend) monitoring) Relationships
What is the What special pattern Within Places
Analysis Understanding What is its
pattern…? exists? (Spatial Spatial Analysis Approach
Applications Process significance?
(Pattern) analysis)
Which is the Movement
How did it get
best way…?
there?
(Routing)
What if…? What if…? Management Planning Approach Applying How to solve Region
(Modeling) (Modeling) Applications Process geographic
problems?

18
 2. Spatial Thinking to Understand Europe - The Global GIS Project
Joseph J. Kerski, Ph.D.
Geographer, ESRI Inc.
jkerski@esri.com.

Abstract
The Global GIS (Geographic Information System) project opens the world of spatial analysis to those who wish to teach
about Europe. A series of educational units on natural hazards, population, water resources, and energy encourage
researchers, educators, and students to use geographic inquiry to analyze current as well as centuries-old issues and
problems. Through spatial analysis and GIS methods, students use digital maps and databases to examine patterns,
relationships, and trends in an inquiry-based, problem-solving environment. Students manipulate dynamic maps and
databases to determine the “whys of where” and acquire some real career skills in the process.

Key words: spatial analysis, GIS, Europe, inquiry

1. Spatial Analysis with GIS in Teaching and Learning

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide an environment in which to analyze spatial data, or information about
the Earth. The “G” part of GIS is some representation of the Earth — a scanned topographic map, aerial photograph,
satellite image, map of population, climate data, or a 3-D representation of a watershed, for example. The “I” part of a
GIS is the information about the features on the map. This information is stored in one or more tables in a relational
database. It could indicate whether a stream is perennial or intermittent, the name of a city, the elevation of a contour
line, or other attribute. The power of a GIS is in the “S” part—the System that allows the user to analyze both the
representation and the attributes of the Earth simultaneously.

Europe’s political geography, watersheds, climate, natural hazards, population, geology, vegetation, soils, land use,
and history can be analyzed in a GIS using computerised maps, aerial photographs, satellite images, databases, and graphs
(Figure 2.1). By analyzing how the Earth’s hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and anthrosphere (people)
make Europe a unique region, a GIS helps students understand patterns, linkages, and trends through a geographic
framework.

However, a GIS is more than a set of data. It is a set of

methods that allow a student to investigate geographic data. A
GIS helps students understand both content and context. The
content is natural hazards, hydrology, politics, and the like, but
the context is the complex way in which these phenomena
interact. One cannot be understood by itself, but by examining
them together, students grasp the complex environment in which
we live. For example, students can determine how many people
live in specific climate zones, in specific watersheds, or on
specific land use types in the context of pressure on natural
resources. They can determine how many European cities are
within 100 kilometres of a fault line in the context of emergency
preparedness. They can discover the presence or absence of
mineral and energy resources over different parts of the European Figure 2.1: Three-dimensional view of a
continent, and how those resources affect transportation networks watershed within a GIS framework.
and the historical growth of cities.

Yet, despite having a wealth of spatial data at their fingertips, and the tools and methods in which to explore the data,
the most important part of spatial analysis within a GIS environment is the geographic enquiry process. The enquiry
19
process involves asking a geographic question, developing a methodology to address the question, acquiring the data
pertinent to that question, analyzing that data, and drawing conclusions. The conclusions usually lead to a new
geographic question, or a refinement of the original question. The original question may not be able to be answered in its
entirety, or it may not even have a definite answer. Such is the nature of using real world data, with all of its complexities
and shortcomings. The data does not tell the whole story. The student must engage with and make sense of the data
(Figure 2.2).

GIS and Remote Sensing (RS) are used in three major ways in
courses at the primary, secondary, and university level. First,
teaching about GIS and Remote Sensing dominates at the
university level, where courses in methods and theory of
geospatial sciences are taught largely in geography departments.
Increasingly, these courses are spreading to engineering, business,
environmental studies, geology, and in other disciplines as these
other disciplines realise the value of spatial analysis. Second,
teaching with GIS and remote sensing is emphasised in teacher
training and thus at primary and secondary level, where GIS in
particular is used to teach concepts and skills in earth science,
geography, chemistry, biological science, history, and
mathematics courses. Finally, GIS, Remote Sensing, and Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) are used as a fundamental research Figure 2.2: Students examining population
tool in all institutes of higher education, in environmental studies, distribution in a GIS environment
geography, demography, geology, and in other disciplines. These
technologies form the basis for a science in their own right—Geographic Information Sciences (GIScience). GIScience
has emerged with its own research base, and ways of thinking about the world, and is a field of study at most major
universities, colleges, and higher education institutions.

Educators are increasingly seeking meaningful learning and

teaching experiences for their students that use real world tools in
real-world settings [1]. The U.S. Labour Secretary's Commission on
Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) stated that the most effective
way to teach skills is "in context" [12]. SCANS competencies include
identifying resources, working with others, using information, and
understanding complex interrelationships. These competencies are
what most people encounter each day in the workplace, and using
GIS, students encounter the same skills. These skills are increasingly
in demand as our world becomes more and more monitored and
measured spatially. For years, the mantra of business was “location,
location, location.” Interest in spatial thinking has extended far
beyond business in the 21st Century, as people are realising that nearly
every global, regional, and local issue or problem has a geographic
context. Early in 2004, the US Secretary of Labour identified
geotechnologies, nanotechnology, and biotechnology as the “most
important emerging and evolving fields” [5]. Global climate change,
coastal erosion, acid rain, oil spills, population growth, urban sprawl,
biodiversity loss, sustainable land use, floods, earthquakes, storms,
volcanoes, crime, terrorism, mineral resource extraction, energy
sources, and smart transportation are just a few of today’s pressing
issues. All of them have a geographic context, and they are all
analyzed in the workplace with GIS. Why not have students analyse Figure 2.3: Global GIS CD cover for Europe
the same issues with the same tools as those used by wildlife

20
managers, city planners, geographers, geologists, hydrologists, and others?

Since the dawn of national efforts to determine the content of national curricula, educators have been progressing
toward models of instruction that emphasise hands-on, interdisciplinary, research-based learning experiences. These
include standards in technology (such as the International Society for Technology in Education 2000 [6]), geography
(such as the Geography Education Standards Project [4]), social studies (such as the National Council for the Social
Studies, National Task Force for Social Studies Standards 1994 [10]), and science (such as the National Research Council
1996 [11]). The USA national geography standards state, “The power of a GIS is that it allows us to ask questions of
data” [4]. Students using this enquiry-based approach form research questions, develop a methodology, gather and
analyze data, and draw conclusions. At a European level, no similar standards system or structure exists as yet.

A growing body of research points to the benefits of using GIS to enhance student learning, despite implementation
challenges ([2], [3], [7]). The approach is not, "How can we get GIS into the curriculum?" but rather, "How can GIS help
educators to accomplish their goals in the classroom?"

Since the early 1990s, a growing body of exciting educational units have been developed by educators, for educators,
at all levels that help students examine their world using GIS. These include over 130 lessons on ESRI’s ArcLessons site
http://www.esri.com/arclessons, and recent books of standards-based lessons and data by ESRI Press entitled Mapping
Our World [8] and Community Geography—Teachers Guide [9]. Other resources include four books that use GIS to
explore earth science topics about the dynamic Earth from Thomson Brooks-Cole Publishing on
http://www.brookscole.com/earthscience_d/, the Mapping The Environment curricula developed by Dr. Bob Coulter of
the Missouri Botanical Garden on http://www.mobot.org/education/mapping/index.html, lessons, data in online, CD, and
DVD formats, and online courses from TERC on http://www.terc.edu. The Orton Family Foundation has developed a
Community Mapping Program (http://www.communitymap.org) that uses geospatial technology to empower students
and communities to actively participate in planning their futures. A series of GIS-based lessons from the US Geological
Survey have been developed on http://rockyweb.cr.usgs.gov/public/outreach/.

All of these resources use GIS and RS as a tool to investigate climate, population, watersheds, land use change,
landforms, tornadoes, political geography, earthquakes, ocean currents, historical settlement, hurricanes, and much more.
One of the most valuable resources, tools, and curricula used for education is the Global GIS project.

2. The Global GIS Project

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the American Geological Institute (AGI) partnered to make the USGS
Global GIS database readily available in the form of a CD and DVD-based world atlas (Figure 2.3). The USGS Global
GIS database contains a wealth of USGS and other public domain data, including global data of elevation, land cover,
seismicity, and resources of minerals and energy at a scale of 1:1 million. The GIS, which is run on Environmental
Systems Research Institute's (ESRI) ArcView Data Publisher software, is produced by region (typically a continent) on
seven CD-ROMs and also on a single DVD. The Data Publisher software is included on the CDs and DVD. The Europe
data covers a block of latitude and longitude that includes some of north Africa and west Asia, north of about 30 degrees
north latitude, and east of about 30 degrees west longitude.

Many of these datasets were previously available in digital form, but were difficult to obtain, or required expensive or
complex software to access them. The Global GIS resource includes a user-friendly GIS viewer and set of tools.

The Global GIS project combines existing global datasets, enhancing the impact of individual data products, and
makes the aggregate product attractive to educators and researchers alike. The Global GIS database is designed to be
used with the full version of ArcView 3.0 or higher, or the included free software, ArcView Data Publisher. Each CD
and DVD contains customised tools specifically designed for the datasets, making it useful for beginners or advanced GIS
users (Figure 2.4).

21
 The educational units created for the Global GIS project focus on Europe, but the investigations and questions they
these units contain about earthquakes, water resources,
population, and minerals can be applied to any region of the
world. The goal of the Global GIS units is to take something
that is of interest to students and use it as a focal point of
inquiry about the Earth. Instead of starting with a topic such as
map projections or seismicity, why not start with a topic that
the students have natural curiosity about, and build the lesson
from there? For example, in the Europe earthquakes Global
GIS units, students are asked to investigate the location and
characteristics of the most recent earthquakes near the
community in which they live, within the scenario that they are
working under contract for the EU Department of Emergency
Preparedness. Through the lessons, they realise that almost
every location has seen some earthquakes in the past. In
addition, if earthquakes are not the predominant natural hazard
in their community, they are asked to consider what other
hazards exist, and why hazards are important to regional
planning and international coordination.

Understanding the physical and human characteristics of

places, how physical systems affect human systems, and
applying geography to interpret the past through dynamic maps
are some of the geography standards that the units address.
The units address social studies issues of time, continuity, and
change; and people, places, and environments. The units
address technology tasks of how to gather, synthesise, and
process information, and they adhere to science standards by
analyzing ocean currents and climate.

The Global GIS units include student lesson sheets,

assessments, and answer keys. The units are designed for
university, teacher training, and even secondary school
students. Hundreds of short answer and fill-in-the-blank
questions address multiple learning styles. The step-by-step
lessons guide the students through parts that require using the
GIS software. The units are written for the tools included with Figure 2.4: Global GIS toolkit that comes with
the data—namely, ESRI’s ArcView Data Publisher, but the each data set, allowing for advanced query and
data sets can be used in the full suite of ArcGIS software and analysis.
also in other GIS software. In addition, the lessons themselves
can be modified for use in other GIS software.

Students are initially presented with the scenario that they work for an EU Department. To be prepared for an
emergency, they need to understand the geologic, biologic, hydrologic, and geographic characteristics and phenomena of
the planet, and of Europe. Included in this mission is a thorough understanding of earthquakes. To help assess where and
why earthquakes occur in Europe, this agency has hired the student as an earth systems scientist to provide them a report
that will include the distribution, frequency, and causes of earthquakes in Europe, specific regions of the continent, and
the country in which they attend school. Included in the report must be an analysis of the depth and magnitude of the
earthquakes, and the locations and characteristics of cities, volcanoes, and faults in relationship to earthquakes.

Earthquakes cause millions of dollars of property and critical infrastructure damage each year. "Critical

22
infrastructure" refers to large-scale systems that local, regional, and national governments build across the
landscape. These include roads, airport runways, power lines, gas pipelines, water pipelines, sewer lines, railroads, fiber
optic cable, broadband Internet lines, telephone lines, shipping docks, power stations, radio and television transmission
towers, and canals. Students are asked to list three kinds of critical infrastructure that could be destroyed or damaged
during an earthquake. For each, they are asked to describe why the destruction of these infrastructure resources is so
disruptive to local, regional, and national government and commerce.

After viewing an earthquake animation, the students are asked to determine the time period in which the earthquakes
cover. EU seismologists want the students to make three observations about the spatial pattern of earthquakes across the
European continent. Students consider the extent of the earthquakes, and specific areas of Europe where earthquakes
occur more often, and make three observations about the magnitude of earthquakes and where earthquakes of certain
magnitudes occur across Europe. They are asked if large earthquakes only occur in specific regions, and if so, where.
They also determine if any specific years seem to have more earthquakes than others, and if more earthquakes occur near
oceans or in the interior of Europe. They compare the number of earthquakes that occur in the oceans versus land, and
earthquakes in the Atlantic Ocean versus the Mediterranean Sea. They examine the mid-Atlantic ridge and reflect on the
hazard that exists to people when an earthquake occurs in the ocean. They assess the parts of Europe where people need
to be most concerned about earthquakes occurring in the ocean. Next, students turn their attention to volcanoes, making
three observations about the pattern of volcanoes in Europe, and determine the relationship of earthquakes and volcanoes.
Next, students determine, though analysis of the attribute database, how many earthquakes are recorded during an
average year, find the largest and deepest earthquakes in the database and on the map.

Next, read the following scenario: The student receives an email from the EU seismologists that ask them to
determine four major areas of Europe where most earthquakes occur. What four areas will they list in their report?
Students make different themes, such as major cities and country boundaries, visible and invisible with the touch of a
mouse. These maps are not static paper maps, but have become dynamic tools of learning. Students use the "Create
Profile" tool and draw a line from specific interior areas of the continent to the coast, noting how the land elevation
changes along the profile and how elevation and earthquakes may be linked. They are asked to determine the kind of
terrain more prone to earthquakes—valleys or mountains, and most importantly, are asked why they answered the way
they did. Of the major cities in southeast Europe, students are asked to indicate in their report to the EU the two cities
that they consider to be the most vulnerable to an earthquake. They are asked to indicate why they consider them to be
the most vulnerable.

The lessons build on one another so that students gradually use more sophisticated spatial analysis tools, gaining
analytical skills, but also deepen their understanding of the topic examined. In the earthquake unit, for example, students
progress through the activities in nine parts. In part one, “What’s Shakin’?”, students examine earthquakes across
Europe, noting their distribution, magnitude, and depth, and then examine specific regions on the continent, such as
Greece.

In part two, “Digging Deeper,” students examine the relationship between earthquakes and cities, and investigate
earthquakes in a specific area in Italy. Students investigate the relationship between earthquake epicenters and the
locations of volcanoes. In part three, students investigate the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755, one of the worst earthquakes
ever to strike Europe, assess critical infrastructure such as roads, railroads, and shipping ports, and assess the relationship
of fault lines to earthquakes in the region. They are asked to compare the location of the 1755 and other historical
earthquakes to modern-day epicenters. They also investigate the Turkey earthquake of 1999. Throughout the units,
students use other tools and resources, ranging from animations on the CD to Internet-based resources, such as historical
accounts of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.

Students assess their own community’s vulnerability to earthquakes using in part four. Are earthquakes the most
likely natural disaster in their community, or is some other natural hazard more likely?

In part five, “Earthquakes Everyday,” students analyse earthquakes that have occurred during the current week, by

23
downloading information from the USGS National Earthquake Information Centre on the Internet. They are asked if any
of this week’s earthquakes occurred in Europe, and if so, if the locations corresponded to the earthquake pattern in the
spatial data set they have been investigating, or if the current earthquakes are in a location that previously experienced
few earthquakes.

In the next part, students map these new earthquake locations in the GIS, downloaded from latitude-longitude
coordinate pairs from an Internet text file. They then compare them quantitatively to the historical earthquakes in their
GIS dataset.

In part seven, “Earthquakes Respect No Boundaries,” students determine how many earthquakes occurred in each
country through advanced GIS overlay analysis. They do this by selecting the country, and asking the GIS to compute
the number of earthquakes that have occurred within that country. The resulting number of earthquakes appears as
selected records in the database.

In a different section of the unit, students determine how many earthquakes are within 50 kilometres of major cities,
and assess the earthquake risk of these cities. Students also examine the relationship of earthquake intensity and depth to
the proximity of fault lines and plate boundaries. Instead of being told that different types of plate boundaries witness
different numbers of earthquakes, they discover this for themselves by interacting with the data.

The population unit includes sections where students examine the relationship of landforms, hazards, climate, land
use, and vegetation to population. They uncover the relationship of population to transportation routes, coastlines, and
rivers, and why urban areas grew where they did. They are invited to examine current growth rates and assess population
pressure on the environment in the region.

The watershed unit invites students to consider the fact that we are all using a shared resource, and that geography
matters. In the minerals unit, students explore the spatial pattern of minerals, how they are related to the geology of the
region, and minerals’ effect on watersheds, the location of cities, and transportation routes.

Sprinkled throughout the units are many “why?” questions. In answering these questions, students do not simply
click menus and buttons, but reflect on their answers. Students are also challenges to become familiar with and be critical
of the data they are using. They come to the realization that their answers are highly dependent on the quality of the data
sets they are using, and the scale at which they are examining.

At the end of each section, students indicate what they consider to be the most surprising thing they have learned in
that section, the most interesting thing, and the most significant thing. They are asked to indicate at least three things that
they have learned about the phenomenon in the region they are studying, and at least three things that they have learned
about GIS. At the end of the unit, they are asked to give a presentation on the phenomenon to their class, school, or
community group. In the case of earthquakes in Europe, the presentation must include:

1. Why earthquakes are a serious international natural hazard.

2. Where earthquakes occur in Europe.
3. The relationship of cities, volcanoes, fault lines, and other features to earthquake epicenters.
4. How GIS can aid in analyzing earthquakes and other spatial phenomena.
5. What they recommend that the national and international community do about earthquake preparedness.

3. Suggested Course Structure

The time spent on each theme of the Global GIS-based investigation can be modified to suit the time and needs of the
course. GIS must be viewed in the following context: Not “how can we get GIS into the curriculum,” but “how can GIS
help me meet my curricular goals?” In the natural hazards section, for example, the time allotted could be as shown in
Table 2.1.

24
Table 2.1: Suggested time allocation
Section Suggested Time
Introduction to GIS and Spatial Analysis 1 hour
Part 1 – What’s Shakin’? 1 hour
Part 2 – Digging Deeper 1 hour
Part 3 – Investigating Earthquakes in Iceland 1 hour
Part 4 – A Historical Earthquake: Lisbon 1755 1 hour
Part 5 – A Modern Earthquake: Turkey 1999 1 hour
Part 6 – Investigating Your Community 1 hour
Part 7 – Earthquakes Everyday 2 hours
Part 8 – Analyzing Recent Earthquakes 2 hours
Part 9 – Earthquakes Respect No Boundaries 2 hours

4. The Geographic Enquiry Process

GIS fits in well with the geographic enquiry process natural to every investigation. The geographic enquiry process
involves five steps. The enquiry process tends to be circular—asking questions leads to investigation, which in turns
answers some questions, but also leads to additional questions which in turn must be answered.

4.1 Asking Geographic Questions

Successful geographic enquiry involves the ability and willingness to ask, speculate on, and answer questions about
why things are where they are and how they got there. Geographers need to be able to pose questions about their
surroundings: Why is a place, an issue, a phenomenon located where it is? What causes the place to have the
characteristics that it has? What are the causes of the issue to be located where it is? What are the consequences of its
location and associations?

We must speculate about possible answers to questions because speculation leads to the development of hypotheses.
Hypotheses link the asking and answering stages of the process, and guide the search for information that will follow.
GIS allows the investigator to frame many of these questions.

4.2 Acquiring Geographic Information

Geographic information is spatial—it is information about locations, the physical and human characteristics of those
locations, and the geographic activities and conditions of the people who live in those places. To answer geographic
questions, the geographic enquirer starts by gathering information from a variety of sources in a variety of ways. He or
she should read and interpret all types and scales of maps, compile and use primary and secondary information to prepare
quantitative and qualitative descriptions, and collect data from interviews, fieldwork, reference material, and library
research.

Skills involved in acquiring geographic information include locating and collecting data, observing and
systematically recording information, reading and interpreting maps, GIS databases, satellite imagery, and other graphic
representations of spaces and places, interviewing, and using statistical methods.

Primary sources of information, especially the result of fieldwork, are important in geographic inquiry. Fieldwork
involves conducting research by distributing questionnaires, taking photographs, sketching the landscape, recording
observations, interviewing citizens, and collecting samples. Fieldwork stimulates curiosity and makes the study of
geography more enjoyable and relevant. It fosters active learning by enabling us to observe, ask questions, identify
problems, and hone perceptions of physical features and human activities.

The geographic enquirer can often obtain useful information from nonprimary sources. Secondary sources of
information include texts, maps, statistics, photographs, multimedia, databases, GIS, newspapers, telephone directories,

25
and government publications. Tertiary sources such as encyclopedias report information compiled from secondary
sources and are important in some research situations.

A GIS can aid in acquiring geographic information because field data, with GPS co-ordinates, can be input directly
into the GIS. Descriptions and attributes of features and people can be added, and linked to photographs or text. Base
data from satellites, from the Global GIS database, or from international, national, and local sources can be used and
manipulated.

4.3 Organising Geographic Information

Once collected, the geographic information requires organization and display in ways that aid analysis and
interpretation. Organise information from documents or interviews into pertinent quotes or tabular form. Many ways
exist to organise geographic information. Maps play a central role in geographic inquiry, but there are other ways to
translate data into visual form, such as by using graphs, tables, presentation software, spreadsheets, and time lines. Such
visuals are especially useful when accompanied by clear oral or written summaries. Creativity and skill are necessary to
arrange geographic information effectively. Decisions about design, color, graphics, scale, and clarity are important in
developing the kinds of visual documents that best reflect the data.

Geography has been referred to as "the art of the mapable." Making maps is a common activity for geographers. We
read (decode) maps to collect information and analyze geographic patterns and make (encode) maps to organise
information. Making maps can mean using sketch maps to illustrate a point in an essay or to record field observations.
For geographers, making maps should become as common, natural, and easy as writing a paragraph. We should be
skilled in interpreting and creating map symbols, finding locations on maps using a variety of reference systems, orienting
maps and finding directions, using scales to determine distance, and thinking critically about information on maps. A
GIS helps the researcher to organise geographic information because GIS is a database, created for the purposes of
organizing geographic information.

4.4 Analysing Geographic Information

Analysing geographic information involves seeking patterns, relationships, and connections. As we analyse and
interpret information, meaningful patterns or processes emerge. We then synthesise observations into a coherent
explanation, noting associations and similarities between areas; recognising patterns; and drawing inferences from maps,
graphs, diagrams, tables, and other sources. Using statistics we can identify trends, relationships, and sequences.

Geographic analysis involves a variety of activities. It is sometimes difficult to separate the processes involved in
organizing geographic information from the procedures used in analyzing it. The two processes go on simultaneously in
many cases. But in other instances, analysis follows the manipulation of raw data into an easily understood and usable
form. We need to scrutinise maps to discover and compare spatial patterns and relationships; study tables and graphs to
determine trends and relationships between and among items; probe data through statistical methods to identify trends,
sequences, correlations, and relationships; examine texts and documents to interpret, explain, and synthesise
characteristics. Together these analytic processes lead to answers to the questions that first prompted an inquiry and to the
development of geographic models and generalizations. A GIS allows the user to quickly jump to the analysis stage,
without spending time colouring in choropleth maps, for example.

4.5 Answering Geographic Questions

Successful geographic inquiry culminates in the development of generalizations and conclusions based on the data
collected, organised, and analyzed. Skills associated with answering geographic questions include the ability to make
inferences based on information organised in graphic form (maps, tables, graphs) and in oral and written narratives. These
skills involve the ability to distinguish generalizations that apply at the local level from those that apply at the global
level. Issues of scale are important in developing answers to geographic questions.

Generalisations are the culmination of the process of inquiry, and they help to codify understanding. Developing
generalizations requires that we use the information we have collected, processed, and analyzed to make general

26
statements about geography. At other times, however, we use the evidence to make decisions; solve problems; or form
judgments about a question, issue, or problem.

Geographic generalisations result from inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning requires us to
synthesise geographic information in order to answer questions and reach conclusions. Deductive reasoning requires us to
identify relevant questions, collect and assess evidence, and decide whether the generalizations are appropriate by testing
them against the real world.

Geographers should also be able to communicate clearly and effectively, especially as we learn to answer geographic
questions. This skill is linked closely to good citizenship. We can develop a sense of civic responsibility by disseminating
the answers we have discovered in geographic inquiry. We can display geographic information in many engaging and
effective ways, for example, by using the output from a GIS database. Geographic information can also reach the public
eye through the use of poems, collages, plays, journals, and essays. Every medium chosen to present geographic
information to answer a question or address an issue or problem should stimulate inquiry and communicate clearly.
Choosing the best means of presenting answers to geographic questions is an important skill.

This fifth skill set represents the last step in the process of geographic inquiry. However, it is not really the end,
because the process usually begins again with new questions suggested by the conclusions and generalizations that have
developed along the way. These questions, often posed as hypotheses to be tested, provide a way to review
generalizations. Each question answered, decision reached, or problem solved leads to new issues and new problems.
Geographic learning is a continuous process that is both empowering and fascinating.

5. Summary
The advantages to using GIS over printed maps, tables, and books are many. First, students can quickly progress to
the analysis stage, rather than spend time colouring paper maps to make a thematic choropleth map based on a data table.
In addition, students can analyse maps within a GIS at an infinite variety of scales that are appropriate to the problem.
Students create their own maps based on the problem studied using the data that they deem is relevant. Students can
create maps based on latitude and longitude coordinates. Students analyse databases that contain the attributes of mapped
features. They analyse a variety of spatial data, from graphs, to tables, to maps, to Earth images that show landforms and
river drainages. Just as those using GIS in the workplace do everyday on the job, students using GIS can quickly
synthesise a large amount of data about the Earth to make an informed decision. GIS helps students consider “what-if”
scenarios, and because the data is at the students’ fingertips, it allows them to follow through on these “what-if” scenarios
as a scientist would. The students, while doing this, are directing their own learning. GIS also allows students to bring in
additional data that is relevant, outside the confines of the data on the CDs. In other words, Global GIS is not a closed
system. Students can download other maps from the Internet and integrate them with the data on the CD. They can bring
in their own tabular data and create thematic maps of the data, enabling them become geographic investigators. Equally
important, students are used to learning on the computer, and find GIS-based analysis logical and easy to work with [7].
They are engaged and excited about working with spatial information in the same way that people have been interested in
maps through the centuries. Maps are powerful and rich sources of information, and in a computerised, GIS-enabled
environment, these maps can be used to understand Europe. Through Global GIS, students are engaged in the process of
interacting with computerised maps in a way that paper maps cannot offer.

In the Global GIS project, spatial analysis through GIS is used as one tool, but not the only tool, in investigating the
Earth. In the units, students read and analyze text, diagrams, web sites, mathematical equations, and other data outside of
GIS. This illustrates how GIS can effectively be used with other methods of instruction. As students progress through
the units, they are encouraged to think about the patterns and relationships they uncover. Many answers are not found by
clicking a button on the computer, but through the geographic inquiry process. Geographic enquiry includes asking a
question, gathering geographic information, investigation, discovery, analysis, and asking new questions [13]. If these
topics can be investigated using GIS, there is no limit to how GIS can help students become the geographic thinkers we
need to address tomorrow’s problems.

27
6. Obtaining the Resources
The Global GIS CDs or DVD can be ordered from the American Geological Institute's web site on:
http://www.agiweb.pubs/globalgis/. The media is reasonably priced for individual or classroom use. The CD's are
available for US $29.95 each, or all seven CD-ROMs for US $180. The Global Coverage DVD-ROM costs US
$149.95. Site license pricing is available for schools. All educational site licensing permits unlimited educational and
research use of the GlobalGIS products for the licensed users. Additional information on the Global GIS Project may
be found at the US Geological Survey: http://webgis.wr.usgs.gov/globalgis/ and on the AGI site:
http://www.agiweb.org/pubs/globalgis/description.html. The educational units are not included on the CDs, but can be
freely downloaded from: http://rockyweb.cr.usgs.gov/public/outreach/globalgis/,

ArcView Data Publisher 3.1 works in Windows NT 4, Windows 2000, or Windows 95/98/ME/XP and requires an
industry-standard PC with a Pentium microprocessor, at least 24 MB of RAM (64 MB recommended), and 34 MB hard
disk space (600 MB recommended).

References
[1] Audet, R. H. & Abegg, G.L., Geographic information systems: Implications for problem solving. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching 33(1), 21-45, 1996

[2] Baker, T. R., The effects of Geographic Information System (GIS) Technologies on students' attitudes, self-efficacy,
and achievement in middle school science. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Kansas, School of Education, 2002

[3] Doering, A. H., GIS in education: An examination of pedagogy, Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Minnesota, 2003

[4] Geography Education Standards Project., Geography for Life: National Geography Standards. Washington, DC:
National Geographic Society, 1994

[5] Gewin, V., Mapping Opportunities. Nature 427(376-377). 22 January 2004. Nature Publishing Group, 2004

[6] International Society for Technology in Education, National Education Technology Standards for Students. Eugene,
Oregon: ISTE, 2000

[7] Kerski, J. J., The implementation and effectiveness of GIS technology and methods in secondary education, Journal of
Geography 102(3): 128-137. National Council for Geographic Education, 2003

[8] Malone, L., Palmer A. M., & Voigt C. L., Mapping Our World—GIS Lessons for Educators. Redlands, California:
ESRI Press, 2002

[9] Malone, L., Palmer A. M., & Voigt C. L., Community Geography: GIS In Action—Teachers Guide. Redlands,
California: ESRI Press, 2003

[10] National Council for the Social Studies, Curriculum Standards for Social Studies. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1994

[11] National Research Council, National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996

[12] U. S. Department of Labor, Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS), Washington, DC:
GPO, 1991

[13] T Johansson. GIS Education in Upper Secondary Schools: A need for curriculum support?, In S. Catling and L.
Taylor (Eds.), Proc. IGUCGE – HERODOT Conference, April 10-12: 113-118. London: University of London, 2007

28
 3. Problem Based Learning, e-learning and GIS teaching and training
Miguel Calvo Melero
Laboratory of Experimental Cartography and GIS.
Basque Country University, Spain.
iipcamem@vc.ehu.es

Abstract
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are tools used by a broad number of professionals. GIS courses should be
designed and developed using new tools to help students to be motivated to learn. Courses should have flexible
schedules and be available to all the potential students by using approaches like: Problem Based Learning, e-learning
and self learning. This chapter explores and demonstrates some of these approaches and

Key words: PBL, GIS, professional training, course development, learning stages

1. Introduction: teaching and learning GIS in Europe

European university systems are in the middle of a major transformation process. As a result of the Bologna
declaration European universities are beginning to revise their systems looking for greater competitiveness by
increasing the quality of teaching and learning [1]. This suggests the need to revise the methods that are being used in
the teaching process. Fundamentally two new tendencies are suggested [2]:

1. teaching based on segmented disciplines.

2. learning based on problem resolution.

A teaching process based on segmented disciplines supposes that knowledge comes from a study of facts, theories
and examples of a group of basic disciplines. The students gradually acquire knowledge in specific subject matters. If
and when they arrive at certain basic level of knowledge they can then deal with the resolution of problems. This
describes the most traditional forms of teaching approach used. It is focused on the teacher who has the main role [3]

In learning based on problem resolution

the process begins with a question or problem.
In order to solve this problem, it is necessary
to look for the required knowledge in related
disciplines. This approach is focused on the
student learning process. This has become
known as Problem Based Learning (PBL). It
is a learning process where the students are
the main characters [4] (Figure 3.1).

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

are tools that are used by a very broad variety
of professionals in many different ways. In
order for them to work effectively, a certain
theoretical level as well as a practical handling
of some of these tools must be reached in the Figure 3.1: Characteristics of the training process
learning process.

In curriculum terms, it is evident that GIS should form part of the curriculum learning activities in Geography,
Geology, Planning or Forestry. However it can now also be frequently found in studies in for example Sociology,
Economy, Archaeology, Health, Business, Marketing and Criminology. A broad recognition of the immense value of
GIS in many disciplines is thus now widely accepted.

2. GIS course experiences

29
 GIS software is today used by many professionals with very different training levels and requirements. Many
potential GIS users ask for courses adapted specifically to their professional requirements There are also many
students with different areas of knowledge and expertise, who for example lack knowledge in geographical analysis or
computer studies. While others for example, who may specialise in Sociology are likely to lack basic knowledge
related to spatial location. However, all of them have something in common: they need to use a GIS as part of their
professional lives.

At the Laboratory of Experimental Cartography and GIS of the Basque Country University, GIS courses were first
taught in 1992. At this time, students had to use the keyboard exhaustively to input information and to work with the
data. The computer interface and processing potential was very poor. Reviews of these early learning experiences
indicated that courses which trained participants to use GIS were boring for students and teaching was difficult for the
academics. The number of students who passed these courses was also very limited. At that time, the outcome was a
training process rather than a learning one. The process required the first phase to explain the available commands, the
parameters and options and their effects. Once the students had acquired a certain awareness level and practical
experience they then proceeded to examine how to deal with the resolution of some ‘geographic’ problems. As a result
of this method, some students became discouraged and they lost interest in GIS as a tool. The amount of prior learning
necessary to reach the capacity to use GIS for problem solving was very great.

Since then, with the development of new interfaces that were much easier to use and especially with the arrival of
Windows 95, students were able to quickly learn how to work with the GIS software and the possibilities it offered.
Thus the teaching focus could be established on the possibilities and effects of geographic data management,
algorithms and GIS applications, rather than computing skills. The balance has since shifted much more towards the
discipline rather than on the available tools.

The Basque Country University offers GIS courses in their Environmental Science and Survey Engineering
degrees, but there are also classes designed for companies and organisations that request specific GIS training.
Academic staff members have thus acquired experience in teaching students which have very different orientations,
objectives, previous training, and career focus (insurance, security, sociology, employment, land use and planning).
These companies usually request courses with 26 hours contact time in order to obtain the maximum software handling
levels (skills) for GIS use. As there are many GIS programs on the market, companies are increasingly demanding
courses which are adapted to the software they use and focused on their professional areas and needs. All these factors
have resulted in the design and development of short, amusing, motivating courses, with a variety of GIS software
which are at the same time adapted to the student profiles, and professional skills.

Finally in order to compete with other courses a number of other requirements and course characteristics have been
developed, these include:
1. short, personalised courses which are always up-to-date
2. an open, and flexible schedule.
3. a highly skilled teaching team
4. teaching undertaken in company buildings or near student accommodation
5. courses which motivate participants to learn.
6. programmes which prepare students for continuous learning.
7. activities that provide an incentive to work collaboratively
8. examples that develop the ability to encourage analysis and to solve undefined problems.
9. adaptable courses which can be implemented for many different GIS software solutions, such as MapInfo,
Geomedia, and Manifold.

As these requirements are demanded by prospective clients and the GIS community of users, then it is also likely
that these characteristics will also be important for the university undergraduate and postgraduate students.

3. Designing new GIS courses: PBL, e-learning and self learning

It is very challenging to aim to provide a full course or training solution for the different types of clients. It is also
difficult to provide for all the requirements of different student groups. However, in order to enable most needs to be

30
supported, a combination of different techniques, methods of communication, and innovative learning approaches
were adopted in developing GIS courses at the Basque Country University. These included:
• PBL (Problem Based Learning) approaches
• Online courses and the use of a virtual learning environment to provide e-learning opportunities.
• the traditional human skill of self learning.

GIS training and university undergraduate courses combining these aspects were created, even though each of
these approaches has its own advantages and difficulties. It was important for the department to clearly recognise the
limitations, benefits and synergies between them in order to limit potential difficulties [5] while maximising
effectiveness and quality. The issues, costs and benefits of these approaches have been summarised in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Some problems and advantages of different study approaches

PBL PROBLEMS PBL ADVANTAGES
It requires a lot of time. Different deeper relationships between professors and students.
It is difficult for the professors to outline It’s a motivating learning method.
problems that consider all the necessary It promotes corporate work and links with industry.
concepts for a complete student learning It is a self learning method.
process which are at the same time motivating It promotes the continuous learning
for them. It gives students skills to analyse new and undefined problems.
The problems and resolution methods may be It supports active learning
undefined or difficult to define. It encourages teamwork and involvement in the learning
Students and teachers need to have a different process
attitude to the learning and teaching process. The problems can be designed adapted to the required skills.
PBL implies the cooperation of teachers in
other disciplines involved in the PBL process.
The process of the student evaluation can be
complex.
PBL can cause greater demands and therefore
higher stress level than conventional
techniques.
Many different resources are required
PBL cannot be applied to all the specialties
e-LEARNING PROBLEMS e-LEARNING ADVANTAGES
There are no or few opportunities for physical Open and flexible schedule.
(face-to-face) relationships between professors There aren’t any distances: you can have professors and
and students or among students. students from any place in the whole world.
Professors don’t know who is at the other side Open and flexible programs and subjects
of the WEB. This will also be a problem for Multiple and open communication resources.
evaluation process. New kind of relationships between professors and students.
It’s a new way to obtain knowledge not well Broad feedback resources: continuous contents actualization.
know and accepted for everybody yet. A global classroom, a global community: a student can ask a
question…to the world.
It is a good way for self learning.
SELF LEARNING PROBLEMS SELF-LEARNING ADVANTAGES
It requires a lot of time. The students get ready for continuous learning.
It requires good learning resources, clear and It is adapted to the possibilities (time and level) of each
easy to follow and to understand. student.
It will be specially focused on the interesting points of each
student’s knowledge.
It expands the student’s critical thinking and problem-solving
skills while enhancing their creative capabilities and their
adaptation to new ideas.

31
 Following an in-depth analysis and review of these aspects, it became clear that the characteristics of the new GIS
courses should be:
• easy to adapt to different GIS software tools,
• as short as possible and
• affordable for students to study either by conventional or by virtual learning means.

4. Developing the new courses

In order to deal with adaptability and course length, it was decided to establish programmes on four levels based
on GIS data management and the processes of “decision making”. These levels are described in Table 3.2. Course
units were divided into theory and GIS use. Theoretical work relates closely to the practical PBL components. The
structure was developed as each level would be the key for the collection and development of course ‘problems’.

Table 3.2: Optimised GIS course structure and concepts

COURSE STRUCTURE
LEVEL CONCEPTS
1 Visualization. Visual tools, customise maps, colours, cartographic projections….
2 Geometry and objects: Queries based on geometric properties and relations between objects, objects
management….
3 Attributes: Queries based on attributes, data aggregation, thematic cartography. Data Base
management….
4 Geographic structures and topology: zone topology, linear topology, surfaces, overlay, tools and data
capture

For training in the use of GIS developing a “pure” PBL method takes a lot of time because the students must first
learn GIS functionalities or \what can be done by GIS’ and afterwards they can understand and design the process for
solving the given problems, or ‘how to do it’. Research has attempted to optimise PBL learning efficiency. This led to
the consideration that GIS problem resolution should be developed in two steps:
a. designing a process to solve the problem in question, whereby students establish what to do to solve the
outlined problem.
b. developing each component of the preceding process into actions which correspond to GIS functionalities.

Each course level was divided into three learning stages.

1) Problem Guided Resolution (PGR).
2) Problem Assisted Resolution (PAR) and
3) Evaluation.
Figure 3.2: Problem Guided Resolution
Problem Guided Resolution occurs where students can
solve the proposed problems by following the information
which is given within the problem itself (Figure 3.2). In this
learning stage the student discovers how to use the software
and the resulting effects that the tools have on the data. The
teacher gives the students the problem, the process to solve it Figure 3.3: The Problem Assisted Resolution process.
(steps), and the GIS functionalities (their use and
descriptions) that he must be used for for each step of the
process. In PGR the students learn GIS functionalities, their
use, the parameters and the effect that the GIS has on the
data. The student collects documentation and information
Figure 3.4: The evaluation learning stage.
that will be needed in the other stages.

The second stage is Problem Assisted Resolution. In this case, students are given the problem and the process that
they should follow to obtain solutions, but they are not given any information about the GIS functions that they are
likely to need to use to solve the problem. The idea behind this approach is to train the students in developing solution
processes. In this situation the students will generally be aware of GIS functionalities and have access to relevant
documentation (Figure 3.3).
32
 For the final learning stage “evaluation” the students
must solve the proposed problems without any further Table 3.3: GIS course structure in relation to PBL
information (Figure 3.4). Each of the problems is associated learning stages.
with some basic concepts. The teacher analyses the obtained KNOWLEDGE TEACHING METHOD
solutions so that an evaluation of the student learning in terms LEVELS STAGES
of the design of the resolution process and the use of GIS
PGR
functionalities. So the purpose of the evaluation learning
1.- Visualization. PAR
stage is to evaluate level of student achievement and to detect
places where the course is ill-defined in order to increase its Evaluation
quality [6]. PGR
2.- Geometry and
PAR
objects.
By using the three stage learning process methodology in Evaluation
combination with PBL learning stages (Table 3.3) the PGR
students progress and as they do so, they become increasingly 3.- Attributes. PAR
aware of the concepts that they need to review or to pay more Evaluation
attention to. 4.- Geographic PGR
structures and PAR
Using e-learning a range of online tools can be used to topology. Evaluation
get to know the “virtual students”. In some ways this
relationship can be deeper and better than with “real
students”. Synchronous and asynchronous communications tools such as: chats, fora, questions and e-mail works
effectively. Reflection and self evaluation processes, evaluation test are also relevant and useful features to establish.

5. A PBL example
This following is a small illustrated example for the development of the PGR and PAR learning stages abstracted
from a GIS training course.

5.1 An example of Problem Guided Resolution.

A shortened version of a PGR problem provided for students is illustrated here with some screen grabs to support
the learning process.

PROBLEM 21
Level 2
Stage PGL
Jane Wood came back home after spending a day in the country and then found that she had forgotten her husband.
She didn’t remember exactly where she had been, but she remembered that was a very big forest area. The emergency
team decided to start looking for Jane’s husband on the zones covered by forest and whit an area of more than 3000
square Km. Can you help them?.

PROCESS TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM

1.- Display the map of the zones and the attributes at the same time.
2.- Make a text query to select the areas covered by forest..
3.- Make a query over a previous selection.

33
a) Displaying the attributes of an element

Open an existing Project using:

FILE>OPEN>PROJECT>C:/…..PROBLEM 21 (Figure 3.5).

Check that in this project you have two layers named ROUTES and
ZONES, but the problem is that it is difficult to know where the
elements of the ROUTES layer are located because the display is very
similar. So the display must be changed.

Apply the following display options: Figure 3.5: PGR display 1

ROUTES.- red lines.
ZONES - solid green background and dark green for the boundaries
(if you don’t remember how to do it see Problem 14).

By looking at the map (Figure 3.6) it is not possible to know the

attributes of each element, for example it is not possible to identify
which of the areas is forested. The easiest way to display the
information related to each element of the ZONES layer is to select an
element with the mouse and right click on it. This action display a
menu where you can select the option FIELDS (Figure 3.7) and
display the information menu (Figure 3.8). However, as you will
realise, this is not a efficient solution because the same action has to Figure 3.6: PGR display 2
be repeated if you want to display the attributes of different elements.

b) Displaying two or more windows with

maps and data.
It is possible to display a window with
the list of all the attributes of all the
elements. Also it is possible to display data
windows and maps at the same time
(Figure 3.9). To do it you must use the
following functionalities:
WINDOW>DISPLAY DATA
WINDOW>ZONES
WINDOW>CASCADE

c) Making a text query Figure 3.7: The FIELDS menu Figure 3.8: Attribute information
To make a text query the selection
menu for attributes needs to be
used. To do this use the
SELECTION MENU on in the
lower left side of the GIS window
and compose the following:

INFORMATION not Equal to

Forest
Then SELECT

Figure 3.10 shows the results. Figure 3.9: Displaying multiple Figure 3.10: Selection display
Windows

34
5.2: An example of Problem Assisted Resolution
PROBLEM 42
Level 4 Stage PAL
John Cold is a businessman interested in creating a new Ski Resort only for expert skiers. Ha had already designed and
built a ski resort like this before but the authorities had closed it because there had been too many accidents. Now he
wants to start the design process again but in a very different location, in another country.

In order to do this, he is looking for areas with a slope of more than 50% and less than 200% and without rocks. He has
employed you as consultant to his project and provided you with a GIS database with a base map with a data file
(GROUND) about the kind of ground (rocks, sands,…) and a text file with the coordinates X, Y and Z (in UTM
WGS84 zone 33 projection).

He wants to define the best areas for the proposed ski runs, that must have the following conditions:

1. Slope between 50 and 200%.

2. Ground: can’t be a rocky area.
3. Elevation: more than 1700 meter over the sea level.

ADVISED PROCESS TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM

1) Open the project and examine the layers and the attributes.
2) Open de text file (named ELEVATION).
3) Create points from the ELEVATIO file in the map.
4) Create a DTM surface with the Z attribute.
5) Select the areas of the DTM that have an elevation level bigger than 1700 m. and a slope between 50 and 200%.
6) Create a new layer with the selected elements wit the name TRACKS.
7) Select the elements of GROUND that aren’t rocks and create a new layer named NOROCKS
8) Overlay the layers GROUND and NOROCKS to obtain the solution.

6. Conclusions
This chapter illustrates how a GIS course using PBL techniques can be developed in a structured way [7]. The use
of e-learning tools encourages groups of students to collaborate on solutions and to discuss issues and problems they
face. The use of e-learning is also a glimpse of how future training in GIS is likely to develop as learning demands
from businesses increases [8].

It is likely that cooperation between GIS centres will become more important in the future. There are many
European universities which have considerable experience in creating and delivering high quality GIS courses for
many different audiences. Increasingly there are training demands from third countries which can be met by consortia
of institutions that individually can bring different specialisations to build high quality, competitive courses, as
envisaged by the establishment of the European Higher Education Area.

The use of new training techniques and technologies offered by the Internet offers us a global classroom. E-
learning can bring together expert tutors from different institutions to deliver GIS courses to an ever-increasing market.

References.
[1] Commission Of The European Communities, e-Learning. Designing tomorrow’s education, Communication from
the commission. Brussels 24.5.2000 COM(2000) 318 final, 2000

[2] Tchudi, S., & Lafer, S., The interdisciplinary teacher’s handbook: Integrated teaching across the curriculum,
Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook, 1996

35
[3] Meier, S., Hovde, R., & Meier, R., Problem solving: Teachers’ perceptions, content area models, and
interdisciplinary connections, School Science and Mathematics, 96, 230-237, 1996

[4] Gordon, P., Rogers, A., & Comfort, M., A taste of problem-based learning increases achievement of urban
minority middle-school students, Educational Horizons, 79(4), 171-175, 2001

[5] Dabbagh, N., Jonassen, D., & Yueh, H., Assessing a problem-based learning approach to an introductory
instructional design course: A case study, Performance Improvement Quarterly, 13(3), 60-83, 2000.

[6] Sage, S., A natural fit: Problem-based learning and technology standards, Learning and Leading with Technology,
28(1), 6-12, 2000

[7] Carlson, T., Scaffolding Instruction in a University-level GIS Course, Journal of Planning Education and Research,
28: 258-262, 2008

[8] Ward J.D. and Lee C.L., A review of problem-based learning. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences
Education, Vol. 20, No. 1, Spring/Summer, 2002

36
4. Putting GIS in its place: proactive approaches for classroom beginners
Mary Fargher
Institute of Education, University of London, UK
mgfargher@hotmail.com

Abstract
When used effectively, digital GIS are powerful purveyors of geographical information. Despite research evidence
reflecting associated pedagogical benefits, the place of GIS in many schools remains less secure. Some teachers
continue to associate it with both real and perceived implementation barriers. This paper refers to a recent research
study in a UK secondary school which reflects reasons for growing optimism. The main aim of the study was to
investigate how using quite readily accessible GIS tools can help teachers begin incorporating GIS into their teaching.
Students used ESRI ArcView 3.3, and an adapted version of the ESRI online GIS activity based on the Titanic disaster
produced by Joseph Kerski [20] to develop their spatial skills. Suggestions for developing more proactive approaches
to getting GIS effectively into geography classrooms also form the basis of the discussion.

Key words: secondary school, barriers, curriculum, pedagogy, case studies

1. Introduction
‘When geography and life intersect, people pay attention.’ (Nick Boyon [33])

The study of places lies at the core of geography education (Tuan [1]; Massey [2]). At a time when geography’s
standing in UK schools is subject to both positive (Taylor [3]) and negative critique (Standish, [4]), the potential
benefits of using GIS has been heralded by some educationalists as a panacea to enhance the subject’s kudos (Waters
[5]).

Our responses to places are both personal and complex (Taylor [3]). Some behavioural geographers suggest that
we respond to places in two closely connected stages involving firstly perception and secondly cognition (Tuan [1]).
From an early age, we develop strong emotional ties with specific locations so that ‘home’, ‘school’ and other places
become important phenomenological spaces for each of us. Initially, as young children tend to, we draw quite distinct
mental boundaries around places ‘important to us and attach significant cognitive information to them (Cresswell, [6]).
The full extent of our geographical understanding involves a combination of these experiences and our cognitive
interpretation of data about places, (Fien and Slater, [7]).

At the same time, the level of development of our geographical thinking about both local and more distant places
is strongly affected by the channels through which geographical information (GI) is represented to us (Roberts [8]). In
particular, geographical impressions have always been shaped by maps, images and stories as well as individual
experiences of places. The increasing digitisation of spatial data has transformed how GI is communicated to us in a
wide range of human contexts including education.

Established research indicates that GIS use can benefit geographical learning in several ways. A much wider range
of rich spatially-related data can be held within one GIS than teachers are able to provide by other means. The
possibilities of providing students with opportunities to think and understand spatially with real world tools are
particularly promising for GIS enthusiasts. Increasing capacity to cache GI data on the Web has made GIS even more
flexible to use in this way.

A growing body of literature indicates that effective use of GIS can augment enquiry-based geography education
(Baker [9]; Kerski [10]). Specifically within the UK context, enquiry is identified as one of the key aspects of the
National Curriculum for geography (Roberts [8]). In conjunction with a GIS, a constructivist approach to learning
allows the student to generate a range of digital GI data which they can manipulate and adapt as they decide and
require. Constructivism can be interpreted in education as a model of practice where students create and adapt their
own knowledge and skills. The teacher is seen as facilitator and student peers are often engaged in collaborative

37
learning (Baker [9]). Linking and layering geospatial information becomes part of the overall learning process but also
a pivotal aspect of student’s own understanding.

Although the UK National Curriculum provides plenty of potential opportunities for using GIS to support it, very
little specific guidance exists on how to plan our pedagogy around it. Already over-stretched teachers, many of them
non-geography specialists in primary and lower secondary schools are unlikely to embrace GIS without a considerable
amount of collaborative professional development and sustained direction. The results of a teacher survey carried out
by the leading map agency in Great Britain suggests that the uptake of GIS in schools remains patchy and inconsistent
(Ordnance Survey [11]).

2. Real and perceived barriers associated with using GIS in schools

Only a small number of UK teachers are using GIS (Ofsted [12]). It is possible that perceived as well as real
difficulties are preventing teachers from embracing these technologies. Initial costs and training commitments are still
key causes for concern for many teachers considering GIS use. Access to ICT facilities remains a major stumbling
block for many schools. At secondary level in particular, the perception that using GIS requires the booking of whole
ICT suites in order to be effective is discouraging many teachers from using it (Ofsted [12]).

Lack of user-friendly GIS data remains a real barrier for many. The search for appropriate data can be daunting for
the un-initiated. Even commercial GIS providers acknowledge that UK-orientated GI can be inappropriate or difficult
to manipulate in a school environment, (Fargher [13]).

Limited curriculum direction has further curtailed the uptake of GIS in UK schools. GIS is mentioned only briefly
in national curriculum guidance. One exception is the relatively new Oxford Cambridge and RSA (OCR) geography
pilot GCSE examination where students are offered the opportunity to study GIS as an optional module.

At present the UK school curriculum provides plenty of potential opportunities for using GIS to support it but very
little specific guidance on how to implement its inclusion. Teachers, many of them non-geography specialists in
primary and lower secondary schools are unlikely to embrace GIS without a considerable amount of support. Despite
these recognised implementation difficulties, optimism about the potential benefits of using GIS in schools has
continued to grow (Baker [9]; Bednarz [14]).
3. Proactive pedagogy with GIS
‘We must now go beyond the “wow” stage of implementing GIS into the classroom and honestly and realistically
examine why we want to use GIS and how we will use it in the future. Such methodology and pedagogical discussions
are imperative if GIS is to be more than just classroom entertainment.’ (McInerney [15]; 14)

Despite the commonly held belief that GIS software is expensive, there are several starter packages which now
come with one year trial site licences (Malone, Palmer and Voigt [16]). These GIS teaching programmes provide a
useful starting point for GIS beginners. Effective training with GIS should not only involve showing classroom
beginners the practicalities of using the software but also pedagogical strategies for using GIS as a platform for
injecting variety into and enhancing our somewhat tired national Geography curriculum.

Creating a teacher qualification in GIS use in the classroom where participants have the opportunity to use GIS in
their teaching would also help to raise the profile and quality of teaching spatial querying. Making full use of online
GIS training could compliment this type of professional development.

Providing ‘safe starts’ in GIS for colleagues new to these technologies does not mean that we should not embrace
real world opportunities to be creative with GIS. Although at a very early stage, a number of staff in Geography
Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, in association with the Geographical Association, are
involved in planning a GIS-enabled schools project about London as host city for the 2012 Olympics.

Providing opportunities to develop a continuous GIS-enabled curriculum now will help greatly in assimilating
future GIS- related technological innovation. Planning the integration of GIS use into each key stage of our curriculum

38
would help to develop future use of GIS. Building on well documented empirical evidence there is a range of GIS
software available which could be used appropriately for each curriculum phase (Martin [17]).

4. The ‘start simple approach’: A school case study

The advantages of getting started at a simple level with GIS are many (Eylon, [18]). Adopting the approach that
getting GIS into our schools is more of a ‘work in progress’ may help us to develop our aims more successfully (Duke
[19]). Also, whilst the reality of many GIS implementation difficulties cannot be ignored, there are several successful
examples of the ‘start simple approach” to getting GIS into UK classrooms.

One such study was carried out with an Information and Communication Technology department in a school in
North London (Fargher [13]). The main aim of the classroom-based research was to investigate the effectiveness of
using a GIS to develop spatial skills in a geographical enquiry. The GIS tools used in the classroom-based research
were deliberately chosen to be representative of readily available ‘off the shelf GIS.’

The enquiry was co-taught with a classroom teacher with no previous GIS experience. The GIS tools used in the
classroom-based research were deliberately chosen to be representative of readily available but industry-standard GIS.
Students used ESRI ArcView GIS software available with a one year site licence for the price of the accompanying
textbook (Malone, Palmer and Voigt [16]), and, an adapted version of the ESRI online GIS activity based on the 1912
Titanic disaster (Kerski [20]).

During the ten hours of lesson time, thirty-eight ICT GCSE students (aged 14-15 years) used a wide range of maps
at a variety of scales, photographs, satellite images and statistical databases to assess the main causes of the disaster.
They were given opportunities to explore how physical and human processes contributed to the tragedy and to develop
a deeper understanding of the geographical characteristics of the specific location where the ship sank.

Although very small-scale, the research indicated that using GIS can enable students to develop as more effective
autonomous learners beyond the scope of practising their spatial skills. More abstract, geographical concepts seemed
to become more accessible to them via the high quality digital visualisation available within the GIS (Pang, [21]). The
more intellectually able responded to the academic challenge of using and manipulating a range of data sets in their
problem solving whereas the less able could still access geographical information often beyond their academic
capabilities in a comparable learning setting not assisted by GIS (Baker [22]). Whilst geographical learning with GIS
is no substitute for real experience of different localities, it can be a very useful pedagogic tool for fixing significance
to specific places (Fargher [13]).

5. The ‘Local Solutions’ approach: ‘Spatially Speaking’

Spatially Speaking’ is a ‘Local Solutions’ (LS) project developed by the Geographical Association and supported
by ESRI UK and the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA). The project currently
involves a team of GIS teacher innovators and beginners from six different schools working together on developing
pedagogical strategies around the use of the newest geo-technologies in the classroom. All schools involved with the
project use ArcGIS 9 software and a range of GIS resources and support provided by ESRI UK. The ‘Spatially
Speaking’ membership also draws on expertise and experience from other representatives of the GIS industry, teacher
educators and educational researchers. A central aim of the project is to give the team time and space to work together
to provide tried and tested pedagogical guidance that will be made available to other UK teachers via the Geographical
Association’s website. Although the project has only been running for seven months, tentative findings suggest that the
bringing together of GIS innovators and beginners to work together in small groups has had several positive effects on
participants.

However the dynamics of successful teacher collaboration are complex (Fullan [23]).The processes of sharing new
strategies at peer level can be successful if complex phases in professional learning (Groundwater-Smith [24]).
Clearly, many teachers like to learn from other teachers (Crandall et al. [25]). Working closely together can help to
overcome the well-documented phenomenon of individual teachers feeling geographically and philosophically isolated
(Hargreaves et al. [26]). When teachers are pivotal, the processes of setting a collective agenda often become more
readily transformative (Sachs [27]). In addition to the potential benefits of developing pedagogical strategies around
the use of GIS in classrooms, the Geographical Association (GA) believes that the ‘Local Solutions’ approach to is

39
both vital and timely in reversing some of the negative perceptions of school geography in the UK (Lambert et al. [28];
Mitchell [29]).

Developing networks of users is an already proven positive approach to teacher’s professional development and
innovative curriculum change (Kent [30]; Rawling [31]). The Schools Mapping Project is a web-enabled GIS project
that has been developed by Durham County Council. The project won the Association for Geographic Information
(AGI) award for Innovation in 2003. Web-enabled GIS technologies provide interactive cross-curricular geographic
information to over 300 participating schools via a curriculum extranet (CNET). Teaching materials are provided on
two levels, one introductory and one more advanced (Durham Schools Mapping Project).

6. Conclusion
‘A classroom that uses GIS as a problem-solving tool is a classroom in which the walls are invisible and the
teacher and student assume roles that are non-traditional….Adopting this technology is not for the fainthearted. But
integrating GIS into the curriculum rewards teachers by creating intellectually challenging and demanding learning
opportunities.’ (Audet and Ludwig [32]: 109)

When used effectively, GIS can provide comprehensive learning environments with proven potential for problem
solving of real world relevance [34]. The 2004 Boxing Day tsunami tragedy and the impact of Hurricane Katrina in
2005 were graphically showcased through the public media often via GIS. These examples illustrate to educators and
learners the potential of these technologies for transferring and displaying knowledge and making powerful connections
between places. Fully realising this potential in schools will require careful stewardship.

References
[1] Tuan, Y.-F., Space and Place: The perspectives of experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.

[2] Massey D, A global sense of place. In Barnes, T and Gregory, D (Eds) Reading Human Geography: The poetics
and politics of inquiry. London: Arnold, 1997

[3] Taylor, L.,Place: an exploration. Teaching Geography, 30, 1, 2005

[4] Standish, A., Geography must be put on the map, Times Educational Supplement, 10th December 2004

[5] Waters, N., What can GIS do to save Geography?, Edge Nodes Geo World December 2003
http://www.geoplace.com/gw/2003/0312/0312/0312ends.asp, 2003

[6] Cresswell, T., Place: A short introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004

[7] Fien, J. and Slater, F., Behavioural geography, In Huckle, J (Ed) Geographical Education: Reflection and Action.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983

[8] Roberts, M., Learning through Enquiry: Making sense of geography in the key stage 3 classroom, Sheffield:
Geographical Association, 2003

[9] Baker, T., Geographic Information Systems: Implications for problem solving, Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 33.1, 1999

[10] Kerski, J.J., The implementation and effectiveness of geographic information systems: Technology and methods in
Secondary Education. http://gis.esri.com/library, 2000

[11] Ordnance Survey, The use of GIS in schools – questionnaire results, Mapping News, Issue 27 Winter 2004.

[12] Ofsted (Office of Standards in Education), 2004 Report: ICT in schools – the impact of government initiatives:
Secondary Geography. (HMI 2193), 2004

40
[13] Fargher, M.G., An investigation into the effectiveness of using geographic information systems (GIS) to enhance
spatial skills in enquiry-based learning, Unpublished dissertation submitted as part of the requirement for the degree of
Master of Arts (Geography in Education) at the Institute of Education, University of London, 2004.

[14] Bednarz, S. W. (2001), Thinking spatially: incorporating geographic information science in pre and post
secondary education, http://www.geography.org.uk

[15] McInerney, M., The next step with GIS in the curriculum: Approaching the question of GIS and classroom
pedagogy, Presentation to the ESRI User Conference, San Diego, July 2003

[16] Malone, L; Palmer, A. and Voigt, C, Mapping the World: GIS Lessons for Educators, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press,
2003

[17] Martin, F., Using ICT to create better maps, In D. Balderstone (Ed), Secondary Geography Handbook. Sheffield:
Geographical Association, 2006

[18] Eylon , L., Small and Successful: GIS for secondary schools in Scotland, GIS Visions,
http://gisvision.ibsystems.com/casestudy/sas full.php, 1998

[19] Duke, B., Applications for teaching GIS in K-12, Presentation to the ESRI User Conference, San Diego, July
2005.

[20] Kerski, J. J., Exploring the Titanic Lesson, http://kangis.org/students/arclessons/results, 2002

[21] Pang, A., The educational effectiveness of dynamic and interactive data visualisation and exploration in
geographical education: An academic exercise in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science in Geographical Information Science at Birkbeck College, University of London, 2001.

[22] Baker, T., The history and application of GIS in education,

http://spatialnews.geocomm.com/features/historygisedu/edu3.html, 2002

[23] Fullan, M., The new meaning of educational change. London: Cassell, 1991

[24] Groundwater-Smith, S., Teaching: challenges and dilemmas. Victoria; Australia: Thomson, 2003

[25] Crandall, D; et al., People, policies and practice: Examining the chain of school improvement (Vols. 1-10).
Andover, MA: The Network, 1982.

[26] Hargreaves, A; Lieberman, A; Fullan, M; & Hopkin, D. (Eds.)., The international handbook of educational
change. Norwell, MA: Kluwer, 1998.

[27] Sachs, J., The activist teaching profession. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2003

[28] Lambert, D; Martin, F. & Swift, D., Geovisions: past, present and future, Teaching Geography, 30(1), 4-7, 2005

[29] Mitchell, D., Curriculum innovation through continuing professional development: The ‘Local Solutions’
approach, A dissertation submitted in part fulfilment of the degree of MA Geography in Education at the Institute of
Education, University of London, 2005

[30] Kent, W.A., Process and Pattern of a Curriculum Innovation. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London,
Institute of Education, 1996

[31] Rawling, E.M., Changing the subject: the impact of national policy on school geography 1980-2000, Sheffield:
Geographical Association, 2001.

41
[32] Audet, R. and Ludwig, G., GIS in Schools, Redlands, CA: ESRI Press, 2000.

[33] Boyon, N., Ephemeral Cities: A model for developing an historical digital atlas based on three Florida cities,
http://www.uflib.ufl.edu/digital/collections/EphemeralCities/proposal.htm, 2002

[34] Genevois S and Joliveau T, Using a GeoInformation-Based Learning Environment in Geography Education – the
GeoWebExplorer Platform, 113-120, in Jekel T, Koller A and Donert K, Learning with GeoInformation IV,
Heidelberg, Wichmann, 2009

Other sources

Durham Schools Mapping Project. Available at: http://gis.drham.gov.uk/mapping

Oxford, Cambridge and RSA (OCR) Pilot Geography GCSE specification.

Available at: http://www.geography.org.uk/projects/pilotgcse/

Sawle, J., ‘The Dakini Project- A unique Anglo/French Schools GIS project.’ (Digital Worlds). Mapping News, Issue
26, Summer 2004.

42
 5. GIS, Map Reading and Geographical Visualisation
Nikos Lambrinos
Department of Primary Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, GR-54124, GREECE
Email: labrinos@eled.auth.gr

Abstract
In order to recognise, distinguish and isolate geographic characteristics on a map, pupils and students use abstraction.
This article demonstrates how difficult it is to isolate the mountainous areas from the plains by visual interpretation. It
shows that the perception of Greece as being a mountainous country is based on visual interpretation and not on real
data. Real data can be obtained by using cartographic layers produced by a GIS. The results show that Greece is as
mountainous as flat. Greek student teachers were asked to compare their place of origin with each of the layers and
their living experience with the new findings.

Key words: map interpretation, perceptions, visualisation, relief, mountains, 3-D modelling

1. Introduction
People learn through sight, touch and sound [4] and these experiences impel as image schemata, which are defined
as recurrent patterns, shapes and regularities in our actions, perceptions and conceptions [6]. These activities organise
our experience and enable people to learn about their environment. The importance of spatial image schemata for
Geographical Information System (GIS) design raised before [21] and geographic space is described as “the physical
spaces that humans experience on a daily basis” [4]. Physical spaces are usually modelled in a GIS. If GIS can model
image schemata and physical spaces, then, a GIS-based representation of the environment can help students understand
the importance of, for example, the relief in the formation of the environment.

GIS can help us build a map but, the main objective of a GIS is to help the user understand the issues concerned
and therefore to take logical decisions. In fact, if a user asks for solutions in a spatially-based problem, GIS can make
some suggestions. Robinson [23] comments in his thesis “The look of Maps” that each map is made to serve a certain
purpose and its aim is to transfer its content to the user but the interpretation, which is the final result, is based on the
visual impact.

2. Map reading and interpretation

Map reading follows four stages: a) symbol detection, b) symbol distinction, which is normally based on the shape
and colour of the symbols, c) symbol interpretation and d) map interpretation [11]. The distinction and reading of the
symbols presupposes the grouping of the symbols according to their colour, intensity, texture and orientation. If the
initial grouping, based on the orientation, can’t be achieved then the use of the colour as a mean of grouping is not
effective enough [15]. Also, the location of an image on a map is based more on the colour contrast than on colour
brightness [20]. The colour, related to the brightness, can be an element of distinction in a later stage of interpretation.

The map user processes these procedures simultaneously. The final result is the abstraction of symbols from the
map which will help the user understand what the map shows. This is also closely connected to the user’s knowledge
of the place that is depicted on the map. So, the map becomes a communication media rather than a scientific
document, despite the hundreds of years spent on improving the cartographic knowledge and evolution.

The map serves as an important visual aid during geography teaching. In many cases a wall map is used to help
students find a region or a continent or a country. In other cases the map is used to locate natural characteristics, like
mountains, rivers and lakes or human constructions like transportation networks and populated places. Depending on
the available scale, these actions may become difficult because students have to make abstractions in order to focus on
the requested characteristics. For example, in order to isolate the plain areas, they have to abstract the mountainous
areas or in order to delineate the national

43
 These problems begin from the fact that the available maps have incorporated a lot of different types of
information onto one map. Also, a map is seen more as a picture than as a document with high precision. In some
cases, fixed beliefs for the world that surrounds may be considered to be incorrect or based on inaccurate data. The
Representational Redescription (RR) model claims that an existing knowledge of a concept is resistant to change [9].
With the right type of input it is possible to facilitate progress [22]. GIS can provide the right type of input by the
means of thematic maps, which then can be valuable tools to the teacher to overcome the fixed beliefs of his/her
students.

3. Mountains and the Greek landscape morphology

On many occasions, students have been asked to read a map and get information by making a comparison and/or
theme abstraction, for example, the area between two countries, between the drainage basin of two rivers or the
population density between two countries etc. Some map reading can be successfully completed by doing
measurements such as the drainage basin areas of two rivers and in other cases they require abstraction i.e. the type of
land morphology between two adjacent areas. Nowadays, with the use of GIS, we have the ability to minimise these
procedures and dispute empirical knowledge that existed mainly as general estimation rather than as proven and
factual knowledge.

The Greek landscape is commonly described as mountainous in geography textbooks [7]: 25, [8]:90). This, in fact,
is empirical knowledge that forms the concept of the Greek physical environment. Most people think of Greece as a
mountainous country or at least one that is not flat (sometimes it is more important to know ‘what it is not’ than ‘what
it is’ because the later can be more perceptible). In order to do this we need data which can be derived in two ways:
either empirically or practically.

In the first case to verify this concept we would have to walk all over Greece to observe and describe the
landscape. In most cases this is not feasible. But even if it was then, the description would probably be based on
personal criteria which derive from the local environment that the observer had been raised in. So, the description
would be more or less “mountainous” depending on how mountainous or flat their local environment was [12].

In the second case, we would have to define when a place is characterised as “mountainous” in terms of for
example altitude. Geographically speaking the answer is not easy. A mountain is defined if its altitude is above 600
meters [29] or if the altitude is above 700 meters [3]. In the UK some authors regard a mountain to be above 500
meters [26]. In fact, this probably depends more on the scale of the feature than on the actual precise altitude. The
problem of term definitions arises when students are asked to define terms like “hill” and “mountain”. A good
literature approach to this is given in [26].

4. Misconceptions caused by map reading and teaching: an example from Greece

In order to answer the question “Is Greece as mountainous as is believed”, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of
Greece would be needed (Figure 5.1). By using GIS a map can be divided into different cartographic layers, in this
case one layer can be identified for each zone of altitude: a) plain areas (0-250 meters: Figure 5.2), b) semi-plain areas
(250-500 meters: Figure 5.3), c) mountainous areas (500-750 meters: Figure 5.4) and d) high mountains (>750 meters:
Figure 5.5). The area of each altitude zone can then be calculated and for Greece the results are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Distribution of area versus altitude in Greece

1 2 3 4 5
Altitude (in meters) Area % of the Highest zone Area above the highest
(km2) total area altitude (m) altitude of each zone (km2)
Plains (0-250 m) 51680 39 2900 0
Semi-plains (250-500 m) 27490 21 750 31040
Mountainous (500-750m) 21750 16 500 52790
High mountains (>750m) 31040 24 250 80280
Total 131960 100 131960

44
Figure 5.1: DEM of Greece Figure 5.4: Map of Mountainous areas (500-750m)

Figure 5.5: Map of High mountains (>750m)

Figure 5.2: Map of Plains (0-250 m)

Figure 5.6: Relative area of each altitude zone

Figure 5.3: Map of Semi-plains (250-500 m)

45
 5. Morphology, steepness and relief
Table 1 illustrates that the plains cover a larger area of Greece when compared to the other zones. Their area is
almost equal to sum of the “mountainous” and “high mountains” zones (51680 km2 and 52790 km2 or 39% and 40%
respectively).

Figure 5.6 plots the altitude of each zone and relates it to the area above the highest altitude of each zone (columns
4 and 5 of Table 1). The result shows how the area is distributed with respect to altitude in Greece. Most of Greece has
an altitude lower than 750 meters. Above that altitude the inclination is steep which means that the area above 750
meters has steep gradients and the morphology is steep. This suggests that steep gradients give the impression of a
mountainous landscape. Obviously, the term “steep” is mixed up with the term “mountainous”. A piece of land can
have steep relief but low altitude. However, a piece of land can have smooth relief but high altitude.

It is true that the terms “hill” and “mountain” are not very well defined in the literature. In fact, the existing
definitions in geography dictionaries [3], [29], do not always coincide with what people define as “hill” or “mountain”.
For example, an altitude of 1000 meters may seems like foothills for people living in Nepal and mountainous for the
people of the Netherlands. It is shown that people have their own conception about relief [14]. It depends on the
environment they live in. The same research also demonstrated that people who live in a mountainous area understand
better the term “steep relief” compared with those who live on the plains [14]. GIS can be used to divide and present
the relief in layers and do exactly what human eye cannot do.

The relative spatial distribution of the mountains and plains also plays a vital role in the characterisation of the
landscape morphology of a region. In the example of Greece the mountain range that prevails in Greece is oriented
north-south parallel to latitude, in contrast to the plain areas which extend from east to west. It is more convenient to
scan a map from north to south (vertically) than from east to west (horizontally). An experiment on map reading
showed that juveniles and adults preferred to scan the map vertically than horizontally [2]. This is connected with the
vertical extent of the human body, the way humans stand [28] and with our everyday experiences which are connected
to gravity [27]. So, map reading is instinctively guided from north to south and thus, the Greek mountains are observed
first.

Another important issue is the shape of the characteristics under investigation. The plain areas have a more circular
shape than longitudinal, when compared to the mountainous areas which have a longitudinal shape. Map readers show
a preference in longitudinal shapes while reading a map, than in circular shapes [2]. In addition, the mountainous areas
surround the plain areas. This gives the impression that the mountainous areas prevail over the plains.

The final reason for this misconception and possibly the most important one is how teachers teach about the
borders of Greece. Greece is surrounded by sea except to the north where the Greek borders are mountainous.
Teachers always refer to these mountains because they want to be sure that the pupils know the Greek borders. This
gives the impression that the mountains play a very important role. The Greek-Turkish border is a plain area but it is
never referred to as a border because the actual border is the Evros river. So, the plain areas are never referred to in
contrast to the mountainous ones.

All these reasons give the impression that Greece is a mountainous country and map reading combined to map
teaching may sometimes lead to optical illusions. In fact, Greece is as flat as it is mountainous.

6. Transforming student perceptions

Students have learned that Greece is a mountainous country. This is what the textbooks say and what their teachers
in primary and secondary school have taught them. This is knowledge that is not easy to alter [9]. When students come
in to higher education as student teachers, they bring their school-based knowledge and their experiences based on
first-hand observations.

In the Greek case student teachers have found it difficult to accept the suggestion that Greece is not as
mountainous as they they might perceive. So, efforts need to be made not only to consider the idea but also to let the
students decide which is correct (the old one or the new one). In order to do so and, if we want to overcome the
“tradition” of several decades when everyone was taught that Greece is mountainous, we have to combat two
46
misunderstandings: a) the belief and b) the general perception. The belief comes from what the students were taught in
primary and secondary education and what their teachers told them. It wasn’t easy to doubt the teacher twenty years
ago. The general perception his been mainly based on low quality wall maps of Greece and on traditional ways of
teaching. It is important thus to show the student teachers, in a convincing way, that they live in a less mountainous
country than they believed. To provide proof of this: the real data instead of the general image is needed.

The following approach has been developed to deal with these issues., The first consideration was to find out how
many student teachers live in urban areas and how many in rural ones. It was decided to approach the new concept in
respect of their place of origin because each one has developed their own perceptions based on their experiences.

Students were encouraged to talk together about their places of origin. They can share their experiences with the
other students and listen to the opinions that the others have about their living places. The students soon realise that
others can have different opinions of the environment (relief) of their living place. During discussion an old relief map
can be referred to in order to let the students decide if the map represents their first-hand experiences. Then using the
relief layers, made by the GIS, each location can be classified according to its altitude. The comparison can be used to
demonstrate:
a) their perception is correct,
b) if their experience coincides with reality,
c) the relief of their living place compared to other places,
d) what is the altitude of places that they considered low or high when interpreting the old maps, and
e) that Greece is not as mountainous as the geography textbooks say.

The GIS layers could be shown as single slides or as an animated presentation of MS PowerPoint software in the
case there is no GIS software available for the presentation.

7. Cartographic Visualisation
The paradigm of cartographic visualization includes three elements: a) private map use (an individual generates a
map for his or her own needs), b) direction towards revealing unknowns rather than presenting known facts, and c)
high human-map interaction [16], [19] from [1].

The first element becomes more and more efficient as GIS develops in parallel with the Internet. Web mapping or
Web GIS gives the ability to any Internet user interested in making a new map from existing layers, to generate one in
a few minutes [13]. It isn’t necessary for the user to be a GIS expert because the layers exist remotely on a web server
[24].

The second element includes interactive techniques enabling the use of maps as aids in `visual thinking’. A good
approach of interactive techniques is found in [1]. In many cases these techniques involve linking between a map and a
statistical basis [25]. This makes the map very interactive and puts the map in its new role: the role of a tool of visual
thinking and decision making rather than a communication tool [16], [19], [10], [1].

The third element may become true if we accept that the primary objective in exploring data in 3D is based on the
idea that 3D space may offer insight that might otherwise go unobservable, as humans are better able to relate to and
understand 3D space [5].

There are two types of error in visual – cognitive map interpretation: “…a) the failure to see geographic features
that are there in the world and b) the identification of illusory geographic features…” compared to statistical errors
Type I and Type II ([18] from [17]:436).

In the case of the Greek relief map (DEM) all the above can be found with the exception that the user is able to
interpret the whole map and not a part of it or a single feature. The relationship between the direction of the mountain
chains and the shape of the flat regions may go unobservable on a 2D map. As for the types of errors on a 2D map,
both are true. Flat areas are there but the user cannot see them because they focus mainly on the mountains. Finally,
the mountainous areas do exist but the interpretation of the map is based on an illusion. The point is that all the

47
features exist but the user is not able to see them because “…traditional static paper maps have limited capacity to
provide users with clues to their truths” [17]:437.

8. How can 3D modelling and GIS help?

A Geographical Information System can help in teaching Geography in five ways:
• By making new maps – layers that show the features that the teachers need in teaching (i.e. a drainage system
layer, a lakes layer, cities layer, road network layer etc.)
• Isolating in different layers places with different altitude or characteristics (i.e. flat regions, mountainous areas
etc.)
• Showing the relationships between adjacent geographical characteristics like plain areas foothills – mountains -
trough – lake etc.)
• Linking maps and exploratory data interactively [30[
• Making 3D images and maps of the area and virtual flights above the area under inspection.

Geography students in higher education are not satisfactorily informed about the type of the Greek relief. The
mistakes they make come from their prior experiences. They finished secondary school with the wrong impressions.
The point is that students need to appreciate this before they reach high school. Primary school is an appropriate level
to promote such ideas and new approaches to old fashion concepts. In order to do this we have to educate student
teachers in higher education and re-educate in-service teachers.

References
[1] Andrienko, G. L. and Andrienko, N. V., Interactive maps for visual data exploration. Int. J. Geographical
Information Science, vol.13, no.4, pp. 355-374, 1989

[2] Braine, L., A new slant on orientation perception. American Psychology, 33, 10-22, 1978

[3] Fairbridge R.W. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Encyclopedia of earth sciences series, volume III.
London: Reinhold Book Corp., 1968

[4] Freundschuh, S. M. and Egenhofer M. J., Human conceptions of spaces: Implications for geographic information
systems. Transactions in GIS, 2:4, pp.361-375, 1997

[5] Huang B., Jiang, B. and Hui, L., An integration of GIS, virtual reality and the Internet for visualization, analysis
and exploration of spatial data. Int. J. Geographical Information Science, vol. 15, no. 5, 439- 456, 2001

[6] Johnson M., The body in the mind. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1987

[7] Karabatsa, A., Klonari, A., Koutsopoulos, K., Maraki, K. and Tsounakos, T., Geography. Geography textbook of
2nd grade Secondary schools, Greek Ministry of Education, Athens, p.173, 1997

[8] Karabatsa, A., Klonari, A., Koutsopoulos, K. and Tsounakos, T., Geography. Geography textbook of 2nd grade
Secondary schools, Greek Ministry of Education, Athens, p.213, 2002

[9] Karmiloff-Smith, A., Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive sciences. Cambridge, MA:
M.I.T. Press, 1992

[10] Kraak, M. J., The cartographic visualization process: from presentation to exploration, The Cartographic Journal,
35, 11- 15, 1998.

[11] Lambrinos, N., Didactics in Geography. Aristotle University Press, p. 1-157 (in Greek), 2001

[12] Lambrinos, N., The procedure of abstraction in map reading as a factor of misconceptions. Themes in Education,
3(2-3):187-200, (in Greek, English summary), 2002a

48
[13] Lambrinos Ν., Web-mapping: A tool for the teaching of geography. Proc. 7th National Cartographic Conference
on “Island Cartography” of the Hellenic Cartographic Society, pp. 250-259, Mytilene, Greece, Oct. 24-26, 2002,
2002b

[14] Lambrinos N., Archontoglou S., Giannousi K., Emmanouilidis Ch., Efthimiou Ch., Theodoraki K., Ioannou A.,
Karadaidou R., Katsarkas A., Kotsakosta M., Koutsomichali G., Papastergiou T. and Petrakidis N., The Maps and
atlases as educational materials in the evolution of the geographical space perception, Proceedings of the 2nd National
Conference on "Didactics on Science Education and Modern Technology in Education", vol.I, pp.330-341, Nicosia,
Cyprus, (in Greek), 2002

[15] Leonard, U. and Singer, W., Conjunctions of colour, luminance and orientation: the role of colour and luminance
contrast on saliency and proximity grouping in texture segregation. Spatial Vision, vol.13, no.1, pp.87-105, 2000
[16] MacEachren, A. M., Visualization in modern cartography: setting the agenda. In Visualization in Modern
Cartography (New York: Elsevier Science Inc.), pp. 1- 12, 1994.

[17] MacEachren, A. M., How maps work. Representation, Visualization and Design. Guilford Press, New York,
p.513, 1995

[18] MacEachren, A. M., and Ganter, J., H., A pattern identification approach to cartographic visualization.
Cartographica, 27(2), pp. 64-81, 1990

[19] MacEachren, A. M., and Kraak, M. J., Exploratory cartographic visualization: advancing the agenda. Computers
and Geosciences, 23, 335- 344, 1997

[20] MacEachren, A. M., and Mistrick, T. A., The role of brightness differences in figure-ground: Is darker figure?
Cartographic Journal, 29(2), pp.91-100, 1992

[21] Mark D. and Frank A., Experiential and formal models of geographic space. Environment and Planning B, 23, pp.3-
24, 1996

[22] Pine J. P., Messer J.D. and Godfrey K., The teachability of children with naive theories: An exploration of the
effects of two teaching methods. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 201-211, 1999

[23] Robinson J, The look of maps. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1952

[24] Seff G., SVG and GIS. Directions Magazine (available at: http://www.directionsmag. com
/article.php?article_id=198), 2002

[25] Symanzik, J., Majure, J., and Cook, D., Dynamic graphics in a GIS: a bi-directional link between ArcView 2.0
and XGobi, Computing Science and Statistics, 27, 299- 303, 1996

[26] Trend, R., Everett, L. and Dove, J., Interpreting primary children’s representations of mountains and
mountainous landscapes and environments. Research in Science & Technological Education, vol.18, no.1, pp. 85 -112,
2000

[27] Tversky B., Distortions in memory maps. Cognitive Psychology, 13, pp. 407-433, 1981

[28] Tversky, B., Distortions in cognitive maps. Geoforum, vol.23, no.2, pp.131-138, 1992

[29] Whittow J., The Penguin Dictionary of Physical Geography. UK: Penguin Books, 1986

[30] Kitchin, R. and Dodge, M., Rethinking Maps, Progress in Human Geography, 31(3): 331-344, 2007

49
 6. What kind of GIS should we implement in high school curriculum?
Jan Ketil Rød and Wenche Larsen
Department of Geography,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
wenche.larsen@svt.ntnu.no

Abstract
The latest school reform in Norway is called the Knowledge Promotion Reform 2006 (K06) and is supposed to be
implemented autumn 2006. The reform applies to curriculum for upper secondary schools and explicitly says that
pupils shall know how to use digital maps and geographical information systems (GIS). In this paper, we will discuss
what a GIS is and present some of the GIS and GIS-data viewers available. We will also identify some of the main
hindrances that geography teachers must overcome in order to integrate the use of GIS in their teaching. Finally, we
will forward some recommendations on what kind of GIS should be used in upper secondary school teaching and some
examples on how. Our point of departure is threefold. Firstly, we assume that schools have low budgets. The software
should therefore be free or at a low cost. Secondly, as many geography teachers may not possess a high level of
technical skills, the software should be easy to install and use. The most important but also most difficult aspect to
assess is our third point of departure: the software should be useful for the teachers, that is making teaching easier, and
for the pupils, that is resulting in better learning.

Key words: data viewers, secondary schools, Norway, barriers, Geography curriculum

1. Introduction: What is GIS?

When examining the many definitions on GIS provided in the literature, Green [1] claims that it is hard to find one
which is suitable for use at an introductory level required for the Geography teacher or for school pupils. Among the
problems Green recognises with most GIS definitions is that they are too technical, putting GIS in the context of ICT
(information and communication technology) and making references to hardware, software, databases, etc. GIS may,
as a consequence, not be understood clearly by those unfamiliar with the associated terminology used in these
definitions. As we educate the use of GIS in a social science department, we share Green’s concern for an alternative,
less technical definition of GIS. In our courses, we define GIS rather simply and broadly to be, a set of tools that
transform geographical data into geographical information and thereby increase our knowledge and/or help us to solve
geography related problems. With this distinction, we base our definition on cognitive terms rather than technical ones.
This definition is inspired by Sui [2] who distinguishes teaching about GIS from teaching with GIS. Sui (ibid) makes a
distinction between data, information, knowledge and intelligence. ‘Data refers to mere description of phenomena in
the real world. Information is the processed and filtered data with a coherent logical order. Knowledge is derived
from the processed information by imposing and testing a cause-effect proposition made according to previous
knowledge. Knowledge is converted into intelligence whenever it is applied to derive new ideas or solve a real
problem’ (Sui [2]: 581).

Maps have traditionally been used to answer

not only “where-questions”, but also why- and
how- question. With GIS, digital maps continue
to answer such questions and thus contribute to
new descriptive or causative knowledge and to
solve real problems. A main feature of our
definition is that we, as Sui [2], distinguish
between geographic intelligence, knowledge,
information and data. Geographical data and
geographical information are the foundations for Figure 6.1: Learning about GIS versus Learning with GIS
geographical knowledge and geographic (modified from Sui (1995: 581)
intelligence (Figure 6.1). When this foundation
is in place and good enough for the particular task of being used in high school curriculum, pupils do not need to learn
about GIS, but could learn geography and other subjects with GIS.

50
2. GIS versus GIS-data viewers
The Knowledge Promotion Reform 2006 (K06) says that the pupils should know how to use GIS, but does so
without defining GIS. Consequently, many Geography teachers in Norway and their employees (county
administrators) ask themselves what kind of GIS or GIS-data viewer they should purchase in order to fulfil the
requirements of the reform. Already, some schools in Norway are using or have used various examples of thematic
mapping software such as the free software PX-map from Statistics Norway (or it’s predecessor Statistisk Sett) or the
commercial software MapViewer from Golden Software. To our knowledge, very few Norwegian schools if any are
using more advanced GIS software. Andersland [3] is among the few pioneers and has used ArcView successfully for
pupils in the eighth grade. His approach is very inspiring but may be too comprehensive for the average Geography
teacher.

We will with this chapter try to fill this gap by providing a basis for teachers who need to select appropriate GIS
software for their school. Internationally there are several examples of schools using ArcView or other software from
ESRI, such as (Brown [4] and Walker [5]. MapInfo is a somewhat business oriented desktop GIS which also is
dissemination into schools (Gill and Roberts [6]). A GIS software popular at universities which have also been used in
schools is Idrisi. Idrisi is a raster based GIS developed at Clark University primarily as academic rather than
commercial software. It has been advocated by Sharpe and Best [7] for the novice users, implicitly school teachers and
their pupils, since the raster structure, they claim, is easier to understand when compared to object-oriented, vector data
structures with their relational tables and topological information. According to Peuquet [8], these two different data
formats correspond to different stages of human cognition, with raster being a lower stage and vector a higher level of
human cognition. However, as current GIS software mostly are hybrids having commands for both raster and vector
data, we will not recommend any one above the others.

Often GIS is defined in terms of four components one is expected to find functionalities for: (1) input and storage,
(2) editing and transformations, (3) geometric operations and spatial analysis, and (4) presentation of georeferenced
data. Following such definitions, you do not have a GIS if you cannot input data, or if your system does not have a
number of (more or less) analytical operations. The GIS software ArcView, Idrisi, MapInfo all have functionalities for
all four components and their vendors (ESRI, Clark Labs and MapInfo) give schools considerable discount (and other
GIS software vendors would very probably do so too, including the GIS software GeoMedia from Intergraph, TNT
from MicroImages, Maptitude from Caliper Cooperation, and many more). Nevertheless, the cost of buying the
required number of GIS licenses is still likely to be too high for schools running on a modest budget. No wonder
therefore that teachers in Norway look for free GIS software. Many of the freely available GIS software packages
would not classify as a GIS but rather as a GIS-data viewer since their functionality may be restricted to adding or
removing layers, zooming and panning, queries, and some more. Still, for use in school teaching they may be useful
and the use of such systems does give the pupils experience with digital maps thereby fulfilling some of the demands
of K06. There are several free GIS software packages available and the functions available from the ArcExplorer
programs from ESRI are outlined in Table 6.1.1 We have grouped the main functions into the four components which
are expected to be found in a GIS.

While ArcExplorer does not have the full range of functions as would a commercial GIS, it has a remarkable set of
capabilities perfect for the high school curriculum in Geography although ambitious teachers and skilled pupils may
eventually experience it as a ‘straight jacket’ – not allowing them to do what they want to do. Although they have
several storage facilities, ESRI’s free GIS viewers are especially poor regarding the input and editing/transformation
components. One argument we will forward on why one should use a GIS with input functionalities is that being able
to work with local data one has collected oneself is more motivating than working with other “ready-to-use” data from
unacquainted places.

The ArcExplorer Java Edition for Education (AEJEE) is the only free ESRI software in which you can create point
data form a table; a functionality that is useful if used in combination with global position system (GPS). Being able to
input point data from a table opens up several possibilities such as plotting where the pupils play after school and in
weekends with attribute data added telling what kind of play they do. They could plot their way to school and indicate

1
There are three versions of the ArcExplorer software which all can be downloaded from ESRI:
http://www.esri.com/software/arcexplorer/download.html
51
whether they walk, bike or go by bus or car, and, if they walk or bike, add attribute data on where they feel safe or
threatened. Collecting such data from a representative sample of children and young people would, no doubt, be useful
for town planners. Another input functionality we have listed in Table 1 is the ability to connect to the Geography
Network. Dataset available from the Geography Network Explorer could by added to the map display of the Java
editions of ArcExplorer. Most of the downloadable datasets from the Geography Network covers the United States, but
many other datasets exist either globally or for particular continents or countries, for instance the affected shorelines
after the December 26 tsunami.

Thematic mapping or the ability to present

statistical data relating to administrative areas is
very popular and these are now generally available
and embedded in software for spreadsheet and
statistics. 2 Several free software packages enable
thematic mapping as well, for example PX-map
from Statistics Norway 3 and all the ArcExplorer
versions allow the user to make choropleth
(‘graduated colour’) maps and graduated symbol
maps which we have listed under the presentation
category in Table 6.1. Choropleth maps are perhaps
the most popular type of thematic maps and are
common in school atlases and geography books.
Although classless choropleth maps have been
suggested (Tobler [9]) and several still advocate
their use (e.g. Kennedy [10]; Andrienko and Figure 6.2: Choropleth maps with two different
Andrienko [11]), in commercial and free GIS representations of elderly welfare in two counties in Norway
software, one has to make classed choropleth maps.

The selection of class intervals can strongly affect the visual impression given by a map. Figure 6.2 is one example
of how differently two maps can portray the same
variable; here the number of places in institutions for
the elderly per 1000 inhabitants above 67 years in
Trøndelag in 1997. The two maps differ only in their
classification method. The two most common
classification methods implemented in free GIS
software, AEJEE included are applied: equal interval
(left) and quantiles4 (right) respectively. Obviously,
‘class breaks can be manipulated to yield choropleth
maps supporting politically divergent
interpretations’ (Monmonier [12]: 41). If one would
like to express a situation of low welfare for the
elderly, the left map should be used, if the intention Figure 6.3: The skewed distribution of the variable portrayed
rather is to promote high welfare for the elderly, the in Figure 6.2 and the effect of classification
right map should be used. There is a huge body of

2
For instance the spreadsheet software MS Excel and the statistical package SPSS have both a mapping module included
that offer various forms of thematic mapping such as choropleth maps and graduated symbol maps.
3
PX-map can be downloaded from http://www.ssb.no/pxmap/. Enumerative statistics which you can download from
Statistics Norway can be downloaded in a data format compatible with PX-map which the user thereafter can present in form
of various types of maps. Statistics Norway provide primarily data from Norwegian counties, municipalities or city districts,
but they also provide ‘key-statistics’ from the other Nordic and European countries as well which users can open directly
into the PX-map software.
4
Quantiles is the general term for a data classification that group observations into classes with an equal or near equal
number of observations in each class. The term quartiles if often used if the number of classes is four, quintiles if the number
of classes is five.
52
cartographic literature which discusses the various classification methods and our understanding of choropleth maps,
but there remain few accounts of how young people make meaning from choropleth maps (Wiegand [13]).

A pleasing feature with the AEJEE software in this respect is that the distribution of the mapped variable is shown
in an interactive graph (Figure 6.3). Here, the user can manually set the class breaks, either by typing the class breaks
or by using the ‘slider’ to categorise the data dynamically. The latter is an approach advocated by Andrienko and
Andrienko [14] who have shown that such interactive tools facilitate learning. This particular exercise could be used to
help pupils understand how the quartile classification hides the variation of a skewed variable such as this ‘elderly-
welfare’ variable. The equal interval classification, on the other hand, preserves the skewed impression since very few
municipalities fall within the highest classes.

3. GIS and the Geography curriculum: the main hindrances

The primary advantage of introducing GIS in school education is, according to Green [15] to provide a continuity
of education in GIS and to equip the next generation with the tools to make use of spatial data. An additional obvious
reason is that since GIS plays an important role in today’s society, the use of GIS in schools will prepare students for
uses of spatial technologies later in life (Meyer et al. [17]). However, perhaps the most important aspect for geography
teachers is that GIS can be a powerful ally in the effort to enhance education in Geography as well as pulling together
elements of other subjects in the curriculum, such as Mathematics and Statistics, which are relevant to Geography.

3.1 Barriers to implementing GIS

Unfortunately, however, there are some hindrances in the way. Baker [16] summarises the main barriers that
school research has identified. Firstly, the required commitment of time and resources is out of reach of most schools
to widely adopt GIS into their teaching. Secondly, the computer systems found in schools are best described as odds
and ends – a variety of patchwork style computers incapable of meeting the robust demands of desktop GIS. Thirdly,
we have didactic constraints since there is a lack of curriculum support for how and when one should teach and learn
with GIS.5 Chief among these barriers is a lack of time.

3.2 Time constraints

According to Meyer et al. [17], time is a critical element for two reasons. Teachers need time to learn and master
the technology and time must be provided within the existing curriculum to introduce a new learning experience.
Fortunately, software and hardware are becoming increasingly user-friendly, but to be educated about how our
environment is represented and analysed in a GIS as well as training in a rather complex GIS package such as
ArcGIS/ArcView does require time that most teachers may not have available.

We recommend that the integration of GIS into Norwegian classrooms should happen through evolution rather
than revolution. We believe that Norwegian schools can easily take the first step of integrating GIS in their teaching
while avoiding data, hardware, and software issues, by using established web based resources. The majority, if not all
of Norwegian secondary schools do have high speed Internet access and have therefore access to already available
web-based GIS. Still, we believe that training and education of teachers is essential and we will forward some of our
experiences from educating teachers in Norway below.

Regarding the second time constraint identified by Meyer et al. [17], most research about the introduction of GIS
into the classroom concludes that pupils should not learn about GIS – which would require dedicated time within
existing curriculum, but pupils should learn with GIS – which does not require dedicated time within existing
curriculum, given that the GIS is easily understood. An approach we would advocate is therefore to integrate GIS as a
learning tool facilitating the teaching of geography or any other subject. Most students experience a steep learning
curve when introduced to GIS software – they learn it quickly – and software developers are working to make the
learning curve even steeper. Baker [16] believes that ‘by using Internet-based mapping, the added and unused
complexities of desktop GIS can be cut, making the software easier to learn and use. This kind of browser-based GIS is
ideal for a majority of classrooms that are not interested in the time, commitment, and energy required of desktop GIS’
(Baker [16]: 46). Although positive to Internet-based mapping facilities, Meyer et al. [17] point to an important limit

5
Please read Baker (2005) for details on these and other barriers.

53
of using simplified GIS; they may not facilitate a focus on learning geography if they are useful only to display data
and not to analyse them. We believe, however, that also the display of geographical data from different sources that
relate to one another, such as the reindeer migration lines and the roads may function as a basis for discussions and
deeper analysis (Figure 6.4). In addition, we are certain that browser-based GIS will not remain as “simplified GIS” for
all future and during the six years between Meyer et al.’s [17] and Baker’s [16] articles, web-based GIS has already
greatly increased its analytical functionalities, and thus complexity. Finally, we believe that a parallel development
will continue making desktop GIS simpler and more adapted to use for secondary school pupils, reducing the gap in
complexity between web-based and desktop GIS.

3.3 Technological constraints

Traditionally, GIS software has demanded rather intense
resources in terms of disk storage, memory and particular
hardware components such as math processor and graphic card.
As even the standard computers which are sold today are
powerful enough to run GIS program, these constraints are
much minor today than what they were. The other good news is
that prices on hardware has decreased and continue to do so. As
a consequence, most Norwegian pupils have their own
computer or have access to one either at home or at school.
Prices of commercial GIS software are still rather high, but
negotiable – particularly for educational use. It is too difficult
to provide a comparable price list of what various GIS software
cost, but our more or less educated guess would be that for one
single K-12 licence would cost about $ 150 for commercial GIS
software such as IDRISI, MapInfo or ArcView. Discount
would probably be given for older versions and, certainly, for
an increased number of licences for instance if several schools Figure 6.4: The web portal http://geonorge.no
showing topographic information and reindeer
could create an alliance and purchase their GIS licenses
together. Notwithstanding, we believe as Fitzpatrick and movements.
Maguire [18] suggest, that schools can have a new, fully
featured GIS appropriate for classroom needs with only a modest investment. It is unnecessary to purchase a powerful,
and expensive, GIS. The vast majority of tasks that school pupils need to perform to accomplish their given tasks can
be handled with a reasonable number of basic operations. Probably, many of the free GIS data viewers available would
include those basic operations.

After having taught Geography teachers “GIS in schools” for two years and discussed with them what kind of GIS
they should use in their teaching, our conclusion is that most teachers in Norway want an easy solution. They want
something which they can plug into their two hours session with a minimum of preparation. The reasons for this desire
may be manifold and does probably vary between teachers. In part, it may be because GIS is comprehended as
something “very technical” and some teachers may have a reluctance and fear to become involved in the application of
such a technology they may not master. However, it may also be a result of a hectic work situation and thus relate to
their time constraints. Thirdly, and more importantly, they want solutions that bring to focus the theme or subject that
the pupils should learn, and tone down the significance of technology, or as Kemp et al. [27] and Sui [2] would have
formulated it: how to learn with GIS without the need to learn about GIS. This is a challenge to educators, Sharpe and
Best [7] conclude, to teach GIS as a tool without losing sight of the broader objective of learning about geographic
concepts and skills. It is important to find ways of emphasising instruction in Geography while making the GIS
technique as transparent as possible. Ideally, the GIS technology should be so transparent that it could be integrated
into the geography curriculum and other curricula without an isolated, dedicated place at the schedule. This challenge
is the next type of constraint to be overcome for a wide diffusion of GIS into Norwegian schools and we call it didactic
constraints.

3.4 Didactic constraints

The diffusion of GIS into the Norwegian K-12 curricula, we will claim, is not impeded by a lack of time to teach
GIS, but because of a curricular connection (see Meyer et al. [17] for a support of this claim regarding the situation in

54
the USA). If the teachers had available, relevant instructional materials which fulfil the learning goals of the
curriculum and that is supported by GIS, the integration would be easier. At Wilfrid Laurier University they have
developed and evaluated a model curriculum for the integration of GIS into the geography classroom. The model
curriculum is based on recommendations from teachers revealed from surveys and focus group discussions. Among
the recommendations are generic exercises that are not site-specific and thus allow teachers to adapt lessons to their
locale, containing detailed step-by-step instructions, and flexible to fit into a variety of time schedules – ideally the
exercises should be accomplished within the standard time frame of a Geography class (Sharpe and Best [7]). We will
continue to illuminate the didactic constraints and some suggestions how to teach and learn with GIS.

4. GIS and geography curriculum – the main opportunities

In 1992, ESRI began its program to support K-12 education. ESRI provides resources for teachers on how to teach
with GIS at a special session on their web pages: GIS for schools,6 and from ESRI Press comes a number of relevant
books such as GIS in Schools (Audet and Ludwig [21] and Mapping our World (Malone at al, [22]; [23]). A very
pleasing detail with Mapping our World is that for each of the GIS lessons, it is outlined how the exercises fulfil the
educational goals in the national curriculum in the US, thus strengthening the curricular connection.

In Denmark there are web based services (for instance

http://www.gogis.dk) from where teachers may download
course materials, GIS data, get information on training
and much more. In Norway we have something similar
called Sarepta (see below) which has its main focus on
remote sensing and the use of satellite imagery and not on
GIS and the use of digital maps. However, there is a
resource portal called viten.no (‘viten’ is Norwegian for
‘knowledge’) on the web for teachers with exercises,
projects and other tasks which pupils can use. Several of
these “learning programs” are relevant for geography
teachers, for instance “The living planet” where one learns
about Alfred Wegener’s theory of Pangaea and therefore
continental drift. The learning program is equipped with Figure 6.5: Continental drift, active volcanoes and
maps and the possibility to move the continents to see if earthquakes during the last nine years.
they “fit” together. School pupils can also learn about the
San Andreas and other faults, the creation of Himalaya and other folded mountains, volcanoes, ice ages, erosion and
much more. Figure 6.5 shows one of the lessons in the learning program displaying a map where pupils can turn on
and off four themes: active volcanoes, tectonic plates, continental movements and earthquakes occurred during the last
nine years.

With a GIS however, school pupils could have done so very much more. They could have answered many
questions including the following:
1. Where did the largest earthquakes occur?
2. Did large earthquakes occur near densely populated
areas? Where?
3. Are there many active volcanoes located close to
highly populated areas?
4. What pattern do you see in the volcano points and
how do they compare with the earthquake patterns?
All of the above questions are taken from an exercise in
Malone et al. [22] which we have updated with new
dataset on earthquakes, moderately modified and
translated to Norwegian.
Figure 6.6: A map showing volcanoes, earthquakes,
population densities and continental plates

6
http://www.esri.com/industries/k-12/education/teaching.html
55
 Figure 6.6 shows this exercise created by one of the course participants at a follow-up course we had with
geography teachers.

At the University of Trondheim, there have been two follow-up courses for geography teachers and others wanting
to integrate GIS into their teaching. The course was called “GIS in School” and was a distance learning course starting
with a two-day session in Trondheim where we had intensive lectures and exercises. There are many ways of learning
GIS. Our approach was to use exercises with rather detailed step-by-step instructions. Such button-pushing exercises
have been criticised by several as having many disadvantages. It may not give the students a general competence they
may apply to other GIS packages on their own at a later stage, instead of stimulating a curiosity and exploration
students follow slavishly a recipe, and what the students learn by following the recipe they soon forget – what one
learns by slowly progressive hard work one remembers longer.

However, there is a distinction between training and education which Sui [2] relates to teaching about GIS and
teaching with GIS respectively. We should therefore seek to reduce the complexity of forcing students to orient
themselves in rather complicated software such as ArcGIS or ArcView which are at a level of complexity with several
long chains of dialog boxes where one can easily get lost. Whereas, if students are supposed to be learning about some
geographic issue, it is important that they have this issue in focus, not some technical puzzle on which command to use
next. That is why some authors advocate customising the GIS interface and functionality to create GIS applications
which are dedicated to educational geography at various levels of complexity (see for instance Sharpe and Best [7]).
Most GIS has a macro language making it possible to customise the software to make it more suitable for the particular
tasks the students need to do. Indeed, that can be an alternative to detailed step-by-step instruction, but customising
software requires a certain level of programming skills that most geography teachers do not posses [27].

The first year we used the ArcGIS 9 software and we asked the course participants to buy the book Getting to
Know ArcGIS Desktop (Ormsby et al, [24] which included a 180 days trial licence on ArcView 9. We selected to use
the ArcGIS 9.1 as GIS software for the course mainly for reasons of convenience since this was the GIS software
available at our computer labs. In addition, as we already had written GIS exercises for a Bachelor course based on the
ArcGIS 9 software which we could easily modify to this particular GIS course for teachers. We also modified some
exercises from the book Mapping Our World: GIS Lessons for Educators (Malone et al. [22]) which were based on the
ArcView 3 software (a new edition is now available based on the ArcGIS 9 version (Malone et al. [23])). The course
participants also bought this book and thus had both ArcView 3 and ArcGIS 9 versions to work with. We realised,
however, as it has been claimed, that ‘the vast majority of tasks that schools wish to accomplish can be handled with a
reasonable number of basic operations’ (Fitzpatrick and Maguire [18]: 64). Last year therefore, we modified the
exercises so the participants could perform them with the free GIS data viewer ArcExplorer Java Edition for Education
(AEJEE) which is much simpler than ArcView/ArcGIS. Fitzpatrick and Maguire’s claim (ibid) above was strongly
supported by the participants in the “GIS in School” course: AEJEE was useful. Several of the teachers were positively
surprised how easy GIS (AEJEE) actually was although some of them, even after the course, felt they did not have
enough skills to use GIS in upper secondary schools. Their main problem, however, was not related to the use of the
GIS software itself but to generally poor computer skills.

Some time was also spent on web-based GIS mapping such as Globalis as well as the airphoto / satellite image
resources found at Norge i Bilder,7 Google Earth and Sarepta. Globalis is an interactive world atlas where you decide
what is to be displayed on the map. Globalis aims to create an understanding for similarities and differences in human
societies, as well as how we influence life on the planet. This is primarily done using visual means such as graphs and,
above all, maps. The map tool Globalis is relatively self-instructing and does not require advanced computer skills
from the users. Although the Norwegian version of Globalis is the one most developed, Globalis is also available in
Swedish, Danish and English8. Globalis is realised through a project headed by the Norwegian UN Association and
with UNEP/GRID-Arendal, UNU/Global Virtual University, the University College of Hedmark and the INTIS

7
Norge i Bilder (Norway as Images) http://www.norgeibilder.no/. This internet portal is made and maintained by the
Norwegian mapping authority, cooperating with Norge Digitalt (Digital Norway). The main purpose of the resource is to
present a collection of orthophotos displaying different parts of Norway.
8
See http://www.globalis.no and http://www.globalis.gvu.unu.edu for the Norwegian version and English respectively.
Links are available to the Swedish and Danish versions.
56
schools as collaborative partners. The project is supported by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation.

Sarepta “Using Space in Education” is an online internet service for teachers and pupils in primary school, lower
secondary school and upper secondary school (http://www.sarepta.org). Sarepta is adjusted to cover geography and
nature- and environmental subjects. In addition to earth observations Sarepta is covering information on satellite
communication and navigation, the sun and the interaction between the sun and earth. There are factual articles,
examples and suggestions for teaching and learning and a lot of relevant links available, as well as an archive on
satellite images. Most resources are available in English in addition to Norwegian and Icelandic. Teachers can
download ready made “teaching packages” including facts, exercises both for working in the class room and for field
work if the school is situated not far form the area of study. Teachers and pupils download ArcExplorer and
LEOWorks9 from Sarepta’s pages and relevant data for the different “teaching packages”, including both GIS data and
satellite images. Sarepta offers the teachers to select subject and level they are planning their teaching on, and run a
search for potential resources. The search returns themes, exercises and “teaching packages” relevant to the current
curriculum.

For next year we plan to extend the use of web-based GIS application, including GeoNorge.no
(http://www.geonorge.no) which is a Web ArcExplorer application. GeoNorge.no is similar to the Geography
Network, but the geographical data available covers Norway. By using a web-based map application such as
GeoNorge.no, anyone can view the many digital maps provided by the National Mapping Authority, the Norwegian
Geological Survey and others who take part in the data-sharing project called Digital Norway (Figure 6.4).

The left side contains the table of contents (TOC) listing the layers which are added to the map. Several tool
buttons are available above the TOC and the map allowing the user to zoom in or out, pan, add or remove themes, and
some other functions. The themes added to the map are topographic map data such as roads, railways, buildings, place
names and contours from the Norwegian Mapping Authority and the lines representing reindeer movements come
from the Directorate for Nature Management.

The area portrayed in Figure 6.4 is currently being used for military training. One of the buildings, Snøheim, is a
refuge build in 1952 and own by the Norwegian Tourist Organisation until 1959 when the area were established as a
military training area. As a substitute, the refuge Reinheim some kilometres north were build. Now, when the area is
going to be re-established as a wilderness area with mountain trekking allowed, Snøheim will again, after considerable
renovation, be a refuge. There is, however, a debate whether or not to keep the road from Hjerkin leading to Snøheim.
The map in Figure 6.4 shows why: the road crosses several of the reindeer migration lines and, consequently,
motorised traffic along this road causes disturbances for the reindeer. According to West, ‘one of the core goals of
school geography is to inculcate a value-based approach to conflict resolution’ and ‘if students are better able to
engage in the analysis and manipulation of data related to actual conflicts, they are more comprehensively exposed to
the influence of attitudes and political structures upon the decision making processes’ (West [19]: 269).

This is just one out of many examples on how conflicting interests leads to conflicts over the disposal of an area
and how pupils may be introduced to the complexity of such conflicts with the use of GIS.

5. Conclusions
In this chapter, we have emphasised either free desktop or web-based GIS data viewers. The availability of these
tools means that price as a constraint does not apply any more. We believe that a successfully integration of GIS in the
school curriculum will thus happen through evolution rather than revolution. In our opinion, the best approach is to
start using one or more of the web-based applications. Although these tools may not be regarded as GIS by most
definitions, they may be very useful provided that that geographical information and sufficient pupil-map interactivity
is available. In order for GIS data viewers to contribute to an increased geographic knowledge and intelligence, they
have to allow for an iterative cognitive cycle of ‘seeing that’ and ‘reasoning why’ (MacEachren [20]: 363). Next step
in the “GIS in school evolution” would be to use desktop GIS data viewers such as the ArcExplorer Java Edition for
Education (AEJEE). Our experience from introducing AEJEE to teachers reveals enthusiasm.

9
LEOWorks is a image processing software for educational use developed by the EDUSPACE Team.
57
 After brief conversations with school teachers, Green [1] reported that teachers have a somewhat limited
enthusiasm for the teaching of GIS as part of the Geography curriculum. ‘Many of these reactions seems to arise from
the general misconception that education in GIS requires expensive computer systems and software programs that are
neither available nor affordable on the limited budget of most schools’ (Green [1]: 35). Similar limited enthusiasm
exists also among Norwegian teachers, but geography teachers that followed our “GIS in schools” revealed enthusiasm
for GIS, not only because it was free, but also because they found it easy to use and with functionalities rich enough to
handle the majority of task needed at high school geography teaching [25]. By using ArcExplorer, the technical
constraints that these teachers experienced were not related to the GIS software, but to generally poor computer skills.
The main remaining constraints that we identify are the access to local geographical data, time and curriculum
connection. Hopefully, the Ministry of Knowledge will engage in the development of Digital Norway and thereby
open up for any school pupil to download geographical data. We believe that access to local geographical data will be
positive for the pupils learning as they probably will be more curious and that their understanding for geographical
phenomena and concepts will be better since they can connect the issues to their local area [28]. Frankly, we believe
that if local geographical data becomes available, so many will be engaged in the use of GIS in schools that the
remaining constraints, time and curriculum connections, soon will be solved.

References
[1] Green, D. R., GIS in school education. You don't necessarily need a microcomputer. In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS: A
Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 34-61, 2001

[2] Sui, D.Z., A Pedagogic Framework to Link GIS to the Intellectual Core of Geography, Journal of Geography. 94:
578-592, 1995

[3] Andersland, S., Eg syns ArcView var eit skamtøft program. Om GIS og geodata i skule og undervisning, Kart og
Plan. 99 (3): 195-200, 2006

[4] Brown, M. J., Geographical Information Systems. An introduction for students, In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS: A
Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 94-113, 2001

[5] Walker, S., Another school of thought. Introducing GIS to a secondary school geography department. In: D. R.
Green (ed): GIS: A Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 127-136, 2001

[6] Gill, S. & Roberts P., Expanding a corporate GIS into an authority's high schools. In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS: A
Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 114- 126, 2001

[7] Sharpe, B. & Best, A. C., Teaching with GIS in Ontario's secondary schools. In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS: A
Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 73-86, 2001

[8] Peuquet, D. J., Representations of Geographic Space: Toward a Conceptual Synthesis, Annals of the Association
of American Geographers, 78(3): 375-394, 1988

[9] Tobler, W. R., Choropleth maps without class intervals? Geographical Analysis. 5 (3): 385-393, 1973

[10] Kennedy, S., Unclassed choropleth maps revisited. Some guidelines for the construction of unclassed and classed
choropleth maps, Cartographica. 31 (1): 16-25, 1994

[11] Andrienko, G.L. & Andrienko N.V., Dynamic categorization for visual study of spatial information,
Programming and Computer Software, 24(3): 108-115, 1997

[12] Monmonier, M., How to Lie with Maps. Chicago IL, University of Chicago Press, 1991

[13] Wiegand, P., School Students' Understanding of Choropleth Maps: Evidence From Collaborative Mapmaking
Using GIS. Journal of Geography, 102: 234-242, 2003

58
[14] Andrienko, G.L. & Andrienko N.V., Interactive maps for visual data exploration, International Journal of
Geographic Information Science, 13 (4): 355-374, 1999

[15] Green, D. R. GIS in school education. An introduction. In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS: A Sourcebook for Schools.
London, Taylor & Francis: 1-25, 2001

[16] Baker, T. R., Internet-Based GIS Mapping in Support of K-12 Education, Professional Geographer. 57(1): 44-50,
2005

[17] Meyer, J. W., Buttterick J., Olkin M. & Zack, G., GIS in the K-12 Curriculum: A Cautionary Note, Professional
Geographer. 51(4): 571-578, 1999

[18] Fitzpatrick, C. & Maguire. D.J., GIS in Schools. Infrastructure, methodology and role, In: D. R. Green (ed): GIS:
A Sourcebook for Schools. London, Taylor & Francis: 62-72, 2001

[20] MacEachren, A. M., How maps work : representation, visualization, and design New York, Guilford Press, 1995

[21] Audet, R. & Ludwig, G., GIS in Schools. Redlands CA, ESRI Press, 2000

[22] Malone, L., Palmer A. M. & Voigt, C. Mapping Our World. ArcView 3.x Edition. GIS Lessons for Educators.
Redlands CA, ESRI Press, 2002

[23] Malone, L., Palmer, A. M. Voigt, C., Napoleon E. & Feaster, L., Mapping Our World: ArcGIS Desktop Edition.
GIS Lessons for Educators. Redlands CA, ESRI Press, 2005

[24] Ormsby, T., Napoleon, E., Burke, Groessl C. & Feaster. L., Getting to Know ArcGIS Desktop, Redlands, ESRI
Press, 2004

[25] Kraak, M.-J. & Ormeling, F.,. Cartography. Visualization of Geospatial Data. Harlow, Prentice Hall. 2nd edition,
2003

[26} Kemp, K. K., Goodchild M. F. & Dodson, R. F., Teaching GIS in Geography, Professional Geographer, 44(2):
181-191, 1992

[27] Johansson, T.. Introducing GIS into Upper Secondary Schools in Europe, GIS Educator, Spring 2005: 1-7.
Redlands CA: ESRI Inc., 2005

[28] Favier T and Van der Schee J, Learning to think Geographically by Working with GIS, 135-145, in Jekel T, Koller
A and Donert K, Learning with GeoInformation IV, Heidelberg, Wichmann, 2009

59
Table 6.1: Functionality supported by three free GIS software from ESRI. * Only through an Event Theme as
subset of original
Feature / function ArcExplorer—Java ArcExplorer
Educational edition 9.x
Input and storage
Create point events (x,y) from table X
Create new Shapefiles X*
Connect to the GeographyNetwork X X
Export map to image format X X X
Save as Project file X X X
Editing and transformations
On-the-fly map projection X
Geometric operations and spatial analysis
Select features interactively X X
Spatial Operations (Buffer, Polygon Overlay, etc.) X X
Measure Distance on the Map X X X
Identify Map Features X X X
Query shapefiles X X X
Presentation
Display ArcInfo coverages X
Display shapefiles X X X
Display a wide variety of image formats X X X
Pan & Zoom through multiple map layers X X X
Label features X X X
Support Dynamic Map Tips X X X
Choropleth mapping ( Equal Interval, Quantile, X X X
Manual)
Graduated Symbol Maps X X X

60
7. Geographical Information Systems Applications for Schools (GISAS)
Manuella Borghs1 and Tino Johansson2
1
CVO HIKempen and KOGEKA, Sint-Dimpnacollege, Geel, Belgium
2
Department of Geography, P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
Email: manu.borghs@skynet.be, tino.johansson@helsinki.fi

Abstract
GISAS (Geographical Information Systems Applications for Schools) is a research and education project focusing on
the incorporation of GIS technologies into secondary school education in Europe. The three-year project ended in
September 2006 and this paper summarises some of its outputs and findings. GISAS project is a part of the European
Commission Minerva action and it includes schools from eight European countries. The GISAS project has used fresh
water quality as a unifying topic for partner schools. The partner schools have collected water quality data from the
local rivers twice a year, analysed the samples and visualised the results by overlaying the water quality database with
other GIS data layers on local raster maps. The schools also participated in testing and developing new educational
GIS applications for schools. The cross-cultural group of schools from different countries with various educational
settings allowed the project to create a model on the incorporation of GIS into secondary education, which may later
be extended to other countries, too.

Key words: Geography, GIS education, schools, research, BISEL water assessment, pilot project

1. The background of the GISAS project

The GISAS project was funded by the European Commission Minerva action which started in October 2003 and
ended in September 2006. The GISAS project was coordinated
by the Department of Geography, University of Helsinki in
Finland. The project coordinator is Professor Petri Pelikka and
the project manager Dr Tino Johansson. There were also two
other research partners in the project consortium, namely the
Finnish National Board of Education, which has been
responsible of the dissemination of the project and its outputs
and has supported the pedagogical planning of the project
activities and the Jozef Stefan Institute from Ljubljana, Slovenia
which created a web-based atlas where the participating
institutions can download, visualise and share their local data on
maps.

GISAS included seven partner schools from seven European

countries. The countries represented were Belgium, France,
Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia and Sweden. The partner schools
had previously collaborated in Comenius projects and had an
interest in and experience on assessing local water quality in
Europe. At least two teachers from each partner school
participated in the GISAS project. The participating teachers
were not all from the field of Geography but represented also
other subjects, such as physics, languages and computer science.
This was an important feature for the project team to be able to Figure 7.1: Water quality data collection by
test GIS as a cross-disciplinary tool in secondary schools. The one of the French partner schoolteachers
teachers disseminated the educational material, exercises, results
and innovations at their own schools and provided training for other teachers to use GIS in the classroom. Partner
schools cooperated with their municipal authorities and regional environmental agencies and at the same time tried to
involve other schools from their countries as network partners for the project.

61
 The partner schools have monitored water quality of their local water bodies with BISEL (Biotic Index at
Secondary Education Level) method, (Figure 7.1). This method uses aquatic macroinvertebrates as biological
indicators of water quality [1]. In addition to this, the schools also analysed the water quality with chemical indicators.
Local water data collection sites were located into WGS84 coordinate system with the use of GPS (Global Positioning
System) receivers during the GISAS project. These exact locations were placed on a digital map together with the
collected attribute data, such as the results of the biological and chemical water analyses. The attributes were stored
and linked with the geometric vector shapes on the map through the database tables. The collection and creation of the
GI databases was not the end itself but the means of creating the prerequisites for using GIS in the classrooms as an
inquiry-based learning tool.

2. GISIS objectives
One of the objectives of the GISAS project was to collect
various types of environmental data layers from the areas
surrounding the studied rivers of the partner schools. This
data was used with ArcView 8.3 GIS software to study,
analyse, monitor and visualise local environmental elements,
their effects on water quality and their different
interrelationships (Figure 7.2). GIS software provides the
user a large number of tools to study geographically located
objects or elements according to their location,
neighbourhood, topology or attributes. The overlay –analyses
of the collected data provided answers to the enquiries of the
pupils and allowed them to actively combine different types
of data layers and ask new geographical questions on that
basis. Patterson et al. [3] mention that the use of GIS,
especially in Geography education, developed students’
spatial thinking skills and supported the overall Geography
teaching and learning at upper secondary school level. In
GISAS project, all collected data was stored into a large
database, where it remains available for the teachers and their Figure 7.2: This ArcMap screen shot shows the
idea of collecting data for different GIS databases
pupils to use in the classrooms after the project has ended.
and overlaying those on the map. The attribute
data table shows the different water quality
Another objective of the project was to collect water data
for a European digital water atlas. This atlas is part of the indicators collected by the French partner school.
projects’ web-based learning environment and contains All database layers showing the location of
different land use types, sources of pollution,
nation-wide data, which is visualised as a set of choropleth
wildlife habitats, etc. on the map can be overlaid
maps. This application was created with ESRI
for studying the interrelationships. ArcMap © is
(Environmental Systems Research Institute) company’s
ArcIMS (Arc Internet Map Server) software (Figure 7.3). owned by the ESRI Inc. U.S.A.
The user may choose from a list, which topic is visualised on
a European scale map and, as a result, may study national differences. The flexible scaling of map windows from local
to European scale map is one of the characteristics of GIS, which was used in GISAS project. The digital European
water atlas highlighted the European dimension of the project. The ArcIMS application also allowed queries, buffering
and studying of the attribute data, just like to desktop GIS software does. All users can enter the ArcIMS application
and use the data with their web browsers. This way, the project ensures the dissemination of the innovative education
tool and the project outputs across Europe and the rest of the world.

Digital photographs taken at the water data collection points were hyperlinked to the points visualised on maps.
The user may thus learn the water quality of a certain area and at the same time see the landscape image of that very
area. This enhances the adoption of a holistic approach to environmental education and supports visual learning
experiences. The national differences in raster map colours and geometrical shapes as well as different landscape
photographs taken by the pupils for the database will eventually allow the schools to share part of their cultural
differences during the exercises and lessons. The summaries of the local water analyses can be studied with ArcIMS
by activating and clicking the line shape representing a river on the map.

62
2. GISAS project outcomes
The project focused first on in-service teacher training
to explain the partner school teachers the main functions and
tools of desktop GIS. There were many on-line e-learning
exercises supported by illustrated manuals. These manuals
later helped the teachers to introduce the exercises to their
pupils. E-mails and BSCW groupware tool were the main
forums for communication and material distribution, but the
project also arranged hands-on training sessions during the
project meetings.

Each partner school received funding for hardware,

software, data and equipment, such as GPS receivers and Figure 7.3: The interactive GISAS web atlas was
digital cameras. The project supported the integration of created with ArcIMS software. It shows the databases
modern information and communication technology (ICT) in different scales from local (zoom into the squares)
into secondary education, not only in Geography but in to European (countries). ArcIMS © ESRI Inc
other curriculum subjects as well. The use of ICT and
virtual learning environment allowed the schools to experiment, test and produce new functional, interdisciplinary and
pedagogically appropriate teaching methods. GISAS project specialised in GIS but simultaneously paved way for the
curriculum where the three intertwined learning domains, described by Hameyer [2] come into focus. These domains
are creativity (creative growth across the subjects), competence (explorative and gives space for intellectual freedom)
and communication (share and work on ideas cooperatively).

3. Conclusions
The know-how and technical preconditions of using GIS in education differed a lot among the partner schools and
teachers in Europe. The importance of GIS in various sectors of the society is growing and there is also a growing need
to include GIS as a tool into secondary education. Partner schools’ feedback was mainly positive and optimistic and
many new innovative ways to use GIS in schools surfaced during the project. Some teachers mentioned that a whole
new world of teaching and learning was introduced to them and learning this approach and GIS tool opened up new
ideas and projects in the classrooms. Availability of resources, facilities and in-service training are fundamental issues
in incorporating GIS into secondary school education. Different curricula in the partner countries will make the task
even more difficult as there is no time for subjects outside the curricula. Moreover, the limited hours for geography
and other science subjects in curricula make it difficult for the teachers to invest time for learning and teaching new
educational innovations and technologies designed for these fields. However, it was found out during the project that
GIS can be used for several purposes and subjects according to the teachers’ needs and students’ projects.

GISAS project operated in close cooperation with the partner schoolteachers and placed emphasis on their
feedback and needs in the creation and planning of the educational material and outputs of the project. More
information can be found from the website of the project http://www.edu.fi/gisas/. The GISAS book has been
published in the end of the project. This book includes a detailed description of the project, research results, learning
processes and partners’ reflections on the GISAS project. Further information can be obtained from the authors.

References
[1] De Pauw, N., Van Damme, D. & Van der Veken, D., European Biotic Index Manual for secondary schools,
Comenius 3.2. In–Service Education Courses for Educational Staff. Mol; Nieuwe Media School, 1999

[2] Hameyer, U., Behind the Secret of Success – How to Support and Sustain School Improvement in the Information
Society, 11-27. In Pantzar, E. (Ed.): Perspectives on the Age of the Information Society. Tampere University Press,
Finland, 2002

[3] Patterson, M. W., Reeve, K. & Page, D., Integrating Geographic Information Systems into the secondary
curricula, Journal of Geography 102 (6), 275–281, 2003

63
 8. The YoungNet Project - GeoInformation and Edutainment
Clare Brooks
Institute of Education, University of London, UK
c.brooks@ioe.ac.uk

Abstract
This chapter outlines an example of how a geoinformation tool, Euromap, combined within a virtual learning
environment, can be used to support young peoples' engagement and learning opportunities. The Euromap game was
part of the edutainment component of the YoungNet project, and as such played an important role in engaging students
with the YoungNet system and with developing their use of the system in their leisure time. This chapter describes
Euromap and how it fits into the YoungNet concept, and explores the potential of geoinformation for edutainment. It
will therefore be of interest to geography educators who are interested in the concept of edutainment, and in young
people's acceptance of virtual learning environments

Key words: Edutainment, geoinformation, European dimension, Euromap

1. The YoungNet Project

The aim of the YoungNet project was to develop a closed virtual learning community where young people could
work on collaborative projects and use a virtual learning environment for communication and play in both school and
leisure times. The main objectives for the YoungNet Project include creating the technical infrastructure to bring
young people (from ages 8-14) from 50 schools together so that they can work on these projects, publish their results,
and to use them as a basis for synchronous and asynchronous communication. The system also aimed to provide
games or edutainment opportunities to support the collaborative dynamic of the system.

The project team comprised of both technical and pedagogical partners who worked together to produce a virtual
learning environment for school use, where the pedagogical and technical objectives worked in tandem to create an
authentic learning community. The project was finally completed in the summer of 2003 and evaluated thereafter. The
finished system included audio and text chat, a personalised virtual home environment, avatars, games and shared
collaborative workspaces. These technical facilities were developed to facilitate the YoungNet participants in
developing their understanding of Europe through working collaboratively with their peers, as specified in the project
objectives. A major part in meeting these objectives were through the effective use of the edutainment components of
the system.

The games are an important part of the edutainment component of the system, as they were designed to be used
across possible language and experience boundaries, as well as being designed so that young people would have to
work together to complete the game, thus supporting a non-competitive environment. The content of the games were
created so that they could support the project topics of the system (which were anticipated to be the main in-class
activities and had a geographical/environmental education theme), and to enable the students to develop their
geographical vocabulary and understanding. Teachers also had the facility to customise the games to include content
and vocabulary that fits their current teaching programmes.

Geoinformation was important to the objectives of the YoungNet project, for both practical and pedagogical reasons.
As the project was aiming to cater for the needs of various students across Europe, it was important that the project
combined both foreign language development goals, and included content that was applicable to a school curriculum area.
The range and variety of geoinformation that was available, and the importance of geography to the school curricula of all
the countries involved in the project made this a logical choice. But more importantly, the project perceived that children
were also creators and users of geo-information, and the flexibility of the YoungNet system enabled the students to add
and adapt the geoinformation for their own needs, as well as meeting the school curricula criteria.

64
2. The Euromap Game
The Euromap game uses a 3 D multi-user platform that supports communication and interaction capabilities as
well as the visualisation of demonstration objects and worlds. The game is set within a 3-D graphical representation of
Europe based on real data and a two dimensional map of Europe.

The game is played by two players: a driver and a navigator. The team are given a “mission” that comprises of
three questions about Europe. The questions are about a variety of topics including: physical geography, culture,
places, current affairs, and Europe itself. The answers to these questions are particular places within Europe, and the
team have to decide (by using audio or text chat) what they think the answers to the questions are. The learning
objectives of the game are that through interaction with their peers, students develop their locational knowledge of the
layout of Europe, share their geographical knowledge of Europe, and develop their geographical and foreign language
skills and vocabulary. The game has a strong collaborative component.

The team begin from their home country and, using

directions from the navigator, have to drive across Europe to the
places that answer the mission questions. The navigator has a
map view where they can see the whole of Europe, and a red
arrow indicating the position and direction of the driver, and a
compass and timer. At the same time, the driver is sat inside a
Euro-car and can see a 3 dimensional view of Europe. After
reaching the correct place, the team are prompted by their next
mission question. Once the team have visited each of the
answers to the three questions, then their time is recorded and
added to the leader board (Figures 8.1 and 8.2).

3. Edutainment
Edutainment was a key objective of the YoungNet project Figure 8.1: Navigator view of the Euromap game
and defined as having:
“well-defined educational goals. The reason for using
edutaining features is to create intrinsic motivation to learn.
The YoungNet environment combines communicating,
learning and playing. The edutainment games are defined as
higher level cognitive games, fostering problem solving,
creativity and particularly group work aspects. Multi-user
education games include areas with specific problems: e.g.
local geography, or with defined learning objectives.
Another edutaining feature in YoungNet is the use of Virtual
home with a 3D virtual representation of oneself (avatar)”.
(Deliverable 2.2, YoungNet Project, 2002)

Edutainment is a concept that has been treated with

suspicion and critically by academics, but widely adopted and Figure 8.2: Driver view of the Euromap game
embraced by software companies (Okan [1]). Comprising the combination of education and entertainment,
edutainment is a way of constructing experiences that enable children to learn whilst being entertained. Buckingham
and Scanlon [2] describe edutainment as a hybrid genre that encompasses visual stimulus and narrative or game
formats and less formal or didactic forms of address. The theoretical underpinning of teaching in this way is that the
enjoyment of the entertainment component will provide intrinsic motivation that will encourage the students to learn in
a non-threatening, pleasurable and visually stimulating environment. The essence of intrinsic motivation is that the
activity itself motivates students, rather than the anticipated learning outcome (Moore [3]), which has implications for
the graphical user interface (GUI) of an edutainment game. Okan [1] makes the point that this also raises learner’s
expectations that learning can be fun and should be entertaining, which can lead students to conclude that learning
should be fun, and if they are not having fun then they are not learning.

65
 The concept of edutainment has been easily transferred to the digital world, where young people are already
motivated to take part in new technology and the gaming software advances can offer opportunities for extending their
understanding of complex and complicated issues. One such company characterise their software as:
“tools to enable children to improve and expand their knowledge while having fun. We create kid friendly
software in a non-violent learning environment which provides solid educational fundamentals and helps
ensure progressive success at home, school, and in life”. http://www.scolasoft.com/

However, edutainment software has been criticised as lacking in a rigorous pedagogical foundation, and as such
the resultant learning can be superficial: students are encouraged to flit around hyperlinks and to focus on visuals
rather than content (Okan [1]). Therefore, Salomon and Amog [4] argue that pedagogy should be the dominant
partner, and the technology should facilitate the learning through creating a suitable environment. The emphasis
therefore for effective learning through edutainment is to ensure that the learning objectives are paramount and guide
the students’ experience.

The YoungNet project adopted the principles of edutainment as laid down by Konzack [5]. This definition
requires that the goal of edutainment must always be education. Building from an understanding of edutainment, the
entertainment part of the YoungNet system should be engaging but also relevant to the subject content in the other
parts of the YoungNet system: the Topics. Bringing a new dimension and a source of intrinsic motivation to education
through entertaining features would reinforce the idea of edutainment. The key characteristics of effective learning
were considered by de Corte [6] as constructivist, cumulative, intentional, contextual and social. It was therefore
important that the activities incorporated into YoungNet should ensure that students can be given an opportunity to
construct their own meaning through tools for designing and authoring, thereby ensuring that something meaningful is
done with the information (Perrone et al., [7]).

4. The Euromap Game and Edutainment

The Euromap game follows the principles of edutainment by requiring young people to work collaboratively not
only with directions and guiding each other through Europe, but also in developing their knowledge about different
European phenomena. The students have to work together to complete their mission and have to develop their foreign
language skills to get a good completion time. As such, the game provides challenge, curiosity, uncertainty, and
control. The learning outcomes of the game are not only an extended understanding of Europe, but also the game
reinforces vocabulary through authentic communication.

A key element of the game is that it does not encourage competitiveness between students. Students have to work
collaboratively to complete the game successfully. The challenge of the game is through their knowledge of Europe
and the speed that they can complete the game, therefore ensuring that the advantages of competition are for a personal
best, rather that in opposition to others. Whilst an element of competition can be useful to encourage students to return
to the game to improve their ‘score’, the main principle of the game was the emphasis on improving geographical
knowledge and collaborative working. It was felt that placing students in direct competition with each other would not
support a collaborative learning structure. The educational potential of the game is further enhanced as there is also the
possibility for teachers to add questions and categories that fit into their current teaching schedules.

5. Evaluation and Acceptance

The Euromap Game was analysed through extensive teacher and student questionnaires, as well as usability testing
(conducted in line with national and international norms DIN/EN/ISO 9241-10) Despite conducting a detailed User
Needs Analysis, the YoungNet project ran into some technical problems which created logistical and implementation
issues that affected the evaluation and acceptance of the Euromap game.

As virtual learning technologies are becoming more commonplace in schools, similar issues are being recognised
in other projects (Brooks and Morgan [8]). The technical infrastructure that is available to schools, and the structure
and format of how schools operate can generate logistical and technical issues that make communication between
schools, particularly between schools in different countries, very difficult. This can range from simple problems such
as the availability of Greek fonts on internet browsers, to more complex firewall or school timetabling issues. The link
between technical development and school participation generates a complex environment for the effective
introduction of innovative technologies.

66
 With the Euromap game, the first issue originated from the 3D graphics card requirements, which were often
higher than those that were available in schools. The required graphics card was not available on some school
networks and therefore shockwave player had to be installed on each computer. This proved to be an inconvenience
rather than a limiting factor with the participating schools. The Euromap game could be run with lower graphics
resolution but this slowed down the running of the game which meant that the teams were at a disadvantage in gaining
a higher position on the leader board. Some schools therefore found it difficult to use Euromap during lesson times,
which had has implications for the evaluation of the game and its learning outcomes.

A related issue of the Euromap game was the limitations in the structure of the game. A correct answer to a
question in the game has to be the name of a city or country in Europe. This limited the kinds of questions that could
be asked, and the sort of knowledge that can be used in the game. Although the database that underpins the system
does have the functionality to broaden this, and a range of geographical information could be incorporated into the
game (ie, physical geographical features such as principal rivers, lakes, mountain regions, and urban features such as
large towns and regions). However, such an increased sophistication in the geographical data would require higher
technical specifications for the expanded database and subsequent impacts on the schools' hardware including the
requirement for faster processors. In the interests of the information gained from the User Needs analysis, it was clear
that a simpler version of the game, despite any limitations would be more appropriate for the cohort of schools. This is
an example of how when working with technology and the limited capacity of school-based technical infrastructure,
compromises sometimes have to be made in the design and content of software. The second logistical issue stemmed
from the difficulty in co-ordinating different groups of students being available for YoungNet devoted lessons at the
same time. This was particularly difficult where YoungNet was being used in just one lesson (ie, Geography, or
Foreign Language lessons). In some schools YoungNet was used as part of an extra-curricular entitlement such as
'afternoon school' in Germany which meant that classes were often not timetabled to use YoungNet at the same time.
Many schools overcame this difficulty by encouraging students to play the game with their class peers or in their
leisure time at home.

Therefore there were significantly fewer teacher evaluations of the Euromap game than of other sections of the
YoungNet system. Of those that did respond, the key issues that were highlighted were that:
• Euromap was easily integrated into lessons
• It motivated and enthused students
• The games supported student motivation in engagement with other curricular areas.
• Euromap contributed relevant subject knowledge
• Communication was sometimes hampered by technical or server difficulties.
Students who evaluated the Euromap game, gave a clear idea of how Euromap was being used:
• Students preferred to use Euromap at home rather than at school (this assertion was supported by analysis of
log-file data)
• They felt that Euromap supported the work they were doing in class.
• They particularly liked having the opportunity to work with their European peers
• Students reported difficulties with logistics and language proficiency that affected their game performance.

6. What has been learnt from the development and evaluation of the Euromap game?
In geographical education, locational knowledge is often developed through rote-learning and testing. This is seen
as ineffective as it is not based on constructivisit learning principles, and as students are not able to construct their own
meanings of where places in Europe are (Roberts [9]). Activities encouraged by the Euromap game, using the 3D
technology and a collaborative learning situation, does enable students to develop a working locational knowledge of
places in Europe. This principle could be extended for national areas, or for wider spaces, developing even global
locational knowledge, thereby providing students with an active, working locational knowledge rather than a passive
recollection of locational ‘facts’.

The role of games in enhancing geographical understanding is also an area that has been disputed. Edutainment
sometimes dismissed by educators as lacking in rigour and depth of understanding (Okan [1]). The Youngnet Project
however, shows that edutainment can be an important facilitator for students. Their acceptance of and engagement
with the system provides an exciting opportunity to get students in a position where they can communicate and work
67
collaboratively with their peers. The Euromap results have shown that a key factor here is to ensure that the
edutainment is closely aligned with what students are learning in class, and that the pedagogy of the game enables
students to work with each other to achieve success rather than in competition with each other. When these conditions
are right, then students can engage with edutainment activities that place equal emphasis on education as they do on
entertainment, and this can have a positive effect on achievement.

Finally, the Euromap game enabled students to engage with geo-information in a variety of different topic areas.
The game was closely linked with a class topic project called National Images which required students to question
their stereotypes of other European nations. This provided a wealth of geo-information that could be explored or
‘tested’ through participation in the Euromap game. Geo-information itself is important when it can be made of sense
of through such a pedagogical structure. Learning facts in themselves does not promote an deep understanding either
of places or of geographical phenomena. Therefore the pedagogical principles that are applied to geo-information
tools have to be constructed to ensure that not only do they encourage students to engage with the information
presented but that this is done within a context of understanding and the development of thinking. In this way,
students can generate their own sense of this geo-information.

The Euromap game was an attempt to bring edutainment, pedagogy and fun together with a geo-information tool.
The YoungNet project ended in Summer 2003, but the results of it’s evaluation can be used to ensure that future
technological developments can provide students with valuable and fun ways of using technology to develop their
geographical, environmental and European understanding. What this evaluation has shown is the potential of geo-
information to motivate and stimulate students as well as support their learning of locational knowledge. Future
challenges lie in enabling similar edutainment tools to allow students to use a range of geographical information and
developing a more dynamic system that can be used by schools despite their technical infrastructure.

References
[1] Okan, Z., Edutainment: is learning at risk?, British Journal of Educational Technology, 34, 255-264, 2003

[2] Buckingham, D. & Scanlon, M., That is edutainment: media, pedagogy and the market place. Paper presented at
the International Forum of Researchers on Young People and the Media, Sydney, 2000

[3] Moore, A., Teaching and Learning: Pedagogy, Curriculum and Culture. London: Routledge Falmer, 2000

[4] Salomon, G. & Amog, T., Educational psychology and technology: a matter or reciprocal relations, Teachers
College Record, 100, 222-241, 1998

[5] Konzack, L., Edutainment for girls: Analysing Barbie Fashion Designer. In U. Nuldén, and C. Hardless (Eds.):
CSCL, A Nordic Perspective. Papers fron the Nordic Workshop on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, April
22-25, 1999 Göteborg, Sweden, 47-56, 1999

[6] De Corte, E., Fostering Cognitive Growth: A Perpective from Research on Mathematics Learning and Instruction,
Educational Psychologist, 30(1), 37–46, 1995

[7] Perrone, C., Clark, D. & Repenning, A., WebQuest: Substantiating Education in Edutainment through Interactive
Learning Games, Fifth International World Wide Web Conference, May 6-10 1996, Paris, France.
http://www5conf.inria.fr/fich_html/papers/P36/Overview.html, 1996

[8] [11] Gordon, E. and Koo, G., Placeworlds: Using Virtual Worlds to Foster Civic Engagement, Space and Culture,
11(3): 204-221, 2008

[9] Roberts, M., Learning through Enquiry. Sheffield. Geographical Association, 2003

[10] YoungNet Consortium, Deliverable 2.2 Content Definition. Document available on request from
c.brooks@ioe.ac.uk, 2002

68
 9. EDUSPACE - the European Space Agency multilingual earth
observation Web site for Secondary schools
Isabelle Duvaux-Bechon a, Laurence Ghayeb, Juerg Lichteneggerc, Emanuele Loretd, Peter
Brøgger Sørensene, Birgit Strømsholmf, Maurizio Feag
a
Education Department ESA-Headquarters, Paris, France – email: Isabelle.Duvaux-Bechon@esa.int
b
Earth Observation Directorate ESA-ESRIN, Frascati, Italy – email: Laurence.Ghaye@esa.int
c
Zurich, Switzerland - email: jlichtenegger@bluewin.ch
d
Liceo Classico Statale, Ariccia, Italy - email: loret@plot.esrin.esa.it,
e
Aabenraa Gymnasium og HF, Aabenraa, Denmark - email: brogger.p@inet.uni2.dk
f
Norwegian Space Centre, Oslo, Norway - email: birgit@spacecentre.no
g
Earth Observation Directorate ESA-ESRIN, Frascati, Italy - email: Maurizio.Fea@esa.int

Abstract
A new multilingual Website for Secondary schools is presented aiming to provide students and teachers of Europe and
worldwide modern learning and teaching tool and offers an entry point to space image data and in particular a to a wide-
spread visibility of Earth observation applications for education and training. It encourages teachers to use Earth
observation data in their curriculum by providing ready-made projects. The website is rich of didactical material but
especially of remote sensing satellite data both locally in high-resolution and globally in order to enlarge the view of the
students to study features and events in space and time. It is a source for ideas how to introduce space-related matters into
the classroom where as also full scale examples with background and worksheets are presented. An image processing tool
is made available for data analysis and image interpretation, to be used for both beginners as well as teacher experts. The
Website address is: http://www.esa.int/education/eduspace/

Key words: remote sensing, Internet, ESA, curriculum projects, schools

1. Introduction
ESA and its national and industrial partners have developed this multilingual Website under the umbrella of
EURISY. It aims to provide students and teachers in Europe with a modern learning and teaching tool, which offers an
entry point to space image data and in particular to a wide-spread visibility of Earth Observation applications for
education and training. It inspires teachers to incorporate Earth observation in their curricula and it provides for in-
service training. It encourages teachers to use Earth Observation data by providing ready-made projects. It shall
stimulate the curiosity of students with attractive space-borne
images and further resources and tools, amongst which there is
the educational image processing software LEOWorks. The
site also includes the means to facilitate collaborative work
with other schools, especially within the same geographical
region.

Unlike many educational sites for schools, it is the

intention of the Education Department of the European Space
Agency managing EDUSPACE to provide a complete view of
Earth observation applications to schools, covering most of the
application subjects well known to scientists and operational Figure 9.1: The EDUSPACE entry page
entities (Figure 9.1).

2. A Site for Beginners and Experts

The development and operational team of EDUSPACE recognised that if it was to introduce Earth observation in
education, that the subjects to be addressed should include satellites, sensors, information technology and digital
images. It was also the case that the material provided had to cover different levels of complexity. Beginners would
69
therefore be encouraged with an easy and pleasant-to-follow approach. Similarly, expert teachers should also be able
to find interesting material to work with. Special attention was paid to include a solid base of self-learning modules
that deal with the principles of remote sensing from space. The approach is richly illustrated and also covers the
different aspects about how electromagnetic energy is used to sense the Earth from satellites. Several databases are
available to access; among them is a series of viewgraphs, ready to be downloaded both in a light form, but also as
PowerPoint presentations, often including small animations. It was thought that teachers could use this material for
most curriculum subjects, including Geography, Science and Environment, Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science,
and even in the Arts. The materials or images might be used as a motivating ice breaker for starting a class. Likewise
they could be used in culminating a lesson in demonstrating real life aspects on a satellite image. Project ideas and
relevant material which are presented on the website can be adapted in the preparation and the delivery of just one or
for a series of lessons. They could also be taken as the basis for a full-scale project in a class or for an especially
motivated student for their project.

Advice is provided on how to establish Earth observation as part of the normal school programme, as a recurring
theme within the yearly curricula, such that the tasks to be addressed by the students can be differentiated by the
degree of complexity to allow progression, in other words increasing in complexity from one academic grade to the
next. For example, a first year activity could concentrate of building up the necessary knowledge in space-related
matters culminating in a well prepared and delivered PowerPoint presentations. The second year could address data
collection for a site of special interest (such as the school location) and aspects of archiving and statistical evaluation,
while the 3rd year would deal with applying the available satellite data, to digital image processing techniques and the
construction of a Geographical Information System, using the tools provided within EDUSPACE. Thus the activities
can be built into the curriculum at different academic levels and in different subject disciplines.

3, Access to EDUSPACE
All the materials in EDUSPACE are provided free of charge to educational users. Although the Website has no
access restrictions and thus can be freely used by everybody, downloading of most satellite data as well as of the image
processing software is restricted to educational entities and their teachers and students and is only possible after initial
registration. The industrial partners who have kindly provided data and other types of support have imposed this
requirement. Equally, under the same conditions the cost of the software license to produce a freeware version of
image processing software could be drastically reduced. In order to have access to these restricted areas, a user has to
register and the registration has to be accepted by the EDUSPACE Operations Team. They then verify that the request
is from an educational entity (school, university, educational or
research institution). It is only on this basis that the user can also
register their class (or any other specific user within the
educational organisation). They can then define the personal
logins and passwords for local users, which eventually are
validated by the webmaster. Having accepted this class-
registration, all the areas of the website are accessible.

The materials on the website can be used in many different

ways and hopefully can satisfy many of the requirements of
students and teachers (Figure 9.2). There is the curiosity of a
student to be considered, how they browse through the themes,
carry out their own studies, go through the proposed relevant
exercises which makes it successful to them. But there are also
opportunities for teachers who can use the material to prepare
lessons or to propose homework activities to their students, or to
encourage group work over a period of time ending in a
presentation to their classmates. As data and software may be
quite time consuming to download, this ought to be done during Figure 9.2: One of the many images provided to
the preparation, and the data placed in a folder on the school-
students to work with: the city of Copenhagen
server or distributed to the students´ PCs prior to the lesson.

70
 The EDUSPACE web site functions as portal to other educational sites and provides links in specific areas which
might help users to find further background information. Moreover, the site can also be used as a communication
vehicle, to allow users to get in touch with the EDUSPACE helpdesk for specific questions or to post such questions to
the forum. Access to the addresses and details of all registered schools is facilitated in several ways and the site thus
invites schools to communicate with each other on specific themes.

4. Website Content and Structure

EDUSPACE consists of a hierarchical tree structure with the following main branches:
• The Continents (Europe, Africa, etc.) from Space, with sub-themes such as Cities, Landscapes, Weather and
Climate
• Global Change, including the sub-themes Atmosphere, Land, Ocean
• Disaster Monitoring, dealing with Tropical cyclones, Floods, Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Oil pollution
• Remote Sensing Principles, with a two level approach for introducing to the techniques
• Image Processing Tools holding freeware and tutorials
• School Network managing the addresses of the registered schools and a Discussion Forum,
• News, Helpdesk and Links

Each sub-theme has further deeper layers including for example resources, background information, project-ideas
and fully developed case studies.

Resources consist of databases of satellite images from

different sensors, ready for selection and downloading. In some
cases the data is not resident but can be retrieved from other sites.

Projects are presented in the form of suggestions to teachers

and students. They refer to activities connected with satellite image
interpretation. Such activity needs to be supported by adequate
terrain information (maps, documents) and further collection of
ground truth is stimulated, either through fieldwork or by a
bibliographic search. Some projects are considered as exercises that
imply the use of tools and data available in the Website, others can
be further developed requiring teamwork or it can be envisaged to
seek collaboration with other schools throughout Europe or Figure 9.3: Image processing software
worldwide. LEOWorks allows novices to make first steps
in image data understanding and expert to do a
Case Studies are collections of materials provided for more in- full-scale image analysis
depth studies of a selected area, addressing regional or local
Geography or a complex global theme. The topic is often of general nature and the Case can be seen as an example of
a practical application of environmental issues and geographically independent. Case Studies include rich illustrations,
satellite images, texts and links. The material can be used either following traditional working methods or can be
downloaded, visualised and studied in a computer environment for which a dedicated PC-based software, called
LEOWorks is provided. A particular emphasis is put to the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Related to
this technique the site includes complete integrated data sets for some of the Cases Studies.

Background: Whenever appropriate or needed, more illustrated information related to the Case Study is provided.

Links: Specific links can be activated to retrieve further information and material from other sources worldwide.
This will help students to collect facts and methods to work with in proper areas of interest.

5. Examples of Project Ideas

One of the many project-ideas on EDUSPACE is called “My Home Town Seen from Space”. Students are
requested to work on a project resulting in a detailed interpretation of a satellite image of the area where their school is
located. Tiles of satellite images are included and available on the web site. Projects of different sizes are suggested,
71
either to produce a well-annotated postcard size satellite map of their hometown to be mailed/emailed to friends or to a
collaborating school, or to start a larger project involving more time and resources.

EDUSPACE holds satellite images and descriptions of many cities worldwide with the idea that a school class
would produce a much-improved caption as a result of a project. Such reports are greatly welcome and will be put on-
line together with the names of the authors!

6. The Educational Image Processing Tool LEOWorks

LEOWorks image processing software (Figure 9.3) is free and any registered user can download the executable
file as well as an exhaustive tutorial. LEOWorks is a specially created piece of software which has been conceived in
such a way as to introduce teachers and students to the world of digital image processing, in an intuitive manner.
Although it offers nearly all the processing possibilities and options provided by professional software of that kind, it
can just be used to play with digital images in order to explore the means to manipulate image data.

Working through the exhaustive tutorial a beginner is guided through the different possibilities. The more
advanced students are asked in progressive steps to analyse the image data and finally be able to improve the
radiometry for a better interpretation of an image. Users can find modules allowing grey tone and colour manipulation
and even perform an automatic classification. There are also tools for geocoding images and for image annotation (to
construct a satellite image map) and for extracting image information (thematic information such as the perimeter of a
town or the roads), which can be saved as layers of a Geographical Information System. Such layers together with
satellite images can then be combined and interrogated in order to derive new findings - and visualise them as part of a
report or presentation.

LEOWorks has been designed to give schools many options to input images, to edit images, but also to visualise
digital values. Many options, some of which are unique provide a special emphasis that can help students understand
the images they are working with, for example through altering the histogram. There are a variety of filters
implemented and there is also a module to superimpose images of different origin. With respect to well-known
commercial software processing, the process is not optimised, but has to be done step by step. This has been done on
purpose in order to preserve the educational value of how digital images can be manipulated.

7. A Network of Schools
EDUSPACE aims at stimulating contacts between European schools. After a school and a class have registered the
information becomes available to all visitors of the site. Of course, the list of participating schools can be easily
browsed and email addresses eventually extracted. It is hoped that such an opportunity might strengthen contacts
between schools or give a possibility to make new contacts.

Within certain projects on EDUSPACE such as the “Interactive Meteosat”, to be found in the section “Weather of
Europe”, possible partners are immediately visible, since the location and name of all schools having submitted a
weather observation on a specific day are included with the relevant METEOSAT image. If schools want to find
partners for other projects then the Forum could be used.

EDUSPACE also provides a Helpdesk function where teachers can email their questions or suggestions, and even
educational materials that they or their classes have produced to share with others. The EDUSPACE team are happy to
accommodate it on the web site.

8. EDUSPACE and languages

In most secondary schools in Europe, English language teaching takes place. Nevertheless, there is still a strong
requirement to provide at least some parts of the EDUSPACE web site content in the native language. To date
translations into French, German, Danish, Italian and Spanish of the full content have been completed. The structure
of the web site allows the accommodation of many other languages and as well facilitating on-line translation. More
languages are therefore welcome and will be logistically supported if financially secured by partners.

72
9. A Council of Teachers
The European Space Agency (ESA) have established a group of specialist teachers who are active in applying and
promoting space imagery in schools. This development is a form of community building as described by Fischer [1],
They are available to advise the EDUSPACE team on how to improve and enrich the Website. These volunteer
teachers will gradually build up a network of focal and contact points (or Council) for Earth observation data
application in European schools. This group has started to become a viable platform not only for exchanging news and
latest developments in periodical meetings but also to disseminate ideas and educational material.

10. Outlook
The EDUSPACE Team will continue its effort to manage and to populate the web site with more satellite data and
teaching materials. The series of animated viewgraphs will also be enriched, and more case studies and project ideas
will be added. Better structured access to the different content areas will be put in place. It is envisaged that new
modules will be included, such as an introduction to GPS-world and the forthcoming European Satellite Navigation
System GALILEO with its many practical applications. Further, a module on the ESA satellite ENVISAT and a data
bank of high-resolution satellite images covering Europe seamless are currently in production.

An ESA Satellite Image Atlas for schools has been developed. It includes a text book for teachers as well as a
DVD with the full content provided as digital files. This very rich and novel teaching tool is conceived as
supplementary to the conventional school atlas and was available in 2006.

Due to its multilingual implementation, EDUSPACE serves teachers and students of schools in many countries
around the world. The EDUSPACE website address is: http://www.esa.int/education/eduspace

Reference

Fischer F, Learning in Geocommunities – an Explorative View on Geo-Social Network Communities, 12-21, in Jekel
T, Koller A and Donert K, Learning with GeoInformation IV, Heidelberg, Wichmann, 2009

73
 10. Objectives of GIS Teaching in Higher Education -
developing experts or training teachers?
Gabor Bartha
University of Miskolc, Hungary
iitgabor@uni-miskolc.hu

Abstract
Training subjects taught in elementary, secondary and vocational schools are covered by two, more or less, separate
programs in higher education. One of them aims to educate experts while the other one provides for regular teacher
training. The natural “development” of a subject within higher education is that the “experts-only” program should be
extended to teacher training when a new social need appears (for example recently in computer science). Decision-
makers have a hard time trying to identify and respond properly to new, rapidly increasing needs for example in
geoinformation. In the case of GI developments, the following key questions need to be answered:
1/ when to introduce the subject to the general education?
2/ who will do it?
3/ what they will teach?

As a relative “newcomer” in higher education, GIS is still mainly at the “for experts-only” stage, mainly taught within
subjects such as geodesy, geography, environment, geology and civil engineering. GIS remains mainly absent from
most teacher training courses, though there are some excellent individual initiatives to apply GIS as an educational tool
in secondary education there remains no concerted program yet to teach GIS as a subject to teachers.

This chapter reports on a survey conducted in secondary schools with the conclusion that teachers recognise the need
to use GIS as an educational tool and they would be willing to integrate it in their teaching program if the right
conditions prevailed. Although institutions may have the necessary technical background, they still lack the teachers
who are trained to be able to use and teach GIS. Therefore higher education faces two challenges:
1. to establish continuing in-service educational programs for secondary school teachers (geography, history,
information technology) on the application of GIS as a new teaching tool and subject; and
2. to integrate this knowledge in the curriculum of relevant undergraduate programs.

In this chapter the likely content and methodology of such a program is discussed with a specific focus on the
following questions:
What subjects should be included in the curriculum?
At what level should these subjects be taught?

Key words: GIS, schools, higher education, teacher training, curriculum

1. Introduction
The range of ordinary intellectual and practical activities that use geoinformation is extended from day to day due
to the rapid developments in digital technology. For example, complex navigation in permanently changing city traffic,
with complicated interchanges and foreign road networks has already become a part of our everyday brainwork.
Standard routine activities thus already encompass the use of geoinformation like that forming part of the navigation
system of recently manufactured cars.

Many popular PC applications support everyday activities such as writing, drawing, calculation and data
organisation. This is clearly reflected in the composition and content of most widespread application program
packages. The development of basic skills has been the foundation of most computer-based courses in elementary and
secondary education. There are three main reasons, which support this:
1. everyday intellectual activities are supported by the software programs;
2. several relevant and elaborate teaching methods and materials have been developed and are widely available;
3. generic software packages are applied in almost every workplace.

74
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an obvious way to relate different academic subjects to maps (Barron
[1]; Alibrandi [2]). However this can only be applied by teachers possessing some ‘know-how’ so that they can apply
GIS in the correct educational context. As schools have the necessary technical background and the students are happy
to work with computers in an educational setting, the key issue would appear to be the knowledge of teachers in using
GIS. Several studies confirm that the basic elements of GIS, such as information gathering, organisation and
representation of information and using them for supporting decision-making, are easily adapted for use by high school
students if they have proper guidance (Broda &
Baxter [3]; Carlstrom & Ouinlan [4]; Baker &
White [5]; Wigglesworth [6]).

Modern navigational technology (GPS

combined with GIS) now regularly appears in
everyday life (mobile phones, motor cars). This
fact provides another important argument to
promote the fact that spatial literacy and the use
of geoinformation should appear in the general
education curriculum, alongside topics like
literacy, numeracy and computer skills (Figure
10.1). However, if geo-informational skills and
competences are needed by society (Harb [7].),
then the following questions need to be
Figure 10.1: Introducing GIS to general education as a new
answered: What will be introduced, by whom
subject and innovative teaching tool
and when?

Generally speaking, when a subject is introduced into general education is one of the most frequently debated
issues. According to some authors such as Broda & Baxter [3], the right time arrives when a large part of society needs
the new knowledge. The debated issue is then the identification of social needs and particularly the extent of the
demand in question. There is no standard method to size it up therefore one should rely on a mixture of relevant
objective signals and the subjective estimation of the experts. Based on the mentioned factors (navigation, map-
associated teaching) and opinions of educators, we believe that there is a strong need for a basic knowledge on GIS.
Sticking to facts, 82 % of high school students have mobile phone and they expect new services (Internet, navigation,
picture and video transfer etc. (Fincziczki [8]). The car dealers offer GPS-GIS based navigation system almost to each
new model and several of them have it as standard accessory. (Csikos [9])

While the background to using computers in subject disciplines is available in schools, the introduction and
possible integration of GIS applications and the resultant ideas and approaches faces the following difficulties:
• there is relatively little motivation either from the curriculum or from the schools for change
• there are few teachers who are able to teach with GIS or to use it as an educational tool;
• there is little teaching material widely available where GIS can be used for general educational purposes
• suitable software and hardware are not always available or accessible

It is therefore the role of higher education institutions to support the introduction and development of GIS by
researching and identifying the social and economic needs for the use of geo-information in society and to prepare
activities and programmes that will prepare teachers, educators, schools and parents for the introduction and
development of GIS as a core component of general secondary education.

2. GIS in secondary schools – survey

The University of Miskolc has been involved in research to examine the perceived role and value of GIS in
secondary education. The survey sought to combine two main tasks, namely to estimate the perceived need for GIS
and the preparation needed for it to be developed in secondary school education. The original hypothesis was that a
GIS’ program for teachers needs to be developed as initially as part of a continuing education program, due to fact that
it is the fastest way to “produce” trained teachers for a new subject and to ensure that the elder generation is not “left
behind” as a result of technological developments [10].

75
 A questionnaire (Figure 10.2) was developed for relevant educational officers and secondary school teachers of
information technology, geography, economics and history to complete in order to assess their consideration of the
potential for GIS. The study assumed that their answers would also be a reflection of the likely social needs concerning
whether the teachers wanted to introduce GIS into general education. The questionnaire was distributed via post or
completed by us using phone interviews. So far we have conducted about 70 interviews in 20 schools and 2 countries
(Hungary and Greece)

Figure 10.2: Questionnaire for secondary school teachers on GIS

As a result of this pilot survey, some initial conclusions can be drawn which may provide an insight into wider
European issues. The main points that arose were:
• every school surveyed has its own computer laboratory;
• half of economics and history teachers did not know about GIS, but every information technology and
geography teacher knew about it;
• only approximately 5% of teachers had GIS in their school, only half of these teachers used it as an
educational tool, but none of them teaches GIS;
• almost all those who knew about GIS wanted to use it in their work and would participate in a continuing
education program;
• teachers who did not know about GIS would like to learn more about it;
• nobody opposed the introduction of GIS to secondary education.

These preliminary results encouraged further research and other developments, including a number of information
events (a conference, exhibition and workshop) on GIS for secondary school teachers and to begin to prepare a
continuing education program on GIS for teachers.

3. GIS in higher education

Geo-information is taught at the Faculty of Earth Sciences and Engineering in Miskolc University as independent
subject for geophysicists, miners, hydrologists and environmental engineers and as a specialised program for general
geo-engineers.

76
 These courses are intended to be for specific groups of experts. The overall program covers the following topics:
• information basics with an emphasis on data-base management;
• acquiring geo-data with an emphasis on remote-sensing and photogrammetry;
• basics of geodesy, cartography and thematic mapping;
• GIS types and elements of GIS;
• Geo-objects and geo-modelling.

The courses are complemented by information technology topics (such as computer hardware, operating systems,
computing, programming, software engineering) and introductory lectures and exercises on specific GIS programs like
Geomedia, ArcInfo and GRASS as part of the specialised program.

On analysis it is clear that this type of ‘expert’ curriculum could not be used as part of a continuing education
program for history, economics, geography or even information technology teachers. The expert curriculum described
here is rather ‘typical’ of those that have developed in European Universities; therefore it might be implied that as yet
there is no higher education expert curriculum for teachers on the use of GIS. The remainder of this chapter therefore
seeks to contribute to a possible elaboration of this curriculum and to suggest some of the associated teaching materials
which might be required.

4. GIS for teachers – continuing education

The curriculum developed for the continuing professional
development for teachers on GIS might be composed of four
main topics:
1. Computer basics (hardware and software);
2. Geodesy and Cartography;
3. Elements of GIS;
4. GIS applications.

The knowledge and interest of the target audience is likely to

be very varied. A joint course on computer hardware and
software for teachers of history, and geography for example, as
well as for information technology teachers is very difficult even
to imagine. However, a solution to this is likely to be in trying to
identifying common elements or approaches in the needs of the Figure 10.3 Anderson: PC Technology Guide
participants and then to introduce flexibility in the applications Source: http://www.pctechguide.com
and development of different types of material that can be more
or less directly implemented or easily adapted for use in
secondary school classrooms. In other words, the level is for high
school students, focusing on didactical issues. Such a course
would have the advantage in that it provides a directly usable
knowledge base for teachers of humanities subjects, and it is a
good methodological training for teachers of information
technology. Under this approach, some content for computer
basics might be recommended:
• Principal Operation of Computers;
• Components of Computers (Motherboard, Chipsets,
Processors, Interfaces, Memory);
• Data Storages (FD,HDD, CD-R/CD-RW,DVD);
• Input Output (KB, Monitor, Mouse, Scanner, Printers);
• Multimedia (Graphic&Sound Cards, Cameras, Video);
• Communications (Networking, Internet);
• Basic Softwares (Op.systems, Applications); Figure 10.4: O’Sullivan: HTML Code Tutorial,
• Programming Basics (Algorithm, Programm-ing Languages, Source: http://www.htmlcodetutorial.com
HTML, Javascript)

77
 You can get an idea of the style and level of our textbook from the following eBooks on Internet:
• Anderson: http://www.pctechguide.com (Figure 10.3)
• O’Sullivan: http://www.htmlcodetutorial.com Figure 10.4)

The difference in pre-education is remarkable between Geography and other teachers in case of Geodesy and
Cartography.

To develop the content of the subject we followed the concept to teach only material that should be directly taught
in school, namely:
• Figures of the Earth (History, Geometrical and Physical approach, Ellipsoid and Geoid);
• Coordinate systems (Astronomical, Terrestrial, Topologic systems, Geodetic Datums);
• Geodetic Methods (Classic and Satellite Geodesy, Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry)
• Geometrical Projections, Mapping, UTM.

The following eBooks are being used as reference materials for our textbook on this subject:
• Quest Geo-Solution Ltd: (Figure 10.5) http://www.geodetic-solutions.com
• Burkard at al. http://www.nima.mil (Figure 10.6)

GIS elements are a new topic for everybody in the program but the pre-education difference between the
information teachers and the others requires a completely different treatment. Therefore we follow again the basic
concept: to teach a material that can be taught straight in the secondary school. The content of the subject is planned
as follows:
• Digitisation and Digital Mapping
• Image Processing
• Geo-data, Geo-objects, Geo-modelling
• Data-visualization
• Topographic and Spatial Analysis

The main reference materials that have been used for the textbook on the subject include:
• Streit: http://www.kermit.uni-muenster.de (Figure 10.7)
• Itami and Raulings: http://www.dlsr.com.au (Figure 10.8).

GIS applications can be considered to be the most important subject area. The content and the textbook of the subject
is mainly our work – we used very few references. The basic idea is that the practical use of a GIS program package is
taught within the framework of real GIS projects. The projects can be easily transformed to other GIS projects - e.g.
producing supporting materials for teaching – that can be carried out by the teachers themselves. Recently, we work to
incorporate 3 projects in the curriculum of this subject:

a) GIS for history

The project in raster layers contains the map of Hungary in different historical periods (Figure 10.9). The layers can be
visualised separately or together to trace the historical events on the changing shape of the country.

78
 Figure 10.5: Quest Geo-Solution Ltd: Geodesy- Figure 10.7: Streit: Introduction to
Tutorial, http://www.geodetic-solutions.com Geoinformatics,
Source: http://www.kermit.uni-muenster.de

Figure 10.6: after Burkard at al. Geodesy for the Figure 10.8: Itami – Raulings: What is GIS?
layman, Source: http://www.dlsr.com.au
Source: http://www.htmlcodetutorial.com

b) GIS for economy

The project shows the units of an imaginary super-market chain in Hungary. The country is divided into districts
by the program for supervision. All districts have about the same proportion of workers and building areas. The
program is able to visualise the stock and consumption of certain goods to support the supply and marketing decisions
of the company (Figure 10.10).

c) GIS for navigation

The project aims to plan the optimal route of a vehicle that starts from the parking house (P) and should reach the
destination 1, 2 and 3. The first layer is an ordinary map with the starting points and the nodal points of the mission.
The second layer contains the traffic directions of the roads, while the third, fourth, and fifth layers show the traffic
load on them in the morning, afternoon and evening periods. The program should give the optimal routes, taking into
consideration the one-way streets and the traffic load (Figure 10.11).

79
 A similar project on countryside roads is planned where the topologic information should be taken into
consideration for the planning of the optimal route.

Figure 10.9: Hungary throughout history Figure 10.10: The SuperShops chain store in Hungary

The projects provide for a guideline and an exciting framework for the students to acquire the practical knowledge
on a GIS package, especially the following operations:
• transforming graphic file to a raster,
vector file;
• providing for graphical input by
digitisation;
• analysing thematic and topologic
information;
• visualizing results for the support of
teaching and economical decisions;

5. Conclusions
This chapter is a report on the project carried
out at the University of Miskolc to establish a
continuing education program for teachers.
Within the framework of this project:
• we have conducted an investigation
among secondary school teachers to size
up the need for the course;
• the preliminary results confirm that
there is a need to learn GIS, use it as an
educational tool and teach it as a new
subject;
• a draft curriculum composed of 4
subjects (Computer Basics, Geodesy Figure 10.11: Optimal route from P to point 3 via points 1, 2
Basics, GIS Elements, GIS
Applications) has been produced on a level and in a form that can be directly taught in secondary schools;
• the development of the textbooks on the curriculum subjects has been described.

References
[1] Barron, D. D., Bringing the World and Information together: Geographic Information System for Education,
School Library Media Activities Monthly, 11(5), 49-50, 1995

[2] Alibrandi, M., Thinking spatially: GIS in the high school classroom. Green Teacher, (50), 15-18, 1997

80
[3] Broda, H. & Baxter, R., Using GIS and GPS Technology as an Instructional Tool. The Social Studies, 94(4): 158-
160, 2003

[4] Carlstrom, D, and Ouinlan, L.A., Students investigate local communities with geographic information systems
(GIS), TecTrends, 42(3), 4-6, 1997

[5] Baker, T. & White, S., The Effects of G.I.S. on Students' Attitudes, Self-efficacy,
and Achievement in Middle School Science Classrooms, Journal of Geography 102(6): 243-254, 2003

[6] Wigglesworth, J., What is the Best Route? Route-Finding Strategies of Middle School Students Using GIS, Journal
of Geography 102(6): 282-291, 2003

[7] Harb, E., Factors needed to support the effective use of technology and GIS in P--12 (Social Studies) classrooms.
Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY., 2002

[8] Fincziczki, B., 3G mobile phones, HVG Halo, November 2004. 11-14, 2004 [in Hungarian]

[9] Csikos, Zs., Swedish Generations, 168 ora 14.October 2004, 52-53, 2004 [in Hungarian]:

[10] Rogers, J., Morrell, E. and Enyedy, N., Studying the Struggle Contexts for Learning and Identity Development for
Urban Youth, American Behavioral Scientist, 51(3): 419-443, 2007

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 11. Developing Undergraduate GIS Study-units
Maria Attard
Lecturer, Lab Coordinator, GIS Laboratory, University of Malta, Malta
maria.attard@um.edu.mt

Abstract
The GIS Laboratory of the University of Malta was set up in 1996 and has since then provided academic support to a
number of departments within the University on the concepts and application of Geographic Information Systems. The
objectives of this chapter are to (a) identify key elements of an introductory undergraduate GIS study-unit; (b) identify
the problems of teaching GIS at undergraduate level in various disciplines; and (c) discuss the role of student self-
learning in the application of GIS. This chapter will use the experience gained at the University of Malta and the multi-
disciplinary approaches to teaching GIS.

Key words: undergraduate, curriculum, study unit, multi-discilinary

1. Introduction
The process of developing undergraduate GIS courses is made up of a number of stages. This chapter aims to
introduce these by:
• identifying key elements of an introductory GIS study-unit;
• examining the problems of teaching GIS at undergraduate levels to various disciplines; and
• discussing the importance of student self-learning in the application of GIS.

The University of Malta is the highest teaching institution of the State with some 9,800 registered students following
full-time and part-time degree and diploma courses. The Geography Division is part of the Mediterranean Institute – a
multidisciplinary institute for social science and arts subjects. The GIS Laboratory has been linked primarily to the
Geography Division since the coordinator forms part of the Geography staff compliment.

The University of Malta has, since 1996, supported the setting up of a GIS Laboratory with the assistance of the
Environment Systems Research Institute (ESRI). The Lab was opened for the first lectures in October 1996 and since
then has continued providing GIS study-units to a number of interdisciplinary departments. Starting with Computer
Science and Geography, the laboratory has now expanded its teaching to other departments, mainly:
- Archaeology
- Biology
- Engineering
- Architecture and
- Education

There are advantages and difficulties when working across disciplines. The greatest challenge is to ensure that the
course content follows examples from the specific area of study. This will be tackled later on in this chapter. However,
there are also advantages for the staff as it provides the tutor with the possibility of furthering their knowledge of the
application of GIS in various disciplines.

Apart from teaching, the Lab also supports local research in terms of providing the hardware and software facilities
and technical expertise to a number of groups. Amongst others there is work currently being undertaken on Health and
proposals for a project in local Linguistics. The major support however is given to student research and the use of GIS in
dissertations and research projects. Students are strongly encouraged to use GIS in their work, being it coursework
throughout their degree or in their final dissertation.

The results so far have been encouraging. As an example, Geography students have increased their employability by
having GIS in their knowledge base. In 2004, 20 per cent of the Geography degree graduates were directly employed in

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GIS in various fields such as agriculture, transport and mineral resource management. There are also a number of GIS
practitioners who seek to get training in GIS through diploma or evening courses to further comprehend and expand their
knowledge on this fast developing technology. This has increased the visibility, not only for the Geography Department
and the GIS laboratory, but also of Geography as a subject in the job marketplace. For many years, since the setting up of
the Geography Department at the University of Malta, there was a general feeling among employers that Geography
studies could not provide the required specialists. This perception however has changed and the Geography department
has since, started interacting more with the various employers.

The experience gained in tutoring, research and administration will be presented in this chapter in support of the
objectives set out at the beginning of this section. It is hoped that the discussion and conclusions of this chapter will help
and encourage other institutions to introduce GIS in their curriculum.

2. Key elements of an introductory study-unit

The introductory course to GIS is a crucial point in the student’s undergraduate years. Amongst the factors that will
influence his/her career decision whether to become a GIS specialist or simply a casual user, is the understanding of the
main concepts of a GI system. Today, there are a number of help tips on the Internet which point any newcomer to the
teaching of GIS in the right direction. Since GIS is a relatively new technology and industry competition is very fierce, a
number of study aids are available for any stage of teaching. But setting the course structure is only one element of the
introductory study-unit. Other factors come into play when preparing for the academic year. This section will be dealing
with some of these elements including:
• understanding your audience
• main components of an introductory GIS structure
• coordinating lectures and practical sessions over a relatively short period of time
• use of teaching aids for higher education

2.1. Understanding your audience

With today’s varying degree of computer skills in a
class, particularly of digital cartography, it is very difficult
to gauge your audience’s adaptability to understanding
and using a GIS. Most students outside Computer Science
and Information Technology studies which come from the
Arts and Social Science Faculties have background
knowledge of Office tools and some basic computing.
Having prepared courses for Geography, Archaeology and
Biology students, it is important to understand in the early
days of your study-unit the computer literacy of the class.
Ideally students should have a basic knowledge of
databases (tables) and information systems or have been
exposed to database software and Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) to understand the structure of a GIS.

In the case of non-Geography classes the spatial

relationships must be explained at length before any
attempts are made at explaining the concepts of a GIS. It Figure 11.1: Applying GIS in the Indian Ocean disaster.
might be useful at this stage to explain the importance of Source:
Geography in certain fields of study. Students from non- http://www.esri.com/news/pressroom/indian_ocean_disaster.html
Geography classes have difficulties to understand the
applicability of GI systems because of a lack of understanding about spatial relationships and the value of spatial data.

It may be helpful to separate classes according to their backgrounds. Where possible, Biology students have been
taught separately from Geography students because the case studies used to explain certain concepts are different.
Students can relate much faster to a subject which they have covered in a previous study-unit. This entails some degree of
preparation from the tutor side in terms of preparing examples on subjects, which sometimes may be beyond the tutor’s
expertise. Many websites can provide these examples, such as the use of GIS in the 2004 Tsunami disaster (Figure 11.1).
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Getting students to explore what is available on the Internet would thus be a valuable starting point.

With an increasing multi-disciplinary approach to university studies, it is becoming very difficult to have
homogenous groups of students. There will be different backgrounds, varying degrees of computer skills and a different
understanding of what spatial relationships are. However, if these elements are understood they can be used in the class to
assist in the progress of the individual in the class, for example, a number of students with advanced computer skills
might help other students who are not so conversant with computer systems. Once the nature of audience has been
understood, the next step is to try and identify the basic concepts and important components of a GIS which are necessary
for the students to start using such systems.

2.2. Main components of an introductory GIS study-unit

In a one semester undergraduate course there is an opportunity for introducing both the theoretical elements of a GIS
and to use the software for a particular application. Table 11.1: Typical undergraduate course structure
Session title Description
Over the years, the course structure of the
introductory study-unit in GIS at the University of Defining GIS Definitions of GIS and
Malta has changed to reflect the needs of the students development of the technology
and the constraints of the course they would be Data types and Define spatial and non-spatial
following. In some cases, students sought to learn how sources data and the source of digital
to apply the software rather then learning the theory, data (both locally and abroad)
whilst others dedicated only few hours to this in their Data quality Managing data error and
course structure. Also as students have become more ensuring data quality
conversant with computers, teaching basic computing Data input Describing the various methods
became redundant. Originally, the study-unit covered of data input with advantages
aspects of history and GIS development, map and disadvantages
projections, image processing, data collection and Demonstration Software demonstration on how
storage, applications and digital terrain models. Over and hands-on various data input methods are
time, this structure was simplified to allow students used
more time for using the software and allowing them to
Data structure Defining vector and raster data
work on a real-world application of GIS. It is
and structures and the use of DBMS
recommended here that these changes take place as it is
management
evident from this experience that course development
should follow the changing needs of both courses and Analysis and Describing the various methods
students. visualisation of data analysis available in the
software and the basic
The most important elements for direct tutoring in visualisation rules of cartography
class have now been rationalised to four main topics. Demonstration Using previous data inputted in
These elements are structured in a way to cover half and hands-on a project, data analysis is
the time of a semester. Table 11.1 illustrates a typical performed and a map output is
course structure and includes: prepared for printing
• introducing GIS – definitions, history and Implementation Describing the various
development applications of GIS and the
• data concepts – data types, sources and issues of elements necessary for
data quality implementation of a GI system
• GIS functionality – data input, structure, Practical The remaining weeks see the
management, analysis and visualization sessions students applying GIS to a
• Implementation – methods and applications particular project of their choice
where data is collected, inputted,
There is a good review of these concepts in analysed and map outputs are
introductory textbooks such as Heywood [1], Clarke produced together with a written
[2] and the GIS Dictionary published by Wiley [3]. report.

In the first session where students come into contact with the concept of GIS it is very important to start with
definitions of what G.I.S. stands for and how did the systems develop from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) to the current

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state-of-the-art technology. This should be supported by giving specific examples of applications to which students can
relate and understand. Going through the history of GIS developments also helps to understand the definitions and where
the technology is coming from. At this stage it is useful to provide the students with some initial websites to start them
searching the web. Some might include:
• a first introduction to Geographic Information Systems (http://www.gis.com/)
• the GIS Timeline website for the history of GIS (http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/gistimeline/);
• the Geography Network website for the creation of maps using ArcExplorer
(http://www.geographynetwork.com);
• an overview of map projections (http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/mapproj_f.html)
• academic publications of a research centre specialised in spatial analysis
(http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/news/index.htm)

Due to the importance of data in GIS, two sessions are generally dedicated to data concepts. These cover aspects such
as different data structures used in a GIS and their characteristics, data types and availability, data sources and most
importantly the issue of data quality. Students must be made aware of the issues of data quality from an early stage. Data
must be checked for its timeliness, attribute accuracy, consistency and completeness. All this information should be
attached in the metadata which is now becoming common practice for any type of data (whether it is spatial or non-
spatial).

In order to appreciate what a GIS can do when compared with other mapping software or databases, all its functions
must be explained in detail. The third topic covered by the theoretical sessions of the undergraduate study unit should be
accompanied by real time demonstrations of how a GIS functions. These main concepts of a GIS are:
- data capture and input
- system structure and data handling
- data manipulation
- analysis and query
- GIS output and visualization techniques
These concepts are explained individually to build a comprehensive overview of what a GIS can do. This should tie with
the definitions of GIS provided in the first sessions.

At any stage of the course it helps the student to understand each concept by demonstrating its application using GIS
software for example, using a desktop digitizing tablet to transform paper into digital data whilst explaining the process of
data input.

Finally, the lecture series could conclude with examples of applications of GIS in the real world and the methods
used in implementing a GI system. Apart from the more traditional GIS applications, this aspect could be supplemented
with further Internet-based examples such as the lists of industries making use of the technology
(http://www.esri.com/industries.html). In addition to internet-based information, there are now also textbooks dealing
with the management of GI systems [4] for the students who wish to undertake projects in this field.

Refining these introductory components and their delivery is an on-going process. With increasing computer literacy
and accessibility to the Internet, some of these topics become redundant. However, the four main components listed are
deemed to be the most relevant to help the student grasp the basic theory of GIS, understand what the system can do and
then to apply it more efficiently.

2.3. Coordination of information and practical sessions

Depending on the resources available for the study of GIS within a particular faculty or university, and the time
allocated to the study-unit, it may be possible to divide the introductory course into theory and practical sessions whereby
students get hands-on experience of the system. In the course planning stage, there should be a clear definition of the
hours dedicated to theory and the student hours dedicated to the practical sessions. Practical sessions could be organised
around set time periods or alternatively students can be allowed time to do set exercises either at home (depending on
software availability) or in the computer laboratories.

Since in most cases, practical session outputs are used for assessment purposes, the students are encouraged to

85
dedicate more hours to the use of the GIS software to cover the necessary study hours dictated by the regulations of the
course programme. These study hours provide an indicative measure also of the importance of different course
components and give opportunities for meaningful assessment, related to specific learning outcomes.

At the University of Malta a two ECTS study-unit covers 14 weeks of 2 hour sessions per week. This gives a total of
28 contact hours, with the students expected to undertake 40 hours of related study. Within this framework the first part of
the study-unit is dedicated to the theory part where the students get an introduction on the main components of a GIS in
addition to demonstrations of how GIS is applied in different fields. During this period the students are required to review
a list of textbooks, journals and internet sites provided at the beginning of the year. In the meantime they are encouraged
to think about a mini-project using GIS.

During the second part of the study unit the students prepare a project proposal in which they identify a research
question, the area under study and the data required to complete the project. These projects are generally carried out
between groups of 2-5 students. The aim is also to introduce the student to team work.

Once the student projects are discussed and approved, the students then have to collect the information from the field
(when necessary), input the data using any input methods necessary. At the GIS lab, the students have the options of
using scanners or digitizing tablets. Once the system is populated with information, the students start the process of
querying the data. This process is generally covered with the remaining contact hours and students experimenting with
the GIS software in their own time. In addition, the students are required to write up a short report on their experience
using GIS. They are requested to present a report with the following contents:
- introduction to GIS
- project proposal
- methodology
- analysis
- problems encountered
- conclusions and applicability of GIS to the project

The map outputs and the report are completed in the student’s own time and generally submission is requested
towards the end of the semester. A test concludes the study-unit on the theoretical and practical aspects of GIS.

In this manner the student understands not only the theoretical parts of GI systems but also the practical side of
implementing GIS. Due to current constraints within the undergraduate course structure, it is not possible for the students
to undertake any advanced courses in GIS. However, there is an option for students to use GIS once again for their
dissertations in their final year of study. This provides an excellent chance to apply their acquired knowledge of the
software in a real research environment.

The use of issue-based approaches in the teaching of GIS has many advantages. Mostly however in that it engages the
student in a real project where he/she can, not only apply the theory but also understand it. Many students coming from
Art faculties are not conversant with computer processes. The hands-on experience and the completion of a project help
to explain these processes. In this manner students understand how to apply the theory of GI science and geographical
(spatial) analysis. Also, it was observed over the years that those students which engaged in longer practical sessions not
only enjoy the lectures, but also learn faster on how to apply the technology.

2.4. Use of teaching aids for higher education

There are a number of useful teaching aids for higher education study-units in GIS. The fact that GIS is a relatively
young technology and most advances in the system have been recorded and are available on the Internet means that this is
probably the most useful source. Conference papers, journal articles and now even books are available for download from
the Internet at some of the most popular GIS sites (see for example the URL
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/gis/volumes.html for the complete book contents of [5]). Wiley and Longley et al.
have teamed up to present an online teaching aid for both teachers and students. This includes an instructor’s manual,
presentation slides and case studies to use in the classroom.

Another invaluable resource is the ESRI Virtual Campus which is an online training site for using GIS

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(http://campus.esri.com/index.cfm?CFID=5078887&CFTOKEN=59283972). In this case however the University would
require ArcGIS software, and provide access to its students for use with the training sessions online. Alternatively
students might take the initiative and pay directly for some of the courses on offer. This site is particularly useful for
students who wish to use particular extensions of the software and find no training available locally. Also on this website
there is access to a Library which allows student to browse conference proceedings, books, journals, magazines and
reports related to the use of GIS. This is a useful tool for students to prepare for their practical research projects and any
summative assessments at the end of the study-unit.

There are also a number of websites that advertise GIS courses, both as part of undergraduate courses or for distance
learning. Despite parts of these websites being password protected, they offer plenty of information on how to organise a
study-unit, the most important components and the different ways in which these GIS courses are structured.

Some textbooks also provide self-learning tools with software demos and case studies and students should be
encouraged to invest in one of these textbooks to get as much hands-on experience as possible. Specific textbooks relate
to particular software and even though the technology develops over very short periods of time and such books become
dated, it is always useful for students to undergo individual training on use of GIS (see for example [6]).

3. Teaching undergraduate GIS to various disciplines

The GIS Laboratory is a multi-disciplinary centre for the teaching of GIS within the current structure of the
University of Malta. The academic staff involved fall under the umbrella of the Geography Division but the Laboratory
provides courses and consultation to numerous faculties, institutes and centres at the University. To this end, a number of
study-units are delivered each year, particularly the undergraduate introductory GIS course, to provide opportunities for
those studying different degree courses and academic disciplines. These study-units are not combined due to their
specificity and the need for a discipline related focus. One example is the different study-unit title assigned for biology
students for which GIS training is concerned. This study-unit has been called ‘Environmental Informatics’.

The major problem of teaching GIS to various disciplines is the instructor’s disposition to the different applications of
GIS in their field. Despite students having a fixed structure to follow at the beginning of the course, some of the more
professional degree courses have industry specific requirements which the teacher should be aware of. In the case of
Architecture and Education, any expectations by the industry must be clearly understood before undertaking development
of any GIS study-unit.

Fortunately for most disciplines there are now both textbooks and exercises available, which can help both instructor
and tutor to use industry specific case studies. In the case of Education there are particular textbooks which guide the
teacher to various levels of GIS education in schools (see for example [7]).

The flexibility of the GIS tutor must be one which encourages the application of GIS in various disciplines. It is also
advisable to have the GI science separate from the system parts of GIS teaching. Two members of staff should be
appointed to specifically deal with these two elements of GIS, particularly for advanced courses. Currently, the GIS Lab
does not cater sufficiently for the science components, due to lack of human resources in the science field. It is however
ideal to have the two streams of GIS education available for more advanced courses.

Development of a GIS Lab or centre should focus on attracting various disciplines. This however might be a problem
particularly in the period during which courses are being set up and students are attracted to take study-units in GIS. A
long term plan for the development of GIS training is crucial to ensure both professional and course development is
constant.

4. The role of the student

As discussed earlier, the student has a very important role to play in the delivery and success of GIS study units. This
is due to the student’s adaptability to use computer software and the amount of hands-on experience one is willing to put
in during and after the study unit.

The adaptability to use computer software depends on the student’s background subjects in secondary and post-
secondary education. In the case of Malta, Geography students are not normally exposed to computer science as the

87
majority would have studied other arts subjects in conjunction to Geography. This provides an opportunity for students to
use the software, but not to develop much interest in the science stream of GIS. In this case, it is through students’ own
efforts that certain elements, such as databases and data structures are studied in detail.

It is however easier for Geography students to understand science than science students to understand the
applicability of GIS for spatial analysis. This is evident in the student projects. Whilst Geography students can visualise a
whole project and probably manage it better, computer science students generally focus on one aspect of GI science, such
as visualisation or data structures. It is important to encourage both as in the work environment both technician and
applications manager need to work side by side to build a GIS.

Students should also understand the relevance and importance of hands-on experience to learn about GIS. Most
students today are keen at using the software from an early stage of the study unit. It is important however that during the
first tutorials the tutor is ensuring students understand the processes that are going on in using the software. There is a
tendency for students to quickly go over the initial tutorial exercises without understanding why and how they are doing
such exercises. This jeopardises the possible use of GIS for their assignments.

At the University of Malta, students are requested to undertake 40 hours of ‘studying’ for every credit they are
awarded. In the case of GIS, most of this time should be dedicated to trying out the different functions of a GIS. This is
possible today with the availability of software at the university and even at home. Evaluation software or freely
downloadable software (such as the case of ESRI ArcExplorer) from the Internet, allows students to explore the
functionality of GIS.
It is also important for the student to take interest in seeing how systems are operated in the real world. In the case of
Malta this is possible with site visits to particular industries which have applied GIS in their work processes. A number of
major organisations now run GIS such as the Malta Environment and Planning Authority, which also has an Internet map
server [8], Water Services Corporation, the Department of Agriculture and the Malta Transport Authority. These provide
opportunities for students to visit live systems and enquire about possible employment opportunities in the field.

In conclusion, the role of the student in learning about GIS is very important, particularly when GIS is taught as part
of a whole catalogue of study units in topics such as Geography. Luckily, the high visibility of GIS on the internet
provides most of the information and exposure required by students to understand the basic concepts and make an
informed decision on the importance of GIS in the workplace.

5. Conclusions
This chapter aimed at identifying the opportunities and problems of developing undergraduate study units for the
teaching of GIS. The experience gained through the teaching years at the University of Malta, have been used as a case
study. The chapter has focused on the course development and problems of multi-disciplinary teaching but also on
student aids and the importance of self-learning.

The demand for geospatial skills is growing worldwide (see [9]) with more scientist required to understand the
processes of integrating use of GIS with spatial phenomenon. This on its own should be an incentive for higher education
to invest in the teaching of GIS from undergraduate levels.

In the case of Malta, perseverance to provide for the GIS Lab and the courses to undergraduate students has started to
show the first signs of success. A number of students have been employed since 2003 because they possessed skills
related to GIS. The increasing market demand for these professionals will in time mean more opportunities for the
students to find jobs and further specialise in this field [10].

With these results, the University of Malta is now more prepared to invest and encourage GIS in the undergraduate
and hopefully soon in the postgraduate courses it offers.

References
[1] Heywood, L., Cornelius, S. & Carter, S., Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, Prentice Hall, England,
2002.

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[2] Clarke, K., Getting started with GIS, Prentice Hall, England, 2002.

[3] McDonnell, R., & Kemp, K., International GIS Dictionary, Wiley, USA, 1995.

[4] Tomlinson, R., Thinking about GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers, Redlands CA, ESRI
Press, 2003.

[5] Longley, P., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D.J. & Rhind, D.W., Geographic Information Systems First Edition,
Wiley, USA, 1991. http://www.wiley.com/legacy/wileychi/gis/volumes.html

[6] Ormsby, T., Napoleon, E., Burke, R., Groess, C. & Feaster, L., Getting to Know ArcGIS desktop, Redlands CA,
ESRI Press, 2004.

[7] Malone, L., Palmer, A.M. & Voigt, C.L., Mapping Our World GIS Lessons for Educators, Redlands CA, ESRI
Press, 2002.

[8] Malta Environment and Planning Authority, Map Server,

http://www.mepa.org.mt/Planning/index.htm?MapServer.htm&1, 2005.

[9] Gewin, V., Mapping Opportunities, Naturejobs, Nature Publishing Group, England, 22nd January 2004, pp 376-
377, http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v427/n6972/full/nj6972-376a_fs.html, 2004

[10] Schweik, C. M., Fernandez, M. T., Hamel, M. P., Kashwan, P., Lewis, Q. and Stepanov, A., Reflections of an
Online Geographic Information Systems Course Based on Open Source Software, Social Science Computer Review,
27(1): 118-129, 2009.

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 12. Aspects of GIS Education for Environmental and Informatics
Engineering
Maria A. Brovelli, Diego Magni, Fernando Sansò
Politecnico di Milano – Polo Regionale di Como
maria.brovelli@polimi.it, diego@geomatica.como.polimi.it, fernando.sanso@polimi.it

Abstract
Environmental and Informatics Engineering courses at the Politecnico di Milano/Como Campus allow students to get
to know and use GIS software. The courses are organised at two levels: the first one deals with the use of GIS for data
collecting, validating and viewing, and the second level deals with data analysis, web GIS, mobile GIS and the
implementation of new GIS tools. Different GIS products are used in an interdisciplinary approach focusing on data
and software interoperability.

Key words: GIS, study modules, information engineering, undergraduate, Masters

1. Introduction
Every human activity which interacts with the landscape, or has a geographical context, requires that the interactions
can be correctly described and analysed. Geographic Information Systems offer a powerful way to do this, with many
different possible methodological and technological solutions [1]. As a consequence, a GIS user should be able to choose
the correct approach and the develop tools and approaches to face the particular problem which they may have to deal
with.

Since 1997, the Como Campus of Politecnico di Milano has introduced undergraduate students on Environmental and
Informatics Engineering degree courses in GIS. Schematically, Informatics Engineering provides knowledge and skills in
the production and use of informatics tools (software) in both scientific and technological areas.

Environmental Engineering has an interdisciplinary curriculum which, at least on the Como campus, aims to create
experts who are capable of handling environmental data, creating environmental models, producing predictions of the
main environmental variables and finally carrying out projects and simulations of risk reduction and resource
management plans. The resulting GIS courses seek to illustrate a range of different potential solutions using a wide
variety of software, programs. These can then be applied to many case studies [2].

Two study modules have been developed to serve the likely GIS educational needs of the students. Each of these
modules is embedded into qualifications which, corresponding to the Bologna Declaration and can be described as
Bachelor of Science and Master of Science, either in Informatics Engineering or Environmental Engineering.

The first level course (Bachelor level) focuses on data acquisition, storage and the desktop-side use of geographical
data, so digital cartography processes are the main topics of this course. The second level (Masters level) focuses on more
advanced uses of GIS, including aspects of data analysis, web GIS implementation, mobile GIS practice and
programming new tools.

Three common goals have been identified for both study levels, these are:
• providing an interdisciplinary approach for GIS-analysed problems,
• presenting and then using different methods and software tools and
• studying how non-homogeneous data and different software can operate together and be integrated with one
another.

This learning approach provides for different kinds of learning opportunities: theoretical lectures, individual exercises
and practical projects for groups of students. The classes include some basic features which are normally present in any
Bachelor Engineering course (such as Mathematical Analysis, Geometry, Chemistry, Physics, Computer Science, and
Economics) and other classes which would be optional for a specific Engineering course (both Bachelor and Masters

90
levels). For Environmental Engineering students, these optional classes deal with aspects of different environmental
problems and in particular with the use of geographical information in for example Topography, Cadastral Systems or
Urban Planning. On the other hand, specific classes for students of Informatics Engineering are concerned with computer
science and, in particular, with software logic, design, implementation and use (e.g. Data Bases, Information Systems or
Software Engineering).

In this way, when students of “environment” start with GIS classes, they will learn about the meaning of geographical
data and its characteristics, acquisition and use, while an “informatics” student learns about the technological background
of GIS. By consequence, some hours at the beginning of the GIS classes are left open in order to fill in these gaps, with
theoretical lessons and exercises.

2. Bachelors level GIS course

Students at the Como Campus of Politecnico di Milano are taught GIS in the third year of their undergraduate
degree. At this stage, some Geomatics classes are offered including Digital Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote
Sensing, Cadastral Systems and Data Processing. The Digital Cartography class is normally where students get to learn
and apply GIS concepts, methods and software. The learning approach is through a series of theoretical lectures,
exercises and practical projects. In practice, though students are encouraged to work with a number of different GIS
software packages, at this stage mainly ESRI ArcGIS™ and Autodesk Map™ are presented to them. Students dealing
with simple exercises based on real data and maps learn to use the basic functions of these programs, i.e.:
• data loading,
• data editing,
• layer management,
• data viewing within maps,
• map browsing,
• basic query functions and
• other common functions such as buffering or path calculation functions.
Moreover, some data and maps are prepared so that they can be published within a web GIS, usually Autodesk
MapGuide™.

After acquiring a theoretical basis of GIS software use, the students then test themselves directly during group
laboratory activities. In fact, they develop a project which concerns the whole range of GIS techniques, including
geographical data acquisition, storage, digitising, data management, viewing and presentation. For example, a project
can be the creation of a road cadaster for the town of Como and the implementation of a road planar and connected
map which adopts the cadastral features as nodes and edges. In detail, the tasks that this project incorporates are:
• Data acquisition by in situ inspections: in this case the students walk the roads of an area of Como and survey
junctions, road elements and street number information, drawing their geometry over a background map and
filling in their alphanumerical and topological attributes in special remark
forms.
• Data digitising (Figure 12.1): in this task the students digitise data they
have taken onto a digital background map of the town; the road elements
are drawn as polylines, while the junctions and the street numbers are
drawn as points. Alphanumeric attributes (for example the code, the name,
the type, the administrative and technical classification, the allowed traffic
ways, the available parking for the road elements or the type and the
connected roads for the junctions) are also stored in special tables (road
elements table, junctions table and street numbers table).
• Topology and map implementation: the students create the topology and
define the planar connected map using junctions as nodes and road
elements as edges.
• Data viewing and querying: students test their maps and data using queries
and routing functions (i.e. shortest path).
• Reporting,: the students write a group report to describe the work they have Figure 12.1. An example of the
done, underlining the problems found in every step. road cadastre and graph of Como

91
 This first project is assessed on the data acquired in the field by compiling special forms and tables and by drawing
background maps, then using Microsoft Excel™, Autodesk Map™ and ESRI ArcGIS™ for data digitizing, topology
definition and map viewing and querying.

A second project is then undertaken by students, which does not involve all the aspects covered by the first project.
Instead they deal mainly with aspects of data acquisition including GPS surveys [3]. Other aspects of GIS are left for
students to acquire during the completion of their graduation thesis or in the Masters level GIS course.

In the 2003-4 academic year several GPS surveys were undertaken

(Figure 12.2) positioning some archaeological remains in a park, named
Spina Verde Park, located in the southern hills of Como. The acquired
data was later entered into a database of archaeological remains and
added to the maps of the connected Web GIS (see
http://geomap.como.polimi.it/agew/).

In subsequent academic years, other GPS surveys have been

undertaken to calibrate the previously described road map. The tasks of
merging and calibration of the data will be probably proposed as likely
graduation theses topics.

3. The Masters level GIS course

The use of Geographical Information Systems at Masters level is
offered as a specificGIS module, which is part of Geodetic Surveying,
Urban Planning, Navigation Laboratory and Informatics for the
Environment and the Territory courses. These courses all have links
with GIS, for both improving student competences and in using GIS to
present maps and data.

The GIS Masters module comprises theoretical lectures, practical Figure 12.2. Some students during a GPS
sessions (individual learning) and laboratory work (group activity). All survey at the Spina Verde Park
the themes specifically concern a deeper understanding of Geographical
Information Systems [4]. During lectures there are practical presentations of other types of GIS software, which can
also be tried by students: GRASS™, Minnesota MapServer™, PostGIS™ and “home-made” software are used for
digitising, topology calculation and map overlaying by automatic homologous point detection. Within lectures, other
commercial GIS products are demonstrated through theoretical seminars and without practise: for example ESRI
ArcIMS™, Intergraph IntelliWhere™ or MapInfo MapXtreme™.

The GIS laboratory class provides opportunities for students to undertake a number of different projects. These
refer to several main topics:
- desktop GIS applications for specific subject fields,
- data publishing by Web GIS,
- new GIS tools and
- using mobile GIS.
The goals of providing an interdisciplinary approach and an understanding of the interoperability of software and data
are pursued throughout.

Desktop GIS offers the possibility to perform advanced analysis on specific data fields and therefore they are
employed for particular subjects. For example, ESRI ArcGIS™ has been used to digitise and view data coming from
research on factories that are believed to present environmental risks in Como Province. Groups of students processed
available data using ArcToolbox™, ArcCatalog™ and GeoProcessing™ tool capabilities, they digitised first hand data
and georeferenced it within ArcMap™. Students then organised all the information by defining special layers and
renderings. The project has been undertaken as part of an Urban Planning course [5].

92
 The GIS laboratory class provides projects which deal with publishing geographical data by implementing a web
GIS. Usually, the architecture exploited consists of UMN (University of Minnesota) MapServer™ as GIS engine,
Apache™ as HTTP web server and HTML with or without JavaScript files as pages of the website containing the web
GIS. Data is stored and loaded with ESRI shapefile™ format; but when a Data Base Management System (DBMS) is
needed, PostgreSQL and PostGIS are used, where PostgreSQL is the DBMS and PostGIS spatially enables the
PostgreSQL tables. In this way PostgreSQL data can be correctly georeferenced and drawn within the web GIS maps.

These projects tackle the problems of data format, because often the format of geographical data cannot be directly
loaded by the GIS engine. So, some pre-processing steps are necessary and, since ESRI shapefile™ is the target
format, ESRI ArcView 3.x™ or ArcGIS™ has been used to do it. Among these web GIS projects, two should be
specifically mentioned because of their strong interdisciplinary nature: the web GIS of the “cadastral control points” of
Como Province and the web GIS of the Lombardy permanent GPS stations.

The resultant web GIS of the “cadastral control points” of Como Province links GIS topics with those covered in
cadastral systems classes. The students use “fiducial points” as special reference points provided by Italian Cadaster
for cadastral surveys. In this project some students have implemented a web GIS for displaying the distribution of
fiducial points in Como Province; the information can be loaded as an ESRI shapefile or from PostgreSQL tables; in
both these cases, data processing tasks are needed to convert the original ASCII format to the target formats.

The web GIS of permanent GPS stations in

Lombardy (Figure 12.3) uses GIS class elements
to load and display data which is useful for the
geodetic surveying class [3]. This Web GIS
produced a map with all the GPS permanent
stations of the Lombardy Region, with
information about their status (active or not) and
characteristics. An implemented function
calculates the distance of a generic point within
the map from the users of the permanent stations.
In this way, users can identify which are their
closest permanent stations.

Often it is useful and convenient to

implement tools which can improve existing GIS
functions and capabilities. Some projects, usually
offered to students in Informatics Engineering
courses, deal with this need. In particular, a tool Figure 12.3: The web GIS of Lombardy GPS permanent stations
to create and manage Minnesota MapServer™
map files has been created and implemented.

Another GIS class topic concerns the use of mobile GIS, for
both displaying existent data, previously imported from a desktop
GIS, and for editing new information.

The final GIS class topic concerns data interoperability, where

students compare different data formats and their compatibility in
order to search for a common interchange format. An example of
this is a project concerning some useful themes for navigation, such
as map management and routing functionalities. Compatibility is
studied and compared using three different software programs:
ArcView™ (Figure 12.4), AutodeskMap™ and GRASS™.
Interoperability has been dealt with through a project dealing with Figure 12.4: Analysis of routing functionalities:
the GML (Geographic Mark-up Language) interchange format. the case of ArcView 3.2™

93
4. GIS theses
GIS topics and applications are not just dealt with in specific classes. In fact, both Masters and Doctoral theses
allow students the possibility to deepen their knowledge and translate this into practice at a higher level through
research. This can involve any of the studied themes and relate more closely to the interoperability of data and
software and for example the planning of Open Source-based architectures.

Both desktop GIS and web GIS are commonly treated within graduation theses; moreover, some theses about
mobile GIS have been proposed. One such study deals with questions related to the data formats that can be loaded and
displayed in mobile GIS software (Autodesk OnSite View™ or ESRI ArcPad™), the procedures which have to be
followed to obtain those loadable formats and which problems can occur when the data is passed from desktop or web
GIS to mobile GIS. Another current thesis attempts to deal with the problems which come from the use of ESRI
ArcPad™ to get the road cadaster and graphical features through mobile GIS. The first results from this research
indicates that mobile GIS can be useful for updating information but is likely to be more troublesome for geometric
updating. In fact, even though ArcPad comprises some basic editing functions (Peng, Tsou, 2003), the versions
available did not offer sufficiently advanced tools, like snaps or topology definition and analysis tools, for correctly
digitising junctions and road elements and for associating them with their topological properties. It is expected that
software updates will resolve these issues.

5. Permanent GIS projects

Some GIS projects are considered to be “permanent projects” because they offer the possibility to be repeated
many times or to be frequently updated. Moreover, these projects are likely to have a permanent background through
which they can be developed. This permanent ongoing activity is useful in teaching as it allows interested students to
become associated with practical current research work at a level which they can understand.

Current permanent GIS projects relate to the road cadaster and graph of the town of Como and the web GIS of
archaeological remains of the Spina Verde Park, named ArchaeoGEW (Archaeological GIS Explored by Web). The
production of the road cadaster and graph is not at the moment connected to any research project with external
customers; consequently, this activity can be completely managed for teaching purposes, without any restriction of
time or other factors. ArchaeoGEW, allows students to practise GIS and geodetic surveying techniques. As new
remains are frequently found and data relating to known remains requires regular updating and georeferencing, this
updating of the archaeological database is ongoing.

Another “permanent project” has as its goal to publish and maintain all the student web GIS projects by adding
them to the Geomatics Laboratory web site (http://geomatica.como.polimi.it). This is a recent idea conceived by the
Geomatics Laboratory which will help students to promote their activities and skills to possible employers beyond the
university.

6. Conclusions
The GIS courses at the Politecnico di Milano intend to show different methodological approaches, aspects of data
management, GIS software applications and information problems that need to be solved. Students have the
opportunity to learn and practice using GIS through different themes, applications and real cases [6]. The approach
adopted mean that they are encouraged to have an overview of GIS use, as well as a critical view in analysing GIS-
solvable problems by choosing the best method and technical solution. Such a broad approach does not however leave
enough time for students to gain a deep experience that would come with studying a single GIS topic, solution or
software.

Broad and specialised approaches have their benefits and disadvantages, especially with regard to student
employability. The structure of the GIS courses described here came from the idea that different expertise is required
in a rapidly developing field like GIS and that it is easier to build specific know-how from a wide and critical base than
to start a completely new specialisation if this doesn’t coincide with what has been learnt. In fact, after about a dozen
students had graduated from our curriculum, we received positive feedback of the a advantage of this approach to their
professional lives.

94
References
[1] Burrough, P.A. & McDonnell, R.A., Principles of geographical information systems, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 1998.

[2] Jones, C.B., Geographical information systems and computer cartography, Longman, Harlow, 1997.

[3] Peng, Z.-R. & Tsou, M.-H., Internet GIS, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2003

[4] Brovelli, M.A., Cartografia Numerica – Dispense del corso (Digital cartography – On-line lectures),
http://geomatica.como.polimi.it/corsi/cartografiaNO/index.html (October 2002).

[5] Frank, A.I., Three Decades of Thought on Planning Education, Journal of Planning Literature, 21(1): 15-67, 2006

[6] Carlson, T., Scaffolding Instruction in a University-level GIS Course, Journal of Planning Education and Research,
28: 258-262, 2008

95
 13. Problem Based Learning - From Theory to Application in
Geoinformation
Adrijana Car
Centre for Geoinformatics – Salzburg University10
Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria
adrijana.car@sbg.ac.at

Abstract
Traditional views of teaching and learning are giving way to more active, student-centred approaches. These
approaches are facilitated by the creation of Problem Based Learning (PBL) environments and have therefore become
well established in most areas of education. It is widely accepted that such PBL environments develop active
knowledge by putting the learner in a self-active role. This is the reason that PBL has become a pillar of the curriculum
at the School of Geoinformation at Carinthia Tech Institute (Fachhochschule Technikum Kaernten) in Villach. PBL is
integral to teaching and learning, specifically within what we call Project Work modules. These modules are taught
from the very beginning of study, on average one day per week. Each of the Project Work modules covers one GIS-
related topic providing students with necessary theory and hands-on experience. Working on real tasks with partners
from industry using an interdisciplinary approach are major properties of this PBL-environment. This chapter reports
on our experiences with PBL and shows current results.

Key words: PBL, undergraduate modules, project work, GI curriculum

1. Introduction
The School of Geoinformation (SGI) at Carinthia Tech Institute offers an innovative GI-curriculum that is designed
to meet the needs of technological advances in industry. The ideas intrinsic to problem based learning are incorporated to
provide an optimal learning environment for the students. Problem based learning (PBL) is commonly understood as a
learning environment that supports the acquisition of different skills. The concept of student-centred learning is central to
PBL. The University of Maastricht with its long-term experience in PBL describes the objectives of this method as “…to
overcome the various drawbacks of traditional instruction methods, where students have passive role during lectures,…
disciplines are not integrated, … and most importantly, graduates are not trained to apply what they have learned in
practice" (cited in [1] http://www.unimaas.nl/pbl/). PBL is a way to foster thinking and critical analysis and provide real
focus or understanding of the objectives of the curriculum for both students and staff which traditional curricula rarely do
[2], [3]. Traditional views of teaching and learning are characterised by frontal instruction which often results in inert
knowledge. Inert knowledge is defined as knowledge a person can reproduce but often has difficulty to apply it to a
specific problem [4]. According to the constructivist view [1] a learner is in a self-active position (student-centred
learning and teaching) whereas the lecturer offers situations and tools to solve problems, and acts as coach and advisor.
This approach helps convert inert to active knowledge.

Since its inception in 2000, the SGI team has developed and implemented the curriculum for Geoinformation (GI)
following national accreditation guidelines (see
http://www.fhr.ac.at/fhr_inhalt/01_ueber_uns/AR_24062005_Vers1.0.pdf). The guidelines provide a means to overcome
the shortcomings of the traditional curriculum as well as traditional teaching and learning methods for both undergraduate
and graduate engineering students. The curriculum foresees that on average one day per week in the first six semesters
will be dedicated to working on projects. Interdisciplinary teaching, practice orientation, intensive use of both German
and English, and application of soft skills on a day-to-day basis are central to the study of GI at SGI

This chapter focuses on the approach and experiences in PBL at SGI. The curriculum is presented, and then the
approach is described and illustrated by examples of project work performed at SGI. The chapter concludes with a

10
A. Car moved to Salzburg University in September 2005 to take over the position of the UNIGIS international programme
coordinator (http://salzburg.unigis.net/Salzburg/). Prior to the move she spent five years as Head of School of Geoinfomation
at Fachhochschule Technikum Kaernten – University of Applied Sciences in Villach, Austria.
96
summary of our experiences and ideas for improvement of current practice.

2. Framework: The Curriculum

The School of Geoinformation (SGI–Fachhochschulstudiengang) was established in July 2000
(http://www.cti.ac.at/geo). This course of studies11 takes four years or 8 semesters. The total number of teaching hours is
160 or the equivalent of 240 credits (ECTS) for all four years. Graduates from SGI are qualified geoinformation engineers
(Dipl.-Ing.(FH)). The first students graduated in summer 2004.

The national guidelines for creating the SGI as an accrediting institution are defined in the Proposal, which is the
accepted application for the accreditation of a study program in Austria (so called Antrag [5]). This includes for example
the curriculum, its educational goals, teaching principles and practice orientation (for more details about the School see
[6]).

The main study areas are presented in Figure 13.1. The Processing spatial information

educational goals of the curriculum are: 14% 16% Geo-Information Technology

11%
• knowledge transfer, which includes spatial data / knowledge Project work
processing, Geo-IT, business, law, and management; 6% 22%
Economics and Law
• acquisition of skills such as rhetoric, presentation skills, 31%
academic writing, team work, and communication; English

• language competence in both German and English. Other subjects

In general, each of the graduates is expected to, either work Figure 13.1: Main curriculum study areas at
independently and run smaller projects or to be a valuable team SGI.
member in a big project.

According to the Proposal guidelines [5, Section T] the teaching

is expected to be interdisciplinary and mostly in English. Currently 19%

19% of all classes are taught in English only, and 16% of the classes
use both languages (Figure 13.2). German
German and English
16%
English
Strong aspects of practice and vocational orientation are the 65%
main properties of a course offered by any university of applied
science (Fachhochschule). At SGI practical experience is acquired
at three different levels: project work, internship, and the diploma
thesis. Project Work takes place in semesters 1-6. Students work on Figure 13.2: The percentage of courses
projects in teams of three to five usually one day per week. In each currently taught in either German and/or
semester a different theme is covered offering the students both, English.
practice and diversity of GI applications with the support of
underlying theory. The process of designing and developing a GIS-application, Web-based GIS and server technology,
GPS and GIS, geo-marketing or cartography, and map production, are some of the themes covered.

An internship (Berufspraktikum) takes place in semester 7. This internship is an integral part of the curriculum in
which students experience real-world working conditions. During an internship each student will be assigned a project
which can be completed in 5-6 months. Students are expected to apply their theoretical knowledge, technical know-
how and expand their soft skills with the goal of finishing the project on time. The list of institutions providing an
internship position is provided in Appendix A1.

Writing a Diploma thesis is necessary in the final semester. Students choose or are assigned a topic for their thesis.
Students are expected to show ability to work in a scientific manner by producing a thesis that meets widely accepted
academic standards. These are taught in a module called "Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten" in the 8th semester (i.e.

11
The study of GI was successfully re-accredited in June 2005. The programme however is now offered as a three year BSc
in GIScience meeting the requirements of the Bologna declaration. Experience and best practice in teaching and learning
from the four year diploma study were integrated in the new curriculum.
97
working in scientific manner, see also [6]). Project Work is where practice-oriented teaching, i.e. PBL takes place
within the actual study time. The remainder of this chapter focuses on the approach to PBL illustrated by some
examples of the completed projects within the Project Work courses.

3. An Approach to Problem-Based Learning

At the School of Geoinformation PBL is manifested in two ways: (1) implicitly through various laboratory
activities, integrated courses and seminars; and (2) explicitly through practice orientation (as described in the previous
section). The implementation of PBL in teaching and learning at SGI adopts both the instructional and the
constructivist view. The challenge though is to find a suitable balance between explicit guidance and support by a
lecturer and a constructive activity by a learner or group of learners (as suggested by Kopp and Mandl [4]).

Our approach to PBL emerged from a four-year experience in our own teaching as well as adopting successful
ideas of highly advanced PBL from our neighbouring School of Electronics [2]. The approach has been based on the
following principles [7]:
• GI-relevant themes and freedom of choice: Project themes are suggested by module leaders (professors at SGI
or external lecturers), and are usually real-world problems with real users. Students can choose either among
different project proposals or among different sub-projects within one major project. An example of project
proposals is given in Appendix A2.
• Team Work: Project teams consist of three to five students. This team size corresponds to the formation of
real-world teams. Students have the freedom to organise themselves in groups and determine a team leader.
Collaborative learning and various activities foster team spirit, which in turn increases efficiency and
promotes good time management.
• Soft Skills: Skills like rhetoric, presentation techniques, and communication can only be acquired through
intense and frequent practice. The module Project Work 1 in the 1st semester is therefore dedicated to basic
training for soft skills. Students can then practice these skills throughout their studies. The same holds for
technical and scientific writing. The elements of writing are taught mainly in English language classes but in
conjunction with other modules where e.g. a project report or an essay is required. The first large writing
project is undertaken in Project Work 2, where students write a project report in English. The report is
assessed jointly by an English professor and the Project Work module leader.
• Coaching: As previously mentioned here, lecturers are coaches and facilitators rather than project leaders.
Their role changes throughout the project: they introduce a project, help generate a concept and plan its
implementation; then they switch to technical consultants in case problems arise.
• Project evaluation: An essential part of the projects is the project evaluation. The evaluation process consists
of individual and team assessment. An example is given in the following section.

4. An Example of PBL at SGI

In the module Project Work 2 (PW2) in the 2nd semester students learn the process of design and development of
GIS applications. Their task is to become familiar with the application area (e.g. through a literature review and by
consulting specialists), design a concept for a GIS-application, and finally use the formal description of the concept as
the implementation guideline.

The team deliverables of PW2 are:

1. an operational GIS-application (to show that the idea works)
2. a presentation (20 minutes + 10 minute discussion)
3. a report which describes steps and outcomes of the project
4. a poster presentation
5. a summary of the project (suitable for publishing on the web or as a handout)
The goals of PW2 are manifold:
• exposure to the process “idea – concept – development” of a GI-product
• learning about methods of modelling spatial concepts
• application of already acquired knowledge in GIScience and use of software tools like ArcView and MS
Access
• soft skills
• academic writing by:
98
 o structuring and writing a technical report incorporating elements of scientific writing
o working with literature and use of EndNote (software to create and maintain a database of references,
which works well with Microsoft Word)
o practicing of preparation and giving a presentation
o designing a poster

Both the German and English languages are used during the course. The project report is written in English.
Projects are presented at the end of the module and are open to the public through a presentation and demo session.
Such sessions are announced ahead of time, and project partners, students from other semesters, and potentially
interested audience from outside the School are invited.

The evaluation of the project work includes the following elements (the percentage of the total grade):
• 5% attendance
• 20% team work and collaboration
• 45% presentations (group work)
• 30% project report

Individual self-assessment and team assessment constitute equally

weighted parts of the respective grade components. The evaluation of team
work is based on the availability of the solution, i.e. was the task solved in
the first place?, the creativity of the solution, and the quality of both the
presentation and the report. These issues are evaluated during the final
presentation session by the SGI lecturers and respective external project
Figure 13.3: (a) The GIS for runners
partner(s). Reports are evaluated by the module leader separately. The representing the half marathon trail in
evaluation of individual work of all team members comprises their the City of Klagenfurt.
knowledge and competence, contribution to the project presentation and the
report, level of cooperation, initiative and response to deadlines, and
general contribution to the team. The individual work is self-assessed
during the final presentation session and contributes to the general grade.

A number of projects have been completed since the summer semester

2001, when PW2 was first taught. For example, in 2001 one group of
students developed a GIS for cave researchers and rescuers (SpeleoGIS)
[8]. In 2002 the task was to develop a GIS for sport and hobby divers [9].
The most recent project in 2003 focused on design and development of a
GIS for runners (Figure 13.3a, see also Appendix A2). A concept formally
described by an entity-relationship model and diagram and an object
catalogue is used as a guideline for implementation. Applications were
developed with help of the GIS software package ArcView 3.2
(http://www.esri.com) and used a Microsoft Access database management
system to create and implement a database. All projects were entered in the
poster competition at the AGIT conference in Salzburg (http://www.agit.at) Figure 13.3: (b) The corresponding
st nd
and won the 1 prize in 2001 and the 2 prize in 2002 and 2003 poster won the 2nd poster prize at
respectively (for example, the certificate received at AGIT 2003 is AGIT 2003.
presented in Figure 13.3b). More detailed descriptions of the students’ projects can be found on
http://www.cti.ac.at/geo/.

5. Experience of using Project-Based Learning at the School of Geo-information

SGI has more than five years of experience with using a project-orientated PBL approach and the results of the
implementation have been encouraging. The module evaluations performed by students show that the large majority of
them prefer project work because they like working in teams at their own pace and that they can be responsible for
their actions (see Appendix A3 for examples and additional explanation). Even though the students appear
overwhelmed and “lost” when first confronted with the idea of such a project, they quickly adapt to the situation and
show that they can cope with such a task… with a reasonable dose of coaching.

99
 Authenticity has been identified as the main contributor to the success of the Project Work modules among
students. Authenticity means solving real-world problems, dealing with real project partners and users, and using real
data in a real GIS-environment. Major benefits of the PBL are:
• “springboard knowledge” [2, p.389] – previously acquired knowledge serves as a basis for solving the task at
hand and insight into new information
• an interdisciplinary approach – knowledge from various disciplined is needed and used to solve complex
problems [10]
• a deeper understanding – the complexity of developmental work in GIS is mastered [11]
• the development of management skills.

Finally, the foundations of critical thinking are established by scaffolding suitable learning. This is then developed
further during the student's study [12].

6. Summary and Future Work

The Problem Based Learning environment developed at the School of Geoinformation in Villach is based on the
following principles: offering discipline-relevant themes to work on; allowing students free choice of project themes;
building up and fostering team work and acquiring soft skills; coaching instead of frontal teaching; evaluating project
outcomes by combining team- and self-assessment. The project work modules in Geoinformation deliver attractive
results both in terms of technical achievements and in the application of PBL principles. Students find this approach
highly motivating mainly because of the projects’ authenticity and because it allows hands-on experience.

It is our intention to increasingly combine the themes of our research with those of students’ projects. That is,
advances in our research inform practical education, just as students' creativity and feedback inform our research.

References
[1] Mader, G. & Stöckl, W., Virtuelles Lernen. Begriffsbestimmung und aktuelle empirische Befunde. Innsbruck,
Studien Verlag, 1999.

[2] Pester, A., Ofner, E., Moore A. & Grünbacher, H., Problem Based Learning in Microelectronics: Approach,
Experience, Examples. Proc/ Probleme und Perspektiven der Formung einer nationalen technichen Elite (Teil 2),
Harkov, Ukraine. 387-389, 2002.

[3] Shanley, D.B. & Kelly, M., Why problem-based learning?,

http://www.odont.lu.se/projects/ADEE/shanley.htmlURL, 2006

[4] Kopp, B. & Mandl, H., Problem-Based Learning in virtual GIS learning-environments, Proc. Third European GIS
Education Seminar (EUGISES 2002), Girona, Spain. 5, 2002.

[5] Kaernten, T. Antrag: Fachhochschulstudiengang "Geoinformation" in Villach, 1999.

[6] Car, A., School of Geoinformation at Carinthia Tech Institute. Proc. Third European GIS Education Seminar
(EUGISES 2002), Girona, Spain. 4, 2002

[7] Car, A., Problem Based Learning in Geoinformation: Approach, Examples, Experience, 4th Seminar on GIS
Education (EUGISES 2004), Villach, Austria, School of Geoinformation, Carinthia Tech Institute, 2004.

[8] Car, A., Bringing Speleological Data into GIS, Proc. GISRUK 2000, Glamorgan, UK, 2000.

[9] Car, A., DiveGIS: a GIS for Sport and Hobby Divers. New Orleans, LA, The Association of American
Geographers, 99th Annual Meeting, 2002

[10] Davis, M. Scientific Papers and Presentations, San Diego, Academic Press, 1997.

100
[11] Longley, P. (2005), Geographical Information Systems: a renaissance of geodemographics for public service
delivery, Progress in Human Geography, 29(1): 57-63

[12] Carlson, T. (2008), Scaffolding Instruction in a University-level GIS Course, Journal of Planning Education and
Research, 28: 258-262

Appendix A1: List of institutions offering internship positions in 2003/04 and 2004/05:

Companies
o traffic information and management GmbH (Germany)
o Orbisat da Amazonia S.A. RS Division, Brasil
o Intergraph (Germany)
o WiGeoGIS GmbH (Vienna)
o Umweltdata (Vienna)
o Mediaplan (Vienna)
o Progis (Villach)
Local Authorities
o Magistrat Klagenfurt (3 students)
o Magistrat Villach
o KAGIS (Amt der Landesregierung in Carinthia)
o DORIS (Amt der Landesregierung in Upper Austria)
Organisations
o World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF)–Aueninstitut (D)
Academic institutions
o University of Technology Vienna (Prof. A. Frank)
o Military University Munich (Prof. W. Reinhardt)
o Louisiana State University, Dept. Geography&Anthrop.(Dr. Leitner)
o Curtin University of Technology, Spatial Sciences
o School of Geoinformation and Austrian National Forestry (Bundesforste)

Appendix A2: An example of a project proposal presented in the course “Project Work 2”, semester 2 (summer
semester 2003)

Sport and Outdoor GIS for the city of Klagenfurt

The Klagenfurt area offers a broad variety of sport and outdoor activities for its citizens, visitors, and tourists. This
project focuses on running and biking: routes and infrastructure in support of these activities.
Goals and outcomes:
• Design a conceptual model of a GISystem for running and biking
• Develop a prototype of a GISystem to justify the concept
Users:
• City employees responsible for maintenance and management of these facilities
• Citizens, visitors, or tourists as users of facilities
General framework: The prototype can be a stand-alone GISystem, but It should expand the existing Klagenfurt-
GIS and its accompanying website.
Contact persons: Günter Koren – responsible for the digital city map of Klagenfurt, MA Klagenfurt
Literature and information sources:
• www.info-klagenfurt.at
• www.klagenfurt.at
• www.tiscover.at
• Project documentation about the Klagenfurt-GIS

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Appendix A3: Summary of the students' evaluation of the module Project Work 2

The forms shown in Figure 13.4 are standard module evaluation forms used at the University and SGI. The 1st part
of the form evaluates the module content and the 2nd part the lecturer. The highest evaluation value is on the left side of
the bar and the lowest on the right side. Dots indicate evaluation values given by students. A summary evaluation for
each of the parts is given in the last row respectively.

Figure 13.4: Summary of students' evaluation of the module Project Work 2 in

summer semester 2001 (4a) and 2002 (4b).

102
 14. Web Atlas Engineering as a tool for integrating Geographical
Information Technologies into Geography
Vít Voženílek
Palacky University in Olomouc
vit.vozenilek@upol.cz

Abstract
Atlas production is normally the joint work of cartographers and designers. By undertaking the process of atlas
production as a geoinformatic project, a team of collaborators can be developed to incorporate experts on GIS, remote
sensing, geostatistics, spatial databases and analysts.. Furthermore, when digital atlas production is designed as a web
interactive application, the team is extended to include computer programmers and web specialists. This chapter
explores the development of a project for student team work, integrating various geographic, cartographic and
geoinformatics activities within web atlas production. The projects are based on geoinformatic project (within ESRI
technology). The projects cover three main spatial levels – national level, regional level and local level.

Key words: Web atlas, production process, student projects

1. Introduction
In recent years, the development of web atlases can be readily and rapidly undertaken using geoinformatics. GIS
courses can be developed that review, study and improve the technological processes of web atlas production. This
allows production management aspects to be considered and the completion of a project of large-scale web atlas
engineering with consideration of engineering standards and technical criteria [1]. In addition to the traditional
cartographical and geoinformation (GI) procedures of atlas production, the above aspects have been implemented into
GI courses in the Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic. The courses created now include modules in GIS,
spatial database management, interface design systems, map design systems, video and audio data collection and
editing systems, development and integration systems and final production duplication systems. The production of a
Web atlas has close relationships with Internet and communication techniques. The technologies are widely used on
movable atlas space position systems (car navigation systems), web-based ask-the-way systems and multimedia
teaching systems related to geography ([2]; [3]; [4]; [5]; [6]). The main thematic applications include socio-economic
aspects, physical resources and environment, industry, tourism, sustainable and regional development, urban planning
and management, and demographics.

GI education involves many different disciplines, which cover the knowledge and skills associated with particular
GI technologies (GIT) [1]. Current web atlases are the result of a large number of procedures using these technologies.
Web atlas engineering can be the foundation of the process of high-quality cartographic GIS projects. The role of Web
atlas engineering is to improve GI applications and to popularise the tools and facilities available. Web atlas
engineering is also one step towards industrialising the process, where academic research conclusions are transformed
into productivity [7].

A Web atlas is a digital visualised medium incorporating a visual interface and tools to visualise, analyse and
explore the spatial phenomena and temporal processes. Web atlases link a geo-database with cartographic models [8].
With the development of computer mapping, GIS, computer graphics, WWW, artificial intelligence, virtual reality and
cognitive science, user-adaptive interaction is being brought into web atlas design, development and implementation.

An atlas can be presented in the traditional book-bound sense but new technologies expand presentation options to
allow map collections to be generated. CD-ROMs, DVDs and the Web can be used to present collections of maps but
the binding is digital rather than physical. As the possibilities for atlas presentation have expanded to include non-
traditional media, the opportunities for innovative mapping and display are increased. In the future, there will be
additional presentation media and mapping techniques that have not even been conceived of yet. Students apply all
knowledge and experience from cartographical modules and evaluate them by demonstrating practical skills from GI
courses.

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2. Aim
The main aim of the approach is to allow students to work together in teams to create their web atlas by integrating
various geographic, cartographic and geoinformatic activities (Figure 14.1). They should then develop, improve and
refine their methodology. Through this experience students can gain lifelong learning skills of communication and
collaboration in all aspects of GI literacy [1].

3. Methods
The technological development of web atlas development
and creation involves several processes, including: data
collection and analysis, design, layout output, evaluation and
validation, confirmation of layout, manufacture, testing and
duplication. In the development process, students can either
take the role of project coordinators or else as team members
(operators). The role they perform in the project can also
change as their web atlas project lasts for two years. In the past
some students, often the best coordinators, have even extended
their web atlas activities into a Masters thesis.

At first, students create web atlas designs individually.

Their designs are normally based on existing data, technical Figure 14.1: Web atlas design of student projects
criterion, client demands and production conditions [9]. This is
a crucial step in the process of web atlas production. The design stage determines the functionality and information
extension, as well as the potential use of each web map in the atlas [10]. It also involves both simple and sophisticated
GIS analytical components. The Web atlas production management system deals with production technology and
management of it. It provides the basic structure from the data interface.

It is very important that students examine and record every part of the production process. If only the final product
was examined, it is likely that many important factors would not be considered and evaluated. Systematic recording at
each stage of the process also saves time and expense by limiting the amount of reworking that is needed if any errors
are found. So, it is stressed that every part of the production process needs to have a technical file which is helpful to
analyse factors like quality, time period, costs and so on.

New educational practices have been developed by integrating the web atlas engineering projects into GI
education. All atlas projects are based on geoinformatics (within ESRI technology). Web atlas projects have covered
three main spatial levels – national level (for example the Landscape Atlas of the Czech Republic and Climatic Atlas
of the Czech Republic), regional level (the Atlas of Natural Extremes in Moravia and Silesia) and local level (an Atlas
of Brno City Development).

In reality, CD-ROM and Web production are frequently financed by the profits and expected sales of a book atlas.
This situation can also be simulated as part of the course. However, the rationale for the creation of web atlases is often
linked to a desire to provide additional marketing opportunities for the book atlas, as well as a desire to provide
educators with innovative tools for teaching Geography and other subjects at different educational levels. For the
university, it is an opportunity to demonstrate proficiency in a relatively new mapping arena with the prospect of
getting external consultancy, projects and additional commissions in the future.

In order to get maximum output from new techniques and technology processes, the design of the running
environment is very important. The real advantages of new technology processes can only be established under certain
size conditions. Web atlas engineering and its industrialisation is thus only effective and beneficial when economies of
scale mean that new technology processes come to productivity.

There have been four main requirements for the development of web atlas engineering courses at Palacky
University in Olomouc:
• well-equipped laboratories for GI applications (networked workstations, peripherals, servers etc.),
• on-going research and commissioned atlas projects,
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 • courses in geoinformatics at both bachelors and masters level with strong education and training components
in cartography and
• requests from various stakeholders that concern different
aspects of geoinformatics (spatial database, process
modelling, map reviewing, etc.).
The technology process for web atlas creation and development is
shown in Figure 14.2.

Data collection and analysis are very significant components

when preparing a Web atlas [11]. Approximately two months of
student work is given over to this aspect. Students consider the
opportunities available, including using a range of relief maps,
remotely-sensed images and other materials. They decide on the
main resources to use, often assessing paper maps and
undertaking an analysis of the structure of the digital maps for
ease of data transfer. They use a meta-information system (Figure
14.3) established by students at Palacky University several years
ago [12]; [13].

Final Web atlas design is based on the availability of existing

data, technical criterion, client demands and production
conditions [9]; [8]; [14]. Students will discuss and decide on the
map function and the information to be provided, as well as the Figure 14.2. Technology process of web map
‘reading approach’ of each web map in the atlas. The design production [18]
process [15] consists of the following:
• the technical design approach and feasibility analysis
• the development, design and facilities of integrated web
map production
• map content design which matched web map design,
technical criteria, technical index, technical parameters
and simplification principle
• design structure of the web atlas
• layout of the components of the atlas
• interface design and production package

The layout was based on an output schedule for the

verification of the atlas components and the improvement of the
maps. In practice, some typical existing atlases and maps are used
as initial examples of layout outputs which can be used in
manufacture (Figure 14.4). Evaluation and validation of layout- Figure 14.3: Metainformation system in the atlas
output verifies the usability and validity of the design. project – web site for Landscape Atlas of the
Confirmation of the layout plays important role. Web atlas Czech Republic (conducted in Czech) [19]
designs must be frequently rectified because of the likely diverse
requirements of the clients. Moderate size manufacture requires a relative stable environment, especially stable
software. In practice, it is only after evaluation and validation and customer’s confirmation that the web atlas process
can reach production.

Web atlas manufacture is the production process. It includes data collection, editing and conversion as well as
symbolisation of the prepared data. The testing phase for these maps takes place before any duplication of the web
atlas maps. The pilot product needs to be tested on various kinds of computer, with different operating systems and
browsers, to ensure that each map can be displayed on various application systems and with different resolutions.
Production duplication then multiplies the examined data onto CD.

105
 The student group project can be viewed as a web atlas production management system which deals with both
production technology and management. It is all aspects of the process from data interface to the financial balance and
technological processes. It is thus very important that students examine and record every part of production process.

Establishment of a technical index and technical criterion are main features of the standardisation of web atlas
engineering [16]; [17]. Constructing a technical index with technical criterion such as data conversion, simplified
principles and code design will support wider applications of the final web atlas product [14]. This is one aspect of
engineering which is not solved by the students; it is adopted
from previous projects.

4. Division of tasks
The web atlas project is carried out by groups of up to 8
students under the supervision of one tutor. During the project,
students will be given their role by the tutor. Individual
responsibilities will be assigned by the groups, some may have
specific responsibilities given to them for example, for meta-
description, field mapping with GPS, spatial data resources, map
symbology and map design (Figure 14.5).
Figure 14.4: Atlas design and layout for the
Besides having the specific responsibilities, students
printed version – example from the Climate
collectively have to solve the following tasks within joint
Atlas of the Czech Republic
plenary discussions and workshops:
• the atlas concept, including audience and potential
users, ways of manipulation, further applications etc.
• reviewing and commenting on the achievements of their
group
• concepts of map symbology and
• other aspects of general atlas design.

5. Results
An example of the initial outcomes would for example be a
local atlas of Olomouc City, created on one following themes:
• for sightseeing
• for the disabled
• of city vegetation Figure 14.5: Students have all they need for
• leisure time their individual work
• historical heritage

Once the Web Atlas design has been finalised and the data gathered, the project is at the testing stage. Many
geographical, cartographical and geoinformatic methods and techniques are tested, improved and written up; this
“manual of Web Atlas Engineering” involves solving frequent problems, check points are defined and their solutions
are explained and finally an optimal version will be established with guidance on how to modify it. The students thus
create a real product to meet client needs.

All completed atlases are full of original information, findings and approaches. However their production in a
limited timeframe can lead to some inaccuracies. In another module on cartography the atlases are evaluated by other
students who write a detailed review. A further evaluation is carried out by students who are doing subjects
thematically close to the atlas theme. For example, an atlas of city vegetation would be evaluated by both urban
planners and ecologists from local government.

At this stage, the atlases are not yet ready for sale. However they should be ready for commercialising if the
opportunity arises. For example there is currently a project to create an “Atlas of historical heritage in Olomouc City”.
Financial support for this is being sought.

106
6. Conclusions
In recent years, the development of Web Atlases has been very rapid. The practical achievements include:
• using a wide range of data gathering approaches and methodologies (Figure 14.6)
• improvements in the technological processes of web atlas production, such as the wider functionality of map
servers,
• establishment of production management, i.e. new section in national mapping agencies responsible for web
atlas administration,
• development of a large web atlas engineering project, i.e. U.S.A., Switzerland, Canada, Sweden, Germany,
• establishing engineering standards and technical criteria for web atlas production.

Although many web atlas developments have taken place, a

number of challenges still remain. Exposed to rapid developments in
technology and their extensive applications in the world, advances in
visualisation still lag behind in many countries. There is still a gap
between web atlas research and applications in the market.
Consequently, the economic return is still insufficient to maintain
sustainable development, unless there is sufficient funding from
organisations or funding bodies. Additionally, there is a knowledge
divide between cartographers and computer scientists. This causes
the atlases produced to be either more ‘paper map’ oriented or more
‘technology’ oriented. Finally, the communications between map
designer and atlas users needs to be strengthened because good map Figure 14.6: All kinds of data gathering are
design requires deep understanding of what users need from atlas involved in creating the Web atlas – surveying
[14]. (left) and GPS measuring (right)

Current research on visualisation focuses on multi-perspective modelling, spatial and temporal data modelling,
screen map design for desktop, Internet and PDA/mobile telecommunications, cartographic spatial cognition and
subject evaluation. The adaptive system design initiates from user data acquisition, analysis, user modelling,
knowledge base creation and mathematical modelling. These bring the development focus to the desktop, Internet and
mini-screen visualisation system. They encourage the incorporation of spatial-temporal cartographical modelling and
visualisation system, general statistical mapping system, urban and tourism-oriented mapping system and a multi-
perspective visualisation system [20]; [21].

The importance of technology in every aspect of atlas making does not diminish the essential role that the
cartographer plays. Maps are drawn by people, not computers and students know it. The content of the graphics must
be kept paramount, the technical aspects are secondary [22]. Computers cannot replace the cartographic knowledge
and skill required to make good maps [23]. So even with the increased capabilities of technology in the cartographer’s
workplace, it is still ultimately the cartographer who is responsible for the beauty and accuracy of the map, and who
can take pride in a job well done.

References
[1] Voženílek, V., Geoinformatic Literacy as a Fundamental Component of Geoinformation Technology, Proc. 4th
international symposium on Remote Sensing of Urban Areas, June 2003, Regensburg, CD-ROM.

[2] Gallego, M. & Roman, B., SITGAWEB: an internet web mapping to generate thematic maps on demand, Proc. 20th
International Cartographic Conference, Beijing, August 2001, CD-ROM.

[3] http://www.atlaskrajiny.info (Atlas krajiny ČR) [08-06-2004]

[4] http://www.nationalatlas.com (National Atlas of USA-Homepage) [01-06-2004]

[5] http://www.statlas.org (STATLAS-Homepage) [03-06-2004]

[6] Loy, W.G. et al., Atlas of Oregon, second Edition, University of Oregon Press, Eugene, 2001.
107
[7] Parmee, I.C., Evolutionary and Adaptive Computing in Engineering Design, Springer, 2001

[8] van den Worm, J., Web map design in practice, In: J.-M. Kraak and J. Brown (eds.), Web Cartography, Taylor &
Francis, London, 2001

[9] Li, B., Design Patterns of Web Maps, Proc. 20th International Cartographic Conference, Beijing, August 2001,
CD-ROM.

[10] Yefen, C., Color Perception Research on Electronic Maps, Proc. 19th International Cartographic Conference,
Ottawa, August 1999, CD-ROM

[11] Li, Y., The technology process and engineering of CAD, Digital cartography, No. 1, 25-50, 1995

[12] Dobešová, Z., Remote Sensing Data in Metainformation Systems in the Czech Republic, Proc. 4th International
Symposium on Remote Sensing of Urban Areas, Regensburg, June 2003, CD-ROM.

[13] Růžička, J., Metadata prostorových dat, [in Czech: Metadata of Spatial Data, disertation thesis] HGF VŠB-TU,
Ostrava, 2002, 123 p.

[14] Voženílek, V., Cartography for GIS: geovisualization and map communication, Univerzita Palackého
v Olomouci, Olomouc, 2005.

[15] Kolbe, T.H., Steinrücken, J. & Plümer, L., Cooperative Public Web Maps, Proc. 21st International Cartographic
Conference, Durban, August 2003, CD-ROM.

[16] V. Voženílek, GIS Cartography, manuskript.

[17] Voženílek, V., Aplikovaná kartografie I – tematické mapy, (In Czech: Applied Cartography I – Thematic Maps)
Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, Olomouc, 2001.

[18] Z. Cai, G. Wu, M. Wenig, and Du, Q., “Electronic Map-Based Hypermedia”, Proceedings of the 20th
International Cartographic Conference, Beijing, August 2001, CD-ROM.

[19] J. Kolejka, D. Strnad, I. Tábor, and V. Voženílek, Geoinformační projekt pro širokou veřejnost, (In Czech:
Geoinformation Project for Wide Public), GEOinfo, Praha, yearbook 2004, pp. 69-71.

[20] Taylor, D.R.F., The Concept of Cybercartography, In: M. Peterson (Ed.), Maps and the Internet, Cambridge, UK,
Elsevier, 2003.

[21] Taylor, D.R.F. & Reyes, C., Capacity Building for Cybercartography: The Cybercartography for the Americas
Project, Proc. 20th International Cartographic Conference, Beijing, August 2001, CD-ROM.

[22] Crampton, J. W., Cartography: maps 2.0, Progress in Human Geography, 33(1): 91-100, 2009

[23] Norman D.A., Cognitive engineering, In Norman, D.A. & Draper, S.W., (Eds.), User centred system design, New
perspectives on human-computer interaction, Hillsdale, 1986

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 15. UNIGIS studies in Poland – learning GIS at a distance
Aneta Szablowska-Midor, Jacek Kozak, Wojciech Widacki
GIS Laboratory, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management,
Jagiellonian University
aszablowska@gis.geo.uj.edu.pl

Abstract
The use of e-learning in the GIScience field is rapidly expanding, and involves both commercial companies and
academic institutions. UNIGIS is an international network of universities offering distance-learning post-graduate
education in GIScience, on the basis of a harmonised curriculum. Course content has a modular structure and is
provided via an Internet platform. To meet professional standards, cooperation with industrial and commercial partners
(e.g. ESRI) is maintained and benchmarks, where they exist are used for guidance.

The first Polish edition of UNIGIS studies was launched in 2004 at Jagiellonian University in Kraków (Poland) in
cooperation with Paris Lodron-University in Salzburg (Austria). Students work with English-language materials, and
communication with tutors is in Polish. Practical exercises are performed by using ArcGIS and GeoMedia Professional
packages. After completion of the two-year programme, students achieve a certificate issued by Jagiellonian
University and the Master of Science qualification from the University in Salzburg.

Three intakes of UNIGIS students in Poland allow several observations in terms of student profile. In this paper we
analyse the educational and professional background of these UNIGIS students, including their primary experience in
using GIS software. We then present students’ expectations in relation to the skills and knowledge they hope to gain.
Additionally, we attempt to identify learning habits they practice and the barriers they meet in the e-learning process.
Finally, we discuss our findings in the context of e-learning experiences of other GI-education programmes.

Key words: education, distance-learning, e-learning, GIScience, GISystems,

1. Introduction
The fundamental components of Geographic Information Science (GIS) have recently expanded into a variety of
different fields (diBase et al. [1]). This growth creates the demand to establish an effective means of teaching and
learning of GIS, regardless of time, place and educational background (Wright et al. [2]). Such distance learning is
now most appropriately delivered through the Internet in the form of e-learning. Distance learning may be defined as a
“system for people of all ages and professions to improve their educational levels adjusted to their own learning
speeds and capacities while keeping their productivity” (Ulugtekin [3]). This definition focuses on the reasons that
someone may have, and constraints they may meet while undertaking this kind of study.

Wright et al. [2] list different e-learning models. Some of them highlight the aspect of the learning process in terms
of its synchronisation, via synchronous and asynchronous models. Others take into account the presence of a
teacher/tutor, as instructor-led and non-instructor-led models, as well as the organisation of the students, in cohort-
based and independent student work models. The last group of models focuses on the existence of traditional on-
campus classes: pure e-learning and blended-learning.

Both academic institutions and commercial companies are involved in delivering e-learning of GIS. Academic
institutions seem to concentrate more on the field of Geographic Information Science and offer rather long-lasting
courses oriented on general GIS knowledge (e.g. UNIGIS studies, www.unigis.net), while commercial companies
focus more on Geographic Information Systems as a technology, offering shorter courses oriented on software skills
and examples of GIS applications (e.g. ESRI Training and Education http://training.esri.com). In this paper, we present
the UNIGIS studies undertaken in Poland, launched in 2004, discussing preliminary observations on student profiles,
their learning and communication styles and difficulties encountered during the study period.

109
2. UNIGIS studies
UNIGIS is an international network of universities in 14 countries, which offer GIS education at postgraduate level
on basis of a harmonised curriculum. An Internet platform provides access to learning materials and serves as a means
of communication between teachers and students, and students with each other. To meet the requirements of labour
markets and to increase relevance for working professionals, some parts of the UNIGIS curriculum are based on
software-oriented components, for example practical activities that are based on ArcGIS or GeoMedia, accompanied
by introductory software courses provided by the GIS industry, such as the ESRI Training, Intergraph online course
"Introduction to Geographical Information Systems".

UNIGIS studies at Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland, started in 2004 in close cooperation with Paris
Lodron University in Salzburg. Jagiellonian University takes responsibility for the teaching, but in fact students are
registered at both universities. This constitutes an advantage for them and results in them having the opportunity to
obtain two diplomas: the Certificate issued by Jagiellonian University and the Master of Science qualification of the
University in Salzburg.

The two-year postgraduate programme consists of obligatory and optional online modules and on-campus
workshops. The programme foresees four workshops, one per semester. Each module contains a couple of
assignments. Students are obliged to write and send assignments to a tutor for evaluation. English-language materials
are used for these activities, but communication with the teachers/tutors is conducted in Polish. A part of this
communication takes place on several discussion forums. There is one general forum for students of each group, where
they share ideas connected with UNIGIS studies and one technical forum, which helps to solve problems related to
GIS software installation and usage. Separate forums are dedicated to different modules, where students address
questions related to the module content and assignment tasks. According to the classification of e-learning modes
proposed by Wright at al. [2], UNIGIS studies in Poland represent blended-learning, asynchronous, instructor-led and
cohort-based model, which is regarded as the most effective way of teaching (Wright at al, ibid).

In 2004, 16 students started their studies, whereas in 2005 the number of students increased to 20. The most recent
intake in 2006 was organised under special rules according to the requirements of European Social Fund, within a
governmental programme that promotes development of human resources in modern economy
(http://www.efs.gov.pl/). This project, “Postgraduate studies of Geographic Information Systems UNIGIS 2006”, was
received with a significant interest. As a result, 30 successful applicants, mostly from the sectors of small- and
medium-sized enterprises, were admitted to start their studies.

3. UNIGIS students in Poland

Three groups of students (66 students in total) provided us with several opportunities to make some observations
regarding the profile of students who were applying for, and participating in UNIGIS studies in Poland. This
preliminary analysis was made on the basis of different sources of information, like registration questionnaires,
statistics generated via the e-learning platform (between March 2004 and September 2006), the content of discussion
forums, e-mails from students and face-to-face discussions during the on-campus workshops.

3.1 General characteristics

Usually, candidates for UNIGIS studies found information about studies searching in the Internet or were informed
by the colleagues in their workplace; in a few cases they learnt about the study opportunities in newspapers or through
newsletters. Each year the number of students starting UNIGIS courses has been growing (from 16 in 2004 to 30 in
2006). Furthermore, the gender structure has also changed. In 2004 there was an evident dominance of men, whereas
in 2005 and 2006 more women than men started the studies (Figure 15.1a). A significant majority of students were
aged under 30, but a group of students more than 40 years old was present as well (Figure 15.1b). Students come from
different places in Poland – mainly from big cities like Warszawa, Kraków, Poznań, Wrocław and Lublin, which are
quite remote from each other, in distance of hundreds of kilometres.

110
3.2 Qualifications, status and professional profile

Most of the students (58%) possessed an engineering degree, the rest of them had a university background, mainly
Geography and Geology. A few applicants with either a PhD degree, or completing PhD studies were accepted as well.
Students represented different working status and stages in the working cycle. They included low level staff of
companies, or governmental institutions up to the Director of a
company. Cartography, forestry, science and surveying were
the most frequently represented branches (Table 15.1: in A: gender structure
annex at the end of the chapter). Twice as many students 100%
worked in private companies than in state-owned institutions.
Most of the students used GIS in their work in some sense, 80%
only a few of them used it regularly and to a professional
level. This was reflected in their primary experience in using 60%
GIS software. According to the students declarations ArcGIS,
40%
ArcView and ArcInfo packages were the most used software.
20%
3.3 Expectations
During the qualification process potential candidates were 0%
asked for their expectations related to their UNIGIS studies. 2004 2005 2006 intake
Most of candidates indicated they hoped for an improvement
of their generic GIS knowledge and skills as the desired result w omen
of undertaking UNIGIS studies. Revision and update of prior men
GIS knowledge and getting to know more examples of GIS
applications were mentioned as well. Candidates typically
associated their UNIGIS studies with career development, as B: age structure
they hoped either to use the gained GIS knowledge and skills 100%
in their workplaces, or to improve their qualification and to
find a new job, which would be better suited to their ambitions 80%
(: in annex at the end of chapter 15.2). Although the studies
allow to them to obtain a Masters degree, students did not 60%
mention formal certificates and recognised academic degree as 40%
their primary aim to undertake UNIGIS studies.
20%
4. Observations on barriers, learning and communication
styles 0%
2004 2005 2006 intake
The community usage statistics of the e-learning platform
showed that technical and module-dedicated forums were betw een 40 and 50 years
betw een 30 and 40 years
most frequently used to discuss study-related problems.
up to 30 years
Students faced problems mainly in terms of [1] software usage
and [2] understanding, what they were expected to do within a Figure 15.1: Gender structure of UNIGIS
given assignment. Although many students faced problems students in Poland (a); age structure of
connected with the above mentioned matters, only a few UNIGIS students in Poland (b)
individuals decided to find help in sending a post to the
discussion forum. Most of them preferred direct communication with a teacher or a teaching assistant. Very striking
was the fact that there were many students who never posted any messages at all to the discussion forum (10 out of 30
students of the 2006 intake for example).

Although students are afforded some flexibility in assignment submission, they often meet considerable difficulties
in completing their work on time. One module consists of 15 lessons and lasts approximately 2 months. Each lesson
relates to approximately 5-6 hours of learning time. In addition, students have to reserve additional time for
assignments, and in-depth study of optional materials within the module. In this way, completing the module on time
requires considerable planning, a systematic approach and strong motivation to study, which is difficult to maintain for
a lengthy period of time. We noted, that in terms of assignment submission that students quickly split into three
groups: leaders, laggers and intermediate students. Furthermore, we observed a kind of interrelation between students’

111
activity within discussion forums and their achievements. In general, leaders tended to be quite active discussion
participants, while laggards never “stand up to speak” (Figure 15.2a). And vice versa, students who are active on the
discussion forum usually did not meet difficulties in assignment submission, while passive students never completed
their work on time (Figure 15.2b).

The problems with keeping up with the relatively quick A: patricipation in discussion
pace may be related also to inappropriate allocation of time to
study during the day and during the week. According to the e- 100%
learning platform statistics, students mainly worked on the e- 80%
learning platform during two preferred time periods of the day:
between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. and then between 8 p.m. and 9 p.m. 60%
(Figure 15.3a). More than 20% of their work during the week
was done on Monday. Saturdays and Sundays were least 40%

favoured having only a 7% and 13% share of the time 20%

respectively (Figure 15.3b). In this way, it seemed that students
do not take full advantage of the possibility to study outside 0%
their typical working hours and days. leaders intermediate laggers

Additional problems related to the current structure of passive moderate active

UNIGIS studies in Poland were English language skills. While
students are not asked to prove their language skills during
interviews and qualifications, they are informed of the B: assignments submission
necessity to have at least a passive knowledge of English.
Evidence of this as a problem was shown in the high usage 100%
statistics of supporting Polish language materials which have
80%
been developed this year.
60%
Existing barriers may result in failures to complete the
study on time, or may cause a drop-out of students. Up to now, 40%
9 students out of 66 have left the course and many of the others
have experienced considerable delays in completing the some 20%
of the given modules. This was most pronounced within the
0%
first intake of students. Even if some students did not complete active moderate passiv
their studies, they nevertheless did find the course very useful
for their work and career, which was reflected in their positive
on time submission out of time submission
attitudes toward course content.

5. Discussion and conclusions Figure 15.2: Interrelation between students’

We encountered the same barriers in the e-learning process,
as these mentioned for example by Grunwald et al. [4], namely
language skills, computer skills, learning ability and the ability
to manage time.
assignments submission and participation in
online discussion (a); interrelation between
participation in online discussion and timely
submission of assignments (b)

The problems related to language skills may in fact be a reason to revise the admission criteria or to elaborate more
materials in the Polish language. Insufficient computer skills of students posed more problems, and in our opinion this
may be responsible for the first failures to complete assignments on time. Insufficient computer skills may also be
related to problems with e-learning platform, or even to communicate via e-mail, which in this case is essential if
students are to maintain links with teachers and their peers. In addition, GIS software installation may pose several
technical problems, especially in the context of some special installation requirements of software vendors when
licensing software to UNIGIS students.

However, the major problems in our opinion are related to communication, time management strategies and
learning styles, and motivation. These issues are discussed below.

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5.1 Communication problems
Students do not make sufficient use of the discussion board, even if they encounter problems in understanding or
performing given tasks. The main reason of such behaviour was probably the fear of asking questions which could be
considered as proof of incompetence by the more advanced students or teachers. This issue raises the problem of being
tolerant in relation to other course participants, which is a kind of social skill necessary in an e-learning environment.
Similar problems to this were stated by Martensson et al.[5], which allows us to classify this barrier as distance-
learning specific.

Communication skills seem to be the most important component even more so than the learning skills, as an
asynchronous distance-learning environment requires participants to communicate in a clear and effective way. From
the student’s perspective, it is essential to build understandable questions, while from the teacher’s perspective the
most important skill is to answer in an understandable way. Both
parties have to give some time and effort to thinking carefully
about the problem, before communicating it to the other party
(Grunwald et al. [4], Martensson et al. [5]). A new, more active
A: e-learning platform usage
and more student-centred approach is necessary (Wright et al.
hours of day
[2]).
hits
5.2 Time management strategies and learning styles
12000
As stated earlier, students’ times of learning in relation to
the hour of the day and the day of the week were quite similar to 10000
that of on-campus students. Although further investigation 8000
concerning individual preferences in this matter is necessary, it
seems to be the case that distance learning methods offered by 6000
UNIGIS studies meet student needs in terms of time flexibility 4000
and it allows them to study during weekdays, this would be not
possible in an on-campus learning format due to their work 2000
constraints. 0 hour
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 of day
Time management seems to be a common problem of
different GIS distance-learning courses (Buckley and Donert [7];
Figure 15.3a: Summarised access to the e-
Martensson et al. [5]). Martensson et al. (ibid) indicated that
learning platform during a day
Internet–based learning is sometimes even more time-consuming
than on-campus learning. This gives rise to the questions about
what should be the relative proportion of distance-learning and B: e-learning platform usage
on-campus classes. In such a situation, when there are some days of week
problems in the e-learning education process, there may be a hits
temptation to enlarge the number of on-campus classes to try to
achieve better results. On the other hand, bearing in mind that 25000
students are working professionals from different, often remote
20000
cities and do not have the time to undertake travel, on-campus
classes could not be organised for them too frequently.
15000
5.3 Motivation
10000
Finally, we have to admit that for the successful completion
of their studies, it is essential to have considerable motivation to 5000
study. In case of UNIGIS students in Poland, who belong mainly
to the group of working professionals, it seems that their 0
day
workplaces play an important role as this could be a factor SUN TUE THU SAT of w eek
which helps in their studies. If the position within a company is
strongly connected with the use of geographic information Figure 15.3b: Summarised access to the e-
technology, the student is better motivated to complete his or her learning platform during a week
studies.
113
5.4 What can be done?
Improvement in teacher–student communication, student-to-student communication and support for students in the
enhancement of self-learning skills emerged as the most important issue. This aspect of distance-learning studies (in
GIS) is mentioned as a major concern by different authors (Martensson et al. [5]; Wright et al. [2]).

Teacher–student communication should take into account background, education differences, gender differences,
age differences and others. As was indicated by Grunwald et al. [4] there are some differences in e-mail usage between
male and female students. Teachers should also take into consideration that on-campus students are usually of a similar
age, whereas the age of distance students is typically more diverse.

Student-to-student communication seems to be equally important, as this helps to decrease the feeling of
loneliness. Martensson et al. [5] indicate that this should not be left entirely up to the students, but teachers should
encourage students to communicate with each other. Otherwise student-to-student communication will decline after a
certain time. Our observations confirmed this statement.

According to Calvo [6] self-learning skills make students ready for continuous learning. Some of them found it
difficult to choose from the many resources and to focus on certain types of information. This highlights the need to
have learning resources presented as clearly as possible [Painho et al., 8], easy to follow and understand, especially
where this concerns the assignment instructions. In terms of time management skills, a possible solution could be to
help students in pointing out short-term goals, which are easier to achieve than the long-term ones (Buckley and
Donert [7]).

Finally, to help students to overcome the discussed barriers to distance learning in GIS and to strengthen their
motivation to study, the obvious advantages of UNIGIS studies have to be emphasised. First, UNIGIS studies in
Poland integrate people of different educational and professional backgrounds [9]. This diversified community
constitutes a unique opportunity to share and discuss experiences in GIS usage. Even more significant, are that these
studies are held at two universities and involve teachers/tutors from six academic and commercial institutions from
Poland and Austria. This serves as an inter-institutional and international forum for the exchange of ideas.
Furthermore, being a student of a university, which belongs to the UNIGIS network, gives access to the global
community (Calvo, [6]), which would not be accessible outside the e-learning environment.

References
[1] diBase D et al., Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge, Association of American
Geographers, UCGIS Education Committee Model Curricula ProjectGI S&T Body of Knowledge,
http://www.aag.org/bok/, 2006

[2] Wright D. J., DiBiase D., Pancake Ch., Wright R. & Foote K. E., Challenges and Opportunities in Distance
Education for Geographic Information Science, A UCGIS White Paper, University Consortium for Geographic
Information Science http://www.ucgis.org/priorities/education/Archives/educationarchive.htm, 2002

[3] Ulugtekin N., GIS eLearning Experiences in Turkey, Photogrammetric Week Dieter Fritsch, Ed. Wichmann
Verlag, Heidelberg p. 303-310, 2005

[4] Grunwald, S., Ramasundaram, V. & Jesseman, D K., A Modular E-Learning Environment to Teach GIS to On-
Campus and Distance Education Students, NACTA North American Colleges and Teachers of Agriculture
Journal, March 2005, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4062/is_200503/ai_n12933749/pg_1

[5] Martensson U., Pilesjo P., Larson L. & Antman L., Leonardo E-Gis Project And The Lund University Luma-Gis
Master’s Program, 2002-2005: Development And Implementation, Proceedings of the Fifth European GIS Education
Seminar EUGISES 2006 Cracow-Pieniny Poland, 2006

[6] Calvo M.M. (2004) Problems Based Learning, e-learning and GIS teaching Proceedings of the 19th European User
Conference for ESRI Users and the 2nd European Conference for ESRI Education Users Copenhagen 2004

114
[7] Buckley C. A. & Donert K., Evaluating e learning courses for continuing professional development using the
Conversational Model: A review of UNIGIS, European Journal of Open and Distance Learning,
http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2004/Buckley_Donert.html, 2004

[8] Painho M., Peixoto M. & Cabral P., E-learning for GIS Master and Postgraduate Certificate in GIS & Science in
distance learning of the Instituto Superior de Estatistica e Gestao de Informacao of the Universidade Nova de Lisboa
http://www.isegi.unl.pt/labnt/papers/CIBSIG_2003.pdf, 2003

[9] Szablowska-Midor, A.. UNIGIS studies in Poland – learning GIS at a distance, In K. Donert and P. Charnzynski
(Eds.), Changing Horizons in Geography Education. Torun (Poland): HERODOT Network, 2007

Useful Web sites

http://www.unigis.net
http://training.esri.com
http://www.efs.gov.pl/

Annex
Table 15.1: Employment fields of UNIGIS students
Fields Intake 2004 Intake 2005 Intake 2006 Total
administration 1 0 0 1
building industry 1 1 0 2
cartography 0 4 3 7
forestry 1 3 5 9
mining 0 2 2 4
nature conservation 2 1 1 4
Power industry 1 1 0 2
science 5 2 0 7
surveying 1 0 8 9
telecommunication & information technology 0 1 4 5
tourism 2 1 1 4
other fields 1 1 6 8
unemployed 1 3 0 4
total 16 20 30 66

Table 15.2: Students’ expectations in relation to UNIGIS studies

Intake Intake Intake
Expectations Total
2004 2005 2006
improvement of generic GIS knowledge and skills 5 10 22 37
usage of GIS knowledge and skills in the workplace 6 4 11 21
revision and update of prior GIS knowledge 1 4 4 9
software usage skills 1 1 5 7
qualification improvement 1 1 5 7
getting to know more examples of GIS applications 0 1 3 4
finding a new job 1 2 0 3

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 16. GIS Distance Learning at the National Technical University of
Athens, Greece
Kostis C. Koutsopoulos and N. Androulakakis
National Technical University of Athens, Greece

Abstract
There is an increasing need to learn about GIS by professionals and students who cannot participate in the formal-
traditional university education, because either they do not live close to universities or they are not eligible to follow
university courses, or they cannot attend, for various reasons, the courses offered by the higher education system. As a
result, alternative distance learning approaches need to be provided. Such an approach, however, has to deal with three
sets of problems and challenges related to (a) education in general (how distance learning, while solving many of the
problems faced by traditional methods, can be a viable, specialised and highly technological educational substitute),
(b) the Internet (how by making full use of its advantages can the dual educational goals of disseminating knowledge
and teaching be accomplished), and (c) GIS (how to overcome technical issues associated with managing,
communicating and administering cartographic data). The distance learning course, offered by the Geography and
Spatial Analysis Laboratory of the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) has provided an asynchronous
approach to deal with some of these challenges, by utilising two software programs: Moodle to support the
educational process, and ESRI’s ArcGIS as the Geographical Information System. The course has so far provided to
more than 200 people from different parts of Greece, as well as Greeks in many European countries (United Kingdom,
Belgium, Spain, Cyprus, etc.), a chance to reach a high theoretical and practical level in utilising GIS and, thus,
progress in their professional careers.

1. Introduction
In the past few years GIS applications have increased tremendously and have entered to almost all aspects of our
daily activities. This unprecedented development is due to the creation of a lot of geographical data, both in vector and
raster formats, the expansion of the World Wide Web and the development of Internet mapping, bringing into our
home and at close grasp the geographical information we may be seeking. This GIS development, however, has
created a growing demand for GIS courses by professionals or employees in the private and public sectors, who work
in fields where GIS are applied and thus they need to master their use. But most of these potential students, for many
and varied reasons, can not attend the traditional university curriculum. Some of the reasons are: lack of time, family
and work problems and long distances between home and suitable educational centres. Further, some of them fear that
they will not succeed, because of the long time interval that has elapsed since their graduation from university, or that
the academic community may not be effectively organised to educate them as professionals rather than as students. As
a result, alternative learning approaches need to be provided. Indeed, the literature has shown that “distance learning
courses are the most appropriate means to meet such demands” (Androulakakis & Koutsopoulos [1]).

Distance learning education, especially in GIS, however, has to deal with the following educational, technological
and technical problems and challenges related to:
• Education: Distance learning has to overcome not only the well known problems related to the traditional
education methods and the fact that the characteristics of adult learners are completely different from those of non-
adults (Keegan [2], [3]), but mainly to provide a viable substitute within a highly technological and specialised
environment. The educational issue, therefore, is how distance learning, while solving many of the problems
related to traditional methods and the nature of adult education, can be a successful alternative to the person-to-
person teaching.
• Internet: Given that the exploitation of the technological advantages of the internet for education purposes is
behind those in other areas and especially in terms of solving the issues related to transforming the real teaching
environment into a virtual one. The technological issue of distance learning, therefore, is how by making full use
of the internet’s advantages, the dual educational goal of disseminating knowledge and teaching can be
accomplished, so that the educational process and the transfer of knowledge from the teacher to the student from a
distance can be accomplished in an undisturbed and functional manner.
• GIS: It is well known that managing, communicating and administering cartographic data present special
problems that can not be overcome in a straight forward or traditional manner. Moreover, in teaching GIS, which
116
 deal with geographic (including cartographic) data, it is necessary to resolve problems related to interoperability
that are still present among these systems. As a result, the technical issue of distance learning is how to overcome
problems with managing, communicating and administering from distance spatial data.

Based on these issues, in the development of the distance learning course at the NTU of Athens, the following
principles were taken into consideration and are summarily presented next.

1.1 Basic Principles of Adult Education

The course methodology takes into consideration the basic principles of adult education, as they have been
formulated by a large number of researchers, engaged in this form of education (Campbell and Burnaby [4]; Rogers
[5], [6]). Specifically, the course recognised that adult students who attend a distance learning course have:

Concrete objectives.

More experience than the traditional students.

Well developed approach in their way of learning.

Willingness to actively participate in the educational process.

Special problems in learning.

As a result, the following techniques, appropriate in adult education, were incorporated in the course:

Self-directed learning,

Inaugural or kick-off meeting,

Educational contract,

Provision of reading materials (books, notes, etc)

Creation of an environment conductive to questioning, discussing, etc.

Forums for exchange of ideas, concerns and problems.

Opportunities for practice (exercises - demonstrations using multimedia files, etc),

Case study (solving a real problem),

Educational visits, and

Evaluation procedures
1.2 Basic Principles of Distance Learning Education
In the literature there are many definitions as to what constitutes a distance-learning education. A definition that is
widely accepted has been given by Keegan [2] [3], who considered distance learning as a form of education having the
following characteristics which were taken into consideration:
• Direct contact between teacher and student does not exist (except perhaps of a few non-obligatory meetings).
• Lack of student comradeship (apart from a few exceptions of social character).
• Provision of supporting services by the educational institution, which designed the educational material and is
carrying out the educational programme.
• Existence of bi-directional communication capabilities, providing a direct dialogue between teachers and
students.
• Use of modern teaching materials, such as electronic documents and multimedia files that are transferred
through the internet from the teacher to the student.

In addition, in distance learning there are many obstacles related to students that need to be overcome, such as:
• Development of interest and motives for learning.
• Comprehension of the structure of the training from a distance.
• Appreciation of an analytical and guided way of thinking.
• Familiarisation with techniques to evaluate their learning progress.
• Readiness to study, which is the biggest problem in distance learning and appears in two forms: unwillingness
to begin the training process and early abandonment of the course.

The NTU of Athens seminar, in order to overcome these difficulties, has applied the basic principle: a student’s
success depends on the teacher. That is, the teacher is the one that can urge students on a daily basis and also motivate

117
them to acquire on the one hand confidence in their abilities, and on the other to sensitise them to apply the acquired
knowledge in their daily life.

1.3 Interoperability in GIS Software

The lack of interoperability in GIS commercial software, during the last two decades, has caused a considerable
number of problems in GIS training (Heywood et al., [7], [8]). These problems are briefly described below.
• Diversity of operational concepts: Although most of the Geographical Information Systems are based on
relational or object-oriented databases, it has not yet become feasible to agree on a common language, as is for
example SQL, in their databases. As a result, existing GIS software packages have differences in: the spatial
models they support, the terminology they use, the internal forms of spatial data storage and the development of
applications. In practical terms this means that both teachers and students of GIS operate within an unstable and
changing environment.
• Specificity of software: As result of the lack of common features among commercial software packages, it is a lot
easier for most teachers to adapt particular commercial software, as well as the terminology and models of a
vendor, simplifying, therefore, the educational process and changing it to one of learning the software. From an
educational point of view, however, this is very dangerous, because the training is confined within the framework
of a particular piece of software used without acquiring the basic knowledge on the fundamental principles of GIS.
Of course if the chosen software has a widespread use, then an advantage exists for the students, since they can
increase their chances to find employment and to improve their performance at work. On the other hand, the
dependency of students on particular commercial software does not give them the ability, when confronted with
different GIS software, to apply what they have learned.
• Fallacy of GIS’ nature: Because of the shortcoming mentioned previously, the prevailing opinion is that GIS is a
specialised computer application that concerns a few under- or post-graduate students, as opposed to the fact that
GIS should be considered as a tool with which all students interested in management and analysis of spatial data,
as well as spatial planning, should use.

In planning the educational materials for the Distance Learning course in GIS of the Geography and Spatial
Analysis Laboratory at NTU of Athens, these problems were taken into consideration and as a result emphasis was put
into strengthening the understanding of theory, underlying the operation of the GIS. That is, apart from the two text
books, additional, simple and comprehensible notes were provided addressed to adult students. Moreover, in order to
help students in understanding the theory, a series of exercises were provided, using ESRI’s ArcGIS, which is the most
widespread GIS software internationally and in Greece.

2. Management System of Educational Activities

The software used for the management of the educational activities is the Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented
Dynamic Learning Environment), which is a modular object-oriented dynamic environment of electronic learning. The
technology of development of MOODLE is PHP, and supports the more widely used databases (SQL server,
ORACLE, MySQL, Postgre, etc.). The database in the proposed system is MySQL. It has been developed on the basic
philosophy of constructive learning through social interaction, and focuses on learning via the social interaction of
participants in combination with access to specifically designed and structured educational material of electronic
learning. The role of the instructor is not only to provide a wide range of knowledge and skills to the students, but also
to coach them, as part of an educational experience, through interaction using as a basis their individual needs and
expectations. The co-ordination by the instructor of educational activities and discussions is directed to lead the
students to achieve their GIS training objectives. Based on the principles of adult education and the basic principles of
distance learning, the following operations of the educational programme were utilised.
• Lectures and References to Other Sources (Sources, Links): The system provides each teacher with the ability
to place on the Web page of the course notes in electronic form. Although most text forms are supported, the
lecture notes of the NTUA course are in PDF and DOC forms. In addition, the teacher has the option, depending
on education requirements, to provide the students with links to other sites or multimedia application files (video,
flash animator), which explain in a simple and comprehensible manner aspects of the subject matter that is taught.
• Exercises: The teacher can require from the students exercises in order to help them understand the necessary
theoretical and practical concepts. The student, after completing the homework exercise, sends it in a compressed
form to the teacher, who makes the necessary corrections, and marks it accordingly. The student has the option to

118
 view the teacher’s comments and he/she is free to decide: either to repeat the homework exercise or to accept the
teacher’s evaluation.
• Evaluation Quiz: At the end of each weekly lesson, there is an evaluation test in the form of a quiz. The results
are posted, giving the students a chance to review their mistakes, and the teacher to figure out areas that were not
well understood and, therefore, to provide the students with additional notes or to post new supportive material,
such as video, etc., explaining in a more effective manner the problems which were encountered.
• Forums: Forums encourage the asynchronous communication among students, since each participant can post
his/her comments or questions, and any other, fellow student or instructor, can answer. The instructors do not
normally enter this discussion at the beginning, but give the students the opportunity to discuss the problem among
themselves.
• Chats: The live weekly chats give the opportunity of a virtual meeting of teacher and students on a prearranged
day and hour for solving queries on theory, exercises and quizzes.
• Electronic Mail - Personal Messages: Similar to normal postal correspondence, electronic mail is used for the
exchange of messages or other information between teachers and students, but also among students themselves.
Alternatively, the exchange of personal messages can be used through channels provided by the system.
• Statistics: The system provides for a continuous statistical appraisal of each team of students, as well as to view
their usage of the system individually. Thus, the teacher can locate students that are in danger of abandoning the
course and try to help or encourage them. Therefore, the biggest problem of distance learning, which is the high
proportion of drop out students, can be reduced considerably (Moodle [9].

3. GIS Software ESRI’s ArcGIS

The ESRI’s ArcGIS software was selected as the GIS program, since it is one of the most widespread GIS
programs internationally and in Greece. That is, each student is given the additional benefit to be familiarised with
commercial software that has a high probability to encounter it either at work or at the university during their post-
graduate studies. The students, upon registration, are given a full version of that software for a six month period. This
is a long enough period for the participants to familiarise themselves and to perform all the weekly exercises and
quizzes, as well as to carry out the case study that they have to submit at the end of the seminar.

4. Description of the Educational Programme

The educational programme is comprised of 20 lessons that are structured on a weekly basis and three face-to-face
advisory meetings. Strong emphasis is given to the inaugural meeting. This meeting plays an important role in the
process of distance learning for adults. The development of a climate of confidence between teacher and student is
considered an essential condition for a creative process of learning. It effectively helps to overcome the obstacles and
the defence mechanisms that are related to their personality and experiences, as well as to their social obligations.

The inaugural meeting consists of an “exchange” between the instructors and the students for a series of procedural
information. However, this traditional technique can be improved, if greater freedom of expression is given to the
students. That is, if more use is made of active educational techniques, such as interviews, use of their experiences,
search for ways to collaborate or some combination, aiming at actively involving the students in their own training
process. Moreover, the combination of educational techniques used each time, should have an explicit educational aim
which needs to be harmonised with the subject and training programme objectives, the available time, and students’
acceptance. Thus, at the end of the inaugural meeting, the final programme agreed upon constitutes the educational
contract that both instructors and students are committed to adhere.

The two other meetings are used for solving the students’ problems, answering their questions and presenting their
progress in preparation for the examinations. The final examination, as well as the submission of the case study, are
taking place at the NTUA Geography and Spatial Analysis Laboratory. During the whole period students are
encouraged to participate in meetings, such as national or international conferences on GIS or in social gatherings.

The 20-lessons programme is divided into 11 units (Table 16.1).. A typical weekly lesson includes: readings from
the theory book, from texts in other (complementary) web sites and from educational material in the form of
multimedia files. On completion of the theoretical readings, the student carries out weekly exercises and continues
with the evaluation test. If there are any questions regarding any aspect of the lesson, the student has the opportunity to

119
ask them in the two weekly live discussions, in the team discussion, submit them by electronic mail, or finally send
them as personal messages.

An important part of the seminar is the Knowledge Base, which is enriched on a daily basis. The students are
encouraged to post their queries in the forums, for they may concern other students. The answer to the question can
come either from another student or from an instructor. Thus, teamwork is encouraged on the one hand, and the
knowledge base is enriched on the other. This Knowledge Base repository is available to all students of the seminar,
both old and new. Therefore, with a simple keyword search (e.g., Georeference), all reports stored in the Knowledge
Base, which include this word, are found.
Table 16.1: Study Programme lesson units
The daily progress of all students is followed SUBJECT LESSONS
constantly by the teacher, using various statistical indices Introduction to GIS – Data Structure 2
provided by the programme. This information helps the Data Collection in a GIS 3
teachers to be close to the students and to encourage them, Projection Systems 1
if this is deemed necessary. There have been many cases Geographical databases 2
where students were ready to abandon the course, but Management of spatial data 1
after the teacher’s intervention eventually they continued Spatial Analysis 4
and completed it with a good performance. Cartography and GIS 3
Geocoding 1
At the end of the seminar, there are examinations, Raster Analysis 1
both on GIS theory and applications. In addition each 3D Analysis 1
student has to submit a project (a well specified case Sharing of electronic maps - Maps 1
study) on which he/she has worked on after the 10th on the Internet
week. The final grade of the seminar is based on the
grades from the weekly exercises and quizzes, the case study project, and the final examination.

5. Conclusions
The goal of the distance learning education certainly is not to resolve problems of the conventional education for
such a consideration can lead to dangerous impasses [10]. Therefore, criticisms from the supporters of distance
learning, against conventional obligatory education and the problems that it faces are not productive. In the same way
criticisms from conventional education supporters against distance learning based on William Harper’s dictum (1880)
“anything that can be achieved by a dead school teacher in a class room cannot be achieved by correspondence” or
paraphrasing, “.......from a distance” are also unacceptable. It should be noted, however, that a programme of distance
learning education in GIS correctly designed, with the appropriate scientific support (help desk) for the whole duration
of the programme, such as the one organised by the Geography and Spatial Analysis Laboratory of NTUA, can
constitute a viable alternative in the cases where traditional education is impossible to follow for many and varied
reasons.

This conclusion is also supported by the statistics from the completion of five rounds of seminars:
• The overwhelming majority of students, that is to say 78% are working and 22% are unemployed and post-
graduate students.
• The educational level of students is 68% university graduates, 21% holders of postgraduate degrees and only
11% graduates of technological Institutions.
• Of these students, 59% successfully completed the course -which significantly helped them in their workplace,
or in their post-graduate programmes-, 22% are presently attending the programme and only 22% have
abandoned it or have shown poor results.

An encouraging characteristic is the number of applications, which are currently more than they can be accepted,
without any promotion or advertisement of the seminar. In the completed evaluation questionnaires by the students,
95% declared that they would like to follow an additional advanced seminar on GIS and 80% wish the availability of a
distance learning post-graduate programme in GIS.

In conclusion, it should be pointed out that the results of the operation of this course have been more than
encouraging. Between 2004 and 2006 more than 200 students from all over Greece and overseas have attended the

120
course and according to a post course evaluation they have improved their performance both in using GIS and in
general in their work. This success of the GIS seminar encourages us to continue as well as making a further step
forward by redesigning the educational material in order to fulfil the new models of interoperability, such as Scorm
and AICC.

References
[1] Androulakakis, N.I., & K., Koutsopoulos, Teaching of GIS via the Internet. Proceedings, 6th Pan-Hellenic
Geographic Congress, Vol. 1: 535-542, 2002

[2] Keegan, D. Online education: A human touch of technology. NKI Forlaget, Norway, 337 pp, 1988.

[3] Keegan, D., Foundations of distance education. Routledge studies in distance education. Routledge, London,
U.K., 214 pp, 1996.

[4] Campbell, P., & B., Burnaby, (Eds.), Participatory practices in adult education. Lawrence Erlbaum, London,
U.K., 318 pp, 2001.

[5] Rogers, A., Teaching adults. Open University Press, U.K., 320 pp, 2002

[6] Rogers, A., What is the difference? A new critique of adult learning and teaching. NIACE, Leicester, U.K., 85 pp,
2003

[7] Heywood, D.I., Kemp, K.K. & Reeve, D.E., Interoperable education for interoperable GIS. DRAFT - prepared for
Interoperating Geographic Information Systems, M. F. Goodchild, M. Egenhofer, R. Fegeas & C. Kottman (Eds.),
Norwell, MA; http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/ige98/chapter.html, 1998

[8] Heywood, D.I., Kemp, K.K. & Reeve, D.E., Interoperable education for interoperable GIS. In: M. Goodchild,
M.J. Egenhofer, R. Fegeas & C. Kottman (Eds.), Interoperating Geographic Information Systems. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 536 pp, 1999.

[9] Moodle. On line Manual Moodle. How to work with Moodle (Student, Tutor).
http://docs.moodle.org/en/Main_Page, 2006

[10] Schweik, C. M., Fernandez, M. T., Hamel, M. P., Kashwan, P., Lewis, Q. and Stepanov, A., Reflections of an
Online Geographic Information Systems Course Based on Open Source Software, Social Science Computer Review,
27(1): 118-129, 2009

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 17. Teaching GIS in Bulgaria – Using PBL and time for rethinking the
concepts
Stelian Dimitrov, Anton Popov and Alexander Kotsev
Sofia University “St.Kliment Ohridski”, Faculty of Geology and Geography, 15 Tzar Osvoboditel
Bd, Sofia 1504, Bulgaria, www.gis.gea.uni-sofia.bg

Abstract
Geographic information technologies have become increasingly important for many aspects of our lives and business
activities, including in higher education. Today they help us to understand spatial phenomena and their associated
problems in an innovative way and support decision making processes in solving the complex and critical spatial,
environmental and social problems that our community faces. Geoinformation (GI) literacy is therefore increasingly
demanded by the labour market, which causes serious pressures on the educational system, very often resulting in
inappropriate education for future specialists. The paper aims to present the Problem Based Learning (PBL)
approaches which are being used in the GIS curriculum at Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Bulgaria. PBL and
associated techniques are widely applied, and our vision is that the whole curricula should become PBL-oriented,
aiming to provide Geographic Information Science principles, rather than in mastering powerful software packages
such the contemporary ESRI or any other software products. It aims to provide more “geographically” orientated GIS
knowledge and skills in combination with hands on “real world” experience through PBL.

Key words: Problem Based Learning (PBL) GIS, Teaching, Geography Education, Geographic information
technologies, Professional Development.

1. Introduction
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a common approach to education, formally developed and used at the McMaster
University over 25 years ago. It has since been implemented in various educational programs around the world.

There are many definitions for PBL available, but they all agree that it can be considered as both a curriculum and
a process. The curriculum consists of carefully selected and designed problems that demand from the learner
acquisition of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency, self-directed learning strategies, and team participation
skills. The process replicates the commonly used systemic approach to resolving problems or meeting challenges that
are encountered in life and career. Students involved in such an approach are getting their knowledge and professional
skills in the process of “real world” problem solving, self-directed learning, and team participation. That leads to the
increased employability and career opportunities for participating students (Papadimitriou and Popov, 2002).

GIS and related geographic information sciences, like GPS, Mobile GIS, Remote Sensing, are today part of almost
every curricula in European universities not only in the field of Geography, but also in many other disciplines.
Teaching GIS to non-information technology students is usually not a simple task. Very often it requires the ability to
offer abstract concepts of digital representations to students, who are often unfamiliar with the latest trends and
principles of modern IT, like object-oriented databases, CASE tools, XML, etc. Students who major in IT-related
subjects that are involved with GIS are on the contrary, very ‘far’ from the basic geographical concepts that stand
behind GIS. The educational challenge then is to combine both IT skills with geographical concepts. Geographic
information technologies and GIS are, on the other hand very practical in their nature, requiring hands-on experience
and therefore real world examples. So problem solving is one of the most appropriate approaches in GIS education.

2. PBL-based Geographic Information Science education at Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” – our
experience
GIS became popular in Bulgaria, relatively late when compared to the rest of Europe. In practice, at the beginning
of 1990s GIS technology was introduced and then started to evolve very slowly in the country. Naturally the academic
community was among the first to start using and implementing GIS solutions. Despite the initial interest, GIS was not
very well known until 1995, when the government started some significant initiatives, related to GIS. This led to a
serious ‘push’ of GIS development and stimulated the establishment of the first GIS courses taught in the Bulgarian
universities.
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 The first GIS course, taught within Sofia University began in the academic year 1995/6. It was an elective course
which was initially not very popular among students. Gradually, geographic information sciences found their place
within the Bulgarian educational system and today GIS courses and programs could be found in most universities and
relevant academic institutions. In 2001 in the Faculty of Geology and Geography started the first and still the only
Masters degree program in GIS in Bulgaria. Gradually this program has became quite popular, not only among the
students, but also among the professionals who are working in some way with GIS technology. In the first year there
were only five students and today they are more than 25 per annum, both full time and part time. Apart from that,
many courses, related to GIS, Remote Sensing and GPS have found their places in the undergraduate and graduate
programs of other fields like Regional Planning, Ecology, Geology Archaeology and Archaeometry and so on. All
these developments demanded the rethinking and adopting of courses according to the specific needs of these problem
areas.

The MSc GIS program at Sofia University WAS designed in four mutually interacting modules. They are:
a) The GIS fundamentals module:
This module gives the necessary theoretical knowledge about geographical concepts behind GIS technology,
Geographical (Spatial) modelling, traditional and computer based mapping, Principles of GIS, etc.
b) GIS literacy:
Here students are expected to obtain the necessary computer literacy, as well as knowledge in Remote Sensing,
Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Spatial and General Statistics, and a number of other related disciplines. During this
module students are intensively taught using ESRI software.
c) GIS applications module:
Stress is placed within this model on Problem-Based Learning. A case study approach is implemented so that
students get to know how real-world problems are solved through the use of GIS. A 14 day fieldwork option is also
available, after the second semester, for all students to be able to travel and visit locations related to their postgraduate
thesis.
d) GIS practicum:
This module is entirely PBL based and aims to make students work on real world problem solving. Students in the
postgraduate programme work in companies and institutions that are implementing and using GIS as part of their daily
activities. It is foreseen that their GIS practicum will form a significant part of the assessment grade of each student.
This is achieved by a representative of the host institution filling in a specially designed online questionnaire. The last
of the above modules is an illustration of the practical design of our curriculum, which aims to provide participants
with more “geographically” orientated GIS knowledge and skills, in combination with hands on “real world”
experience through PBL. In order to do this, we have made arrangements with several institutions and companies
(including ESRI Bulgaria) to help us in finding real-world problems and to involve our students in their work.

Several examples of such projects, where the students have been involved are:
• Assessment of Zebra Mussel Infestation Risk Using GIS to analyse for Water Basins in North-West Bulgaria: a
project supported by the US Army Corps of Engineers, and performed with the Institute of Zoology at the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Students were involved within this spatial modelling project in data
collection, manipulation, primarily in the construction of an ArcHYDRO data model for the territory
concerned, as well as in generating a large hydrologically correct digital elevation model, by using TopoGrid,
as a continuation of Hutchison’s ANUDEM (1988; 1989).
• Assessing Deforestation, by Using GIS, Remote Sensing and Surveying Techniques, a project funded by the
NATO scientific programme, and accomplished in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the
University of North Carolina “Chapel Hill”. Students were involved in statistical data collection, surveying,
GPS data collection, as well as GIS database production, through digitalization of paper maps.
• Spatial Analysis of the Distribution of Some Wild Medicinal Plants in Strandja Nature Park, Using Remote
Sensing and GIS”, this research is part of a cooperative project “the Ethno-botanical Study of Some Wild
Medicinal Plants in Bulgaria, their Status, Sustainable Use and Management as Part of the Biodiversity
Conservation, Using GIS and Remote Sensing: Case Study in Strandja Nature Park”. This work has been
undertaken with the Centre for Development and Environment, Institute of Geography, University of Berne
and funded by Swiss KFPE programme “Young Scientists”. The students have participated in the field study
and in the construction of the GIS database. Very importantly, from an educational point of view was the
using of mobile GIS, visualisation and mapmaking for the presentation of the results from the study.

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 • Urban Audit project Bulgaria (http://www.urbanaudit.org), funded by EUROSTAT through the Bulgarian
National Statistical Institute. This project aims to collect information on the living conditions of 258 large and
medium-sized cities within the European Union and the candidate countries (EU27). One of the main goals of
the Urban Audit is to allow decision makers and local government authorities to compare their city directly
with other cities in Europe. Such comparisons can facilitate the exchange of experience and improve the
quality of local urban policies. In this project the Masters students were involved in the process of building the
GIS databases of five Bulgarian cities: Sofia, Vidin, Varna, Burgas and Plovdiv. The National Statistical
institute offered the students office space and necessary guidance and supervision together with an appointed
person form the Geography department.

3. Conclusions
Our five years of experience in the MSc program in GIS have led us to a number of conclusions. Firstly, the simple
“point and click” methods could be useful in GIS training for beginners, but not for the education of those people who
want to become GIScience professionals. Despite the fact that Batty (2003) and others criticise GIS in being too
simplistic in representing the complex geographic phenomena and real world systems, it is fundamental for students to
understand that the GIS model is not only a specialised computer model as in conventional databases. It is an
interpretation and abstraction of the real world, and the modelled phenomena needs to be as close as possible to the
real world. Very often even well-trained GIS operators produce GIS datasets with very good geometrical
characteristics, but with inappropriate semantic components. In other words they simply are not familiar with the
geographical concepts and phenomena. This leads to GIS data with questionable quality.

GIS analysis is ‘as different as it is similar’ to traditional geographical analysis and mapping, meaning that GIS
education should begin with a course or a system of courses on the theoretical basis of geographical analysis and be
organised in close relation to the core Geography program of the department or faculty.

According to us, PBL and its associated techniques is the most appropriate approach for the involvement of
students and in helping them to understand the importance of the use of GIS as a geographical, but technologically
driven approach for dealing with our world’s spatially related problems. Therefore these approaches are widely used in
our postgraduate courses. Our whole curriculum is in a way organised around them, aiming to provide education,
where teaching Geographic Information Science focuses not only on mastering powerful software packages such
ArcGIS, but also on the real world problems being solved by applying the concepts underneath.

References
[1] Batty, M.. Network Geography: Relations, Interactions, Scaling and Spatial Processes in GIS, CASA working
papers No 63, Center for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, 2003

[2] Calvo, M. M., PBL for GIS training, Joint ICA Commissions Seminar Internet-Based Cartographic Teaching and
Learning: Atlases, Map Use, and Visual Analytics, Madrid, 6-8 July 2005
http://redgeomatica.rediris.es/ICA_Madrid2005/papers/calvo-melero.pdf, 2005

[3] Dimitrov, S. and Kotsev, A., Towards “Digital Geography”: teaching GIS through Geography, In K. Donert (Ed.),
Aspects of Geography in European higher education: Geographical Information Systems, Liverpool UK, Liverpool
Hope University Press, 2005

[4] Hutchinson, M.F., Calculation of hydrologically sound digital elevation models, Proc. Third International
Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, August 17-19, Sydney. International Geographic Union, Columbus, Ohio, 1988

[5] Hutchinson, M.F., A new procedure for gridding elevation and stream line data with automatic removal of
spurious pits, Journal of hydrology, 106, 211, 1989

[6] Papadimitriou, F. & Popov A., Vocational training of unemployed and cultivators for environment-friendly rural
economy in the region of Macedonia. – Proceedings of the 1-st Environmental Conference of Macedonia, 1-4 March
2002. Thessaloniki, p. 315-319, 2002

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 18. Quality Aspects in Postgraduate Distance Education -
an Example from UNIGIS Salzburg
Adrijana Car
UNIGIS - Centre for Geoinformatics, Salzburg University, Austria
adrijana.car@sbg.ac.at

1. Introduction
UNIGIS (http://www.unigis.net/) was one of the first GIS distance learning initiatives worldwide. It offers
internationally recognised, academic, distance learning qualifications in GIScience and -Systems in form of
professional certificates / diplomas or postgraduate Master’s degrees. With sixteen years of experience, its more than a
dozen partner universities make sure that this active and successful initiative continues to lead innovation in graduate
education worldwide (for a comprehensive overview of UNIGIS see [7]. Professionals mostly working in GIS,
interested in continuing education or pursuing an academic degree, and whose work and responsibilities require that
their education be as free as possible from limitations of place and time, will find distance learning programmes
particularly attractive.

Establishing QA has become one of the key factors in the UNIGIS network's development strategy, focusing on
increasing student numbers and network expansion [7]. The reasons why the network seeks to establish an explicit and
meaningful QA policy are manifold as (Car 2005, internal presentation):
o Emphasise "customer" (student) orientation and satisfaction
o Aspire to high-quality products
o Aim at formal accreditation of current and future courses at national / international level
o Introduce QA as a part of a common UNIGIS International Association denominator

A QA policy considers issues that range from curriculum, learning materials (including modes of delivery and
frequency of updates) and evaluation procedures to learning support, learning platforms, and communication.

The strategy to attract quality students (rather than just increase the student numbers) is mainly expressed in the
first two list items, and is directly related to the quality of the offered MSc curriculum. A curriculum is one of the
major prerequisites for a national and international level accreditation of a UNIGIS programme, which we consider as
our high-quality product. Hence, this article discusses the Master’s course curriculum and related emerging quality
assurance (QA) issues as a particular aspect of the UNIGIS' success. It addresses internal and external dimensions of
QA; the internal referring to the means by which individual MSc programmes can be compared within the network
(e.g. quality indicators for a course delivery process); the external used as reference when comparing with standards or
similar programmes from elsewhere. In our approach, one of the methods we apply is benchmarking. We can then
derive common ideas such as quality measures (indicators) and standards for diverse processes. Ultimately the results
are expected not only to lead to national / international level accreditation of the programmes but to introduce QA
policy as a part of common UNIGIS network denominator.

This paper presents work in progress. The preliminary outcome is based on the analysis of the experience of
offering a Master’s programme in GIScience at Salzburg University
(http://salzburg.unigis.net/Salzburg/msc_gisc.aspx), one of the founding members of the UNIGIS network (UNIGIS
International Association (UIA, see also (http://www.unigis.net/ ). The remainder of the paper first provides an
overview of literature related to QA aspects in higher education and online distance learning. Then a framework of
thinking is proposed and discussed together with ideas that are expected to lead towards a QA concept for UNIGIS
focusing at the MSc(GIS) curriculum first.

2. Quality Assurance Aspects in Higher Education and Distance Learning

According to UNESCO (2006), Quality Education is:

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 “… based on the four pillars of Education for All – learning to know, learning to do, learning to live
together and with others, and learning to be [2]; builds knowledge, life skills, perspectives, attitudes and
values… is measurable.”

In this paper we wish to derive those aspects of Quality Assurance (QA) that apply to online distance education
and are measurable at the same time. In this section we first briefly describe initiatives regarding QA in Higher
Education (HE) in general and QA in eLearning / distance learning in particular. Finally we provide a brief overview
of efforts to derive and formally describe quantitative aspects of QA that appear the most relevant for QA in HE
offered as online distance learning and would therefore apply to UNIGIS.

3. Quality Assurance Aspects in Higher Education

In the past two decades significant efforts have been made to define and maintain QA in HE at national levels, for
example through the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education in the U.K. (http://www.qaa.ac.uk/ ) or the
Austrian Federal Accreditation Council (Akkreditierungsrat (http://www.akkreditierungsrat.at/). Such agencies
cooperate within the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA, http://www.enqa.eu/).
ENQA disseminates information, experiences and good practices in the field of QA in higher education to European
QA agencies, public authorities and HE institutions. Significant contributions have also been made to adopt and adapt
models that proved to be successful in industry (e.g. EFQM, www.efqm.org, or ISO 9000 (Thonhauser and Passmore,
2006).

Many of these efforts were summarised as collections of standards and guidelines for QA such as rather general
and qualitative standards and guidelines for QA in the European HE area [3]. These standards are relevant to this paper
insofar as they define and discuss internal and external standards and guidelines for QA of HE institutions. Internal
standards and guidelines refer to QA within an HE institution including aspects such as policy and procedures for QA;
approval, monitoring and periodic review of offered programmes and awards; assessments of students; learning
resources and student support; information systems and public information. External standards and guidelines refer to
QA undertaken by e.g. external agencies. External QA can include e.g. various institutional evaluations; subject or
programme evaluations; accreditation at subject, programme and institutional level; or a combination of these.
External QA requires clear strategy, purpose and objectives. Reasons for undertaking such a QA are manifold ranging
from improvement and enhancement of quality to accreditation of programmes and/or institutions, and safeguarding of
national academic standards in HE [3: p14]. At the same time the ENQA standards and guidelines respect and wish to
preserve the diversity of political and HE systems, socio-economic and educational traditions, languages, and
expectations of the European HE Area. We will refer to internal and external QA aspects later in the paper.

4. Measuring Aspects of Quality

Another example, providing a more specific definition of QA is given in form of a Wissensbilanz (see also
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissensbilanz). As a tool, Wissensbilanz allows reporting about the performance of each
university in comparable manner. A number of indicators (Kennzahlen) have been defined making Wissensbilanz a
quantitative approach to support QA in a knowledge/intellect-based environment. Wissensbilanz has become a legal
obligation for Austrian universities (legally regulated in so called Wissensbilanz Verordnung
http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/medienpool/12629/wbv05_erl.pdf, URL accessed on October 19, 2006). Salzburg
University, for example, has its Wissensbilanz in place [9].

Somewhere in between the general and qualitative approach by ENQA and a fairly quantitative Wissensbilanz
approach, we expect to find / derive those QA aspects that will meet the online distance learning requirements. Such a
framework of thinking that addresses the issue of the measurement of quality in post-secondary education is offered by
Finnie and Usher [4]. Finnie and Usher assessed the current state of the measurement of the quality of post-secondary
education in Canada and around the world. They identified four different but not mutually exclusive approaches to
quality measurement across OECD countries:
• The Minimum Standards Approach: qualitative, process-oriented; which seeks to ensure minimum standards;
usually tied to an agenda of accountability to government or professional body [12].
• The Rankings/Indicators approach: largely quantitative and competitive; this seeks to mark progress over time and
to rank institutions against one another (e.g. Key Performance Indicators, ranking tables produced by private
sector publishers)

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• The Learning Impact approach: based on learning assessments such as the National Survey of Student
Engagement (NSSE) in Canada & US, the Graduate Skills Assessment in Australia
• The Continual Improvement approach: measured is not quality per se but adherence to a set of procedures
designed to monitor and promote quality (e.g. Japanese tradition of kaizen); there is similarity to ISO 9000 and
EFQM - Excellence Model.

Their major conclusion is that there are no simple measures of quality. Instead, Finnie and Usher offer an
extensive conceptual framework for thinking about the quality of the learning experience and propose an analytical
tool to help identify the factors that limit or contribute to better post-secondary education (PSE) outcomes. The notion
of quality here can be understood as the value added of the educational experience (p. 19).

The framework can be summarised in qualitative terms as follows (p.iii):

• Beginning Characteristics: the characteristics and abilities of incoming students that affect the quality of their
educational experience and the outcomes.
• Learning Inputs: the institutional financial resources, material inputs and the organisation of those resources which
thus comprise the determinants and characteristics of individuals’ learning experiences; all are at least potentially
controllable and thus amenable to change, improvement, and policy initiatives at various levels.
• Learning Outputs: the “skill sets” or any other attributes of graduates arising from their educational experiences
that help determine final outcomes.
• Final Outcomes: the more specific ultimate ends to which the educational system may contribute – everything
from employment, income and job satisfaction, to civic participation and continued education.

5. QA Aspects of Online / Internet-Based Distance Learning

Distance learning has existed in various forms for a number of years (see e.g. Moore and Kearlsley [8].
Accordingly, principles, guidelines or benchmarks have been developed to ensure quality distance education. The
invention of the World Wide Web in early 1990s caused many to rush to connect to the Internet. Such an online
communication has also resulted in rapidly growing number of technology mediated distance learning programmes at
the HE level. The question arose whether the QA aspects developed for various types of distance learning also apply to
internet-based distance education.

The Institute for Higher Education Policy (USA) investigated this very issue by order of National Education
Association (http://www.nea.org/index.html ) and Blackboard Inc. (http://www.blackboard.com/us/index.aspx) [5].
Quality on the Line identified benchmarks of processes and practices currently used by colleges and universities that
are actively engaged in online education. These benchmarks are divided into 7 categories of quality measures:
institutional support, course development, teaching / learning, course structure, student support, faculty support, and
evaluation and assessment. Marshall [6] incorporates these practices and processes outlined in Quality on the Line in
his e-Learning Maturity Model (eMM) to assess e-learning capability accross New Zealand HE institutions. He
identifies the following eMM processes: learning (pedagogical aspects of e-learning), development (the creation and
maintenance of e-learning resources), coordination and support (day-to-day e-learning delivery), evaluation (of e-
learning throughout its entire lifecycle), organisation (institutional planning and management).

Finnie and Usher's framework together with IHEP's benchmark categories and internal/external QA aspects
defined by ENQA form a solid base for a conceptual framework of Quality Assurance for UNIGIS@Salzburg in the
first instance. The remainder of this paper discusses a framework of thinking with ideas that are expected to lead
towards a QA concept for UNIGIS focusing on a curriculum and posit questions yet to be answered.

6. Towards a UNIGIS Quality Assurance Concept

Our motto for designing a QA concept for and introducing it to UNIGIS@Salzburg is: Keep it simple and make it
operational. To do so, we first derive the appropriate qualitative QA framework from the existing ones and then
choose the respective quality measures from the proposed sets of QA measures (as described in the previous section).
Finding out what is already available and what is still needed is a part of this deriving process.

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6.1 A Framework for a QA Concept
In this initial phase of creating a QA concept we focus on the Master’s course curriculum (MSc in GIScience) and
related emerging quality assurance (QA) issues as a particular and the most tangible aspect of the UNIGIS' success.
Our focus matches the framed ENQA's aspects [3] as presented in Figure 1. Thus, a set of general standards and
guidelines already exists that forms a basic quality framework for our QA concept.

Quality education must be measurable (see the UNESCO statement (2006)). We therefore need to identify a set of
possible quality measures and assign them to the identified quality aspects. Here Finnie and Usher's approach [4]
proves helpful as it offers a list of possible exercises, either existing or yet to be undertaken, that may explicitly or
implicitly qualify as quality measurements. It appears reasonable to incorporate both Ranking/Indicators approach and
Learning Impact approach while considering student background properties. Since we focus on the M.Sc.(GIS)
curriculum and it implies educational experience, the Finnie and Usher's schema of relationships:
Beginning Characteristics -> Learning Inputs -> Learning Outputs -> Final Outcomes
appears suitable to (pre)define the process underlying the curriculum. A partial outcome of this task will be clearly
defined processes together with a set of standards and/or guidelines that are relevant for our QA concept.

Quality measures and respective ranges of possible values that are specifically relevant to internet-based distance
learning are of a particular interest. These are well specified in Quality on the Line [5]. Hence, a set of indicators
relevant for our work exists at least within the following benchmarks: course development, teaching/learning, course
structure and student support. A partial outcome of this task will be a set of quality measures (indicators) assigned to
the already defined processes, standards and guidelines that are relevant for our QA concept.

Based on such a QA concept an operational QA will be established; i.e. we expect to measure quality in the short-
and longer- term. Short-term measures rely mainly on taking advantage of the existing data and estimating what can be
measured right away ("day-to-day" operational QA). For a longer-term QA we need to identify those measures that
foster continuous improvement and therefore strategic thinking and acting. Ultimately a system will be in place to
establish, support and maintain sustainable quality education through our UNIGIS programs.

In our approach, one of the methods we intend to apply is benchmarking. Benchmarking has a tradition of
application within HE. It allows for formalisation of comparisons among institutions especially concerning
enhancement and assurance of quality and hence leading to increasing effectiveness of university management.
Schofield [10] defines benchmarking as "…a means of making comparisons of performance, usually with a view to
establishing 'good' - or more ambitiously 'best' - practice methods, and as such it is also used to diagnose problems in
performance and to identify areas of strength." An excellent review of respective developments in the UK, Europe,
Australia and North America is given [1]. We see benchmarking as an aid to our judgment and decision making
regarding QA rather then a substitute for solving respective problems. In our QA project we still need to decide upon
the specific aims and objectives of benchmarking, the choice of the appropriate type of benchmarking (e.g. internal or
implicit benchmarking) and accompanying methodologies (e.g. ideal type standards, activity based benchmarking,
vertical or horizontal benchmarking, comparative performance indicators), and consequently decide upon a subject or
subjects for benchmarking.

So far we have established foundations for a framework of thinking and in turn for a QA concept and in a way
sketched a respective workflow. In a nutshell we need to:
• clearly define processes together with a set of standards and/or guidelines that are relevant for our QA concept
• derive a set of quality measures (indicators) assigned to the already defined processes, standards and
guidelines, in particular to
• determine which of these quality measures exist and which need to be gathered
• determine which of these quality measures are suitable as short-run measures and which qualify as longer-run
ones
• decide the following for benchmarking:
• specific aims and objectives
• the appropriate type and accompanying methodologies

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 Parallel to these activities, an exploratory investigation has already been conducted to find out what already exists
and can be used in our QA project. The remainder of this section reports on the respective preliminary results.

6.2 What is Already at Hand?

UNIGIS@Salzburg has already existed since 1993 and is embedded in Salzburg University as a founding member
of the UNIGIS International Association. It was therefore expected that few internal and external aspects of QA
already exist. Following is a list of preliminary outcomes without attempt to evaluate / interpret / analyse them:

By 2005 Salzburg University had a Wissensbilanz in place [9]. The current curriculum of the postgraduate
university course Geographic Information Science and Systems (UNIGIS MSc(GIS)) was approved by the Senate of
Salzburg University. Consequently the curriculum is published in a legally binding document (the 171st bulletin
Version 04W on 28 June 2004, see: http://www.sbg.ac.at/dir/mbl/2004/mb040628-ulg-UNIGIS-MSc.htm).

Student evaluations of individual modules and instructors have been conducted throughout the duration of the
course. Teaching/Learning materials are revised almost on a regular basis:
o Minor revisions are performed generally after a module delivery and based on student evaluations
o Major revisions are performed every 3-4 years dependent on the dynamics in respective fields
o Occasionally external experts are asked to review specific materials and suggest changes

6.3 Preliminary Analysis of the MSc(GIS) Curriculum

The final part of this paper discusses preliminary findings from an analysis of the UNIGIS Masters in GIScience
offered at the Salzburg University. These findings emerged from the revision of the existing teaching materials in
English language first developed in 2004. The revision was initiated in October 2005 with the main purpose to make
the course materials ready for the launch of the English MSc(GIS) at Salzburg University (target deadline June 2006).
At the same time the revision resulted in updated materials used by our partners in Poland and India.

The UNIGIS Master’s programme (http://salzburg.unigis.net/Salzburg/msc_gisc.aspx) provides an understanding

of the conceptual, technical, and organisational aspects of GIScience and builds skills and ability to apply these
appropriately. Our study focuses on analysis of a part of the MSc curriculum that we call Common Core Curriculum
(CCC). CCC reflects core expertise, skills and competencies GIS professional needs to acquire to become and/or
remain competitive in the GI industry. The course is based on a modular structure including compulsory modules,
electives, a collaborative project and summer school(s). The CCC is implemented through a set of modules that
establishes foundations of GIScience and Technology (GIS&T) and is compulsory in the UNIGIS MSc course. At a
larger scale CCC demonstrates a common denominator in the area of GIS&T that a UNIGIS graduate is expected to
acquire regardless of the geographical location of their study.

Hence there is a general framework of conditions to be respected when revising the CCC:
• Internally: our existing materials need to be checked against the CCC to determine what needs to be changed
and to what degree (regarding e.g. inclusion of up to date issues and materials, and attractiveness for the
professional market);
• Externally: CCC is seen as the subject for comparison to other GIS&T curricula both within the UNIGIS
network and outside, e.g. likewise programs or model curricula such as the NCGIA Core Curriculum or
UCGIS Body of Knowledge.

The comparison of CCC to model curricula in GIS&T is expected to support the curriculum's review and revision
in the first place. For example students can use it when comparing study programs. In the longer run we expect the
comparative results to support program accreditation process(es) at national and international level, serve as
professional certification and become useful in employee screening (e.g. as possible content of a diploma supplement).

We chose the UCGIS Body of Knowledge (BoK) as a model curriculum for comparison with CCC for several
reasons. It is the most current and comprehensive model curriculum to date that reflects state of the art research and
industry achievements in GIS&T. It so happened that the most recent version of BoK was published early 2006
(http://www.ucgis.org/priorities/education/modelcurriculaproject.asp). An executive summary of BoK can be found in
Johnson (2006).

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 BoK for GIS&T is a model curriculum that includes content for graduate, post-baccalaureate and professional
curricula. It is divided into 10 Knowledge Areas (KA) that cover concepts, methodologies, techniques and specific
applications. KA are further subdivided into units, and those into topics with accompanying objectives. Table 18.1 (in
Annex) contains the BoK's KA and the modules in CCC.

7. Summary and Future Work

This paper discussed a framework of thinking together with ideas that are expected to lead towards a QA concept
for UNIGIS. Hence a concept for QA is proposed together with a workflow and expected results. At the same time
exploratory research into what exists and can already be used when establishing a QA policy has been conducted and
preliminary results are presented.

The next step will be to define relevant processes with standards and guidelines [12], assign quality measures and
set up benchmarks. The challenging aspect of the upcoming work will be the selection of the appropriate quality
measures. If successful, the emerging QA concept is expected to become a QA policy for UNGIS@Salzburg.
Furthermore we expect it to become interesting to other UNIGIS partners (see http://www.unigis.net/), so they will
support its development and introduction at their own site. The success of it certainly requires mutual respect for
multicultural HE environments [3], and we strive for the least common denominator.

References
[1] CHEMS. Benchmarking in Higher Education: An International Review. Commonwealth Higher Education
Management Service (CHEMS). http://www.acu.ac.uk/chems/onlinepublications/961780238.pdf, accessed 21 July
2006, 1998

[2] Delors, J., I. a. A. Mufti, et al., Learning: the treasure within. UNESCO Report to UNESCO of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/delors/, accessed on
November 23 2006, 1996

[3] ENQA, Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area: Bergen Report.
European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA),
http://www.enqa.eu/files/ENQA%20Bergen%20Report.pdf, last accessed on October 19, 2006, 2005.

[4] Finnie, R. and A. Usher, Measuring the Quality of Post-secondary Education: Concepts, Current Practices and a
Strategic Plan. Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc. (CPRN).Research Report W|28 published on April 2005.
http://www.cprn.com/en/doc.cfm?doc=1208, accessed on November 23 2006, 2005

[5] IHEP, Quality on the Line: Benchmarks for Success in Internet-Based Distance Education. The Institute for Higher
Education Policy, Washington DC, http://www.ihep.com, accessed on 16 October 2006, 2000

Johnson, A. B., Developing a GIS Curriculum - UCGIS Model Curricula Body of Knowledge 2006. ArcUser (July-
September 2006): 10-12, 2006

[6] Marshall, S., Report on the E-Learning Maturity Model Evaluation of the New Zealand Tertiary Sector. University
Teaching Development Centre, Victoria University of Wellington.Exectutive Summary, 2005

[7] Molendijk, M. and H. J. Scholten. From Local Heroes towards Global Communicators: The experiences of the
UNIGIS network in educating GIS professionals worldwide. Nuffic Expert Meeting "A Changing Landscape". The
Hague. 24-25 May 2005 http://www.nuffic.nl/pdf/os/em/molendij.pdf,accessed 21 November 2006, 2004

[8] Moore, M. G. and G. Kearsley, Distance Education: A Systems View, 2nd edition. Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Pub.
Co., 2005

UNESCO, UNESCO (2006), http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-

URL_ID=27542&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, accessed on October 30, 2006.

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[9] PLUS. (2006). Wissensbilanz 2005 der Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg. Universität Salzburg.Report published
on April 2006. Accessed from http://www.uni-
salzburg.at/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/DIEUNIVERSITAET/SN_LI_VORSTELLUNG/WISSENSBILANZ.PDF

[10] Schofield, A., Benchmarking: An Overview of Approaches and Issues in Implementation. Published in
Benchmarking in Higher Education: An International Review by CHEMS, Commonwealth Higher Education
Management Service (CHEMS): 8-21, 1998

[11] Thonhauser, T. and D. Passmore, "ISO 9000 in Education: a comparison between the United States and
England." Research in Comparative & International Education 1(2): 156-173, 2006

[12] Donert K, Benchmarking GIS – A Charter for European Education, 2-11, in Jekel T, Koller A and Donert K,
Learning with GeoInformation IV, Heidelberg, Wichmann,, 2009

Table 18.1: Basic structure of the UCGIS BoK and CCC

UCGIS BoK – Knowledge Areas CCC – compulsory modules
AM. Analytical Methods M1. GIS Introduction
CF. Conceptual Foundations M2. Data Modelling and Data Structures
CV. Cartography and Visualisation M3. Data Sources and Data Acquisition
DA. Design Aspects M4. geoDBMS
DM. Data Modelling M5. Spatial Statistics
DN. Data Manipulation M6. OpenGIS and Distributed GI
GC. Geocomputation Infrastructures
GD. Geospatial Data M7. Geographical Analysis
GS. GIS&T and Society M8 Visualisation and Cartography
OI. Organisational and Institutional Aspects M9. GIS Organisation and Project Management

Preliminary results from the comparison between CCC and BoK show the following:
1. CCC or parts thereof that are not covered implicitly and/or explicitly in BoK
OpenGIS and Distributed GI Infrastructures (M6)
2. BoK KA or parts thereof that are not covered implicitly and/or explicitly in CCC:
Geocomputation (GC1,2,4,5,7)
GIS&T and Society (GS2,6,7)
Organisational & institutional aspects (OI4)
Conceptual foundations (CF1, CF2.5-7)
Analytical methods (AM1, AM12.1-3)
Design Aspects (DA7 system implementation)
Details of the comparison are available in a more detailed table and can be provided upon request.

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 19. Mobile Learning and GPS - From Geocaching to Participatory GIS
Mark Lawrence1 and Yvonne Schleicher2
1
Bemidji State University, Bemidji,Minnesota, USA, mlawrence@bemidjistate.edu
2
University of Education Weingarten, Germany, schleicher@ph-weingarten.de

Abstract
New geospatial technologies allow students, teachers, researchers, and the general public to revalue geographic
inquiry, potentially in closer collaboration with one another in development of a “participatory” GIS. Paradoxically, as
the new technologies become commonplace, users need to engage them in carefully reflective practice if their real
potential is to be recognised. One way of establishing such practice is by way of “geocaching”, an entertaining and
revealing opportunity for mobile learning. If specific, geographically challenging, and intelligent caches are created,
they can integrate user motivation, technical innovation in fieldwork with spatial bearings, and the teaching of
geography in higher education.

1. Innovative geospatial technologies and the potentials of mobile learning

In the last decade, there has been an explosion of interest in what is variously called “mobile learning”, “m-
learning”, or “e-learning”.[14] As recently as five years ago this “anytime, anywhere” mode of learning, in which
students supposedly pursue educational opportunities specifically tailored to their deeply personal interests, was
envisioned as being reliant on computer-based applications associated with use of the Internet. Since then, rapid
development of handheld devices- most notably PDA’s and cell phones- capable of integrating personal
communication, online activities, and other applications has made mobile learning truly mobile. Under such
circumstances, technical innovations challenge researchers and lecturers to discuss if and why integrating the new
tools into their practice is worthwhile. Global Positioning System (GPS) devices represent one such innovation that is
rapidly catching on with the public and therefore finding its way into professional fieldwork and classroom use as well.
But what precisely can such devices- especially when coupled with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software-
offer for teaching and fieldwork? Are these new geospatial technologies substitutes for our use of the compass, map,
and other traditional adjuncts of geographic inquiry, or are they supplements to such familiar technologies? Are there
other options that GPS and GIS present for expanding the understanding and use of geographic inquiry in the
curriculum?

A novel opportunity exists to actively create new interpretations of landscapes by combining GIS withGPS.
However, this can require a certain commitment of time and expertise not always available to end-users of these new
geospatial technologies, whether teachers only or their students as well. With this relatively sophisticated goal in mind,
a more mundane opportunity is to use GPS devices to better utilise existing maps, thereby sensitizing users to the
open-ended potential for geographic inquiry made possible by such innovations. A variety of simple orienteering
exercises can be undertaken with minimal training, but approaches that provide those first learning about GPS with
opportunities for more intuitive use of the technology are likely to generate a greater appreciation for its potential.
Around the world, one such intuitive approach to using GPS is found in the rapidly growing fascination many now
have with “geocaching”, a form of GPS-articulated treasure hunt. But while geocaching can motivate students through
mobile learning, does it provide more than “Fun with GPS”?[3]

The purposes of this chapter are

a. to examine the pedagogical potential of geocaching,
b. to review another use of GPS to assist mobile learning, and
c. to draw attention to the opportunity of “participatory” GIS that emphasises the relevance of better connecting
classroom and community use of the new technologies.

2. An overview of the new geospatial technologies

To examine what else can be said about the potentials of new geospatial technologies requires at least a passing
glance at how they function. The GPS is used to determine location based on distance information provided by
satellites in high Earth orbit.

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 On a flat surface, triangulation of a position is based on known distances from there to three other places; location
is therefore the intersection of three circles drawn using each distance as the radius of a circle. From orbit,
triangulation is based on spheres instead of circles, using at least four satellites to derive the correct intersection with
greater accuracy. Each satellite located above the local horizon sends a signal to a receiver, and the amount of time
required to receive the signal indicates how far away the satellite is. Signal transmission time is determined by the fact
that both the receiver and the satellite generate the same code at the same time using atomic clocks. The codes are
slightly out of phase at contact, revealing distance as transmission travel time, and since range is equivalent to the
speed of light times signal travel time, transmission speeds can be measured to nanosecond accuracy, with one
billionth of a second equivalent to 0.3 meters of distance.

A GPS unit can report locations in any reference format, with most commercial units reporting information in the
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) or standard geographic grid (latitude-and longitude) formats. Latitude measures
how far above or below (i.e., north or south of) the Equator we are. Longitude tells us how far east of west we are from
Greenwich, England. Typically, the data screen of a GPS unit displays location or calculates direction and distance to a
destination (Figure 19.1). Other reporting options include depth or elevation
estimates, barometric pressure readings, and location of known amenities in the
vicinity, but navigation to a position (commonly called a “waypoint”) is the
main technique needed for geocaching. The costs for handheld GPS units have
dropped to as little as 80 Euros, making them affordable for Geography
departments and students.

Data collected by GPS devices can either be utilised in a “passive” manner

(that is, only as the devices themselves organise and present information about
collected waypoints), or more “actively” as inputs to a GIS. In this second
guise, multiple datasets can be arranged visually in layers for manipulation by
students and researchers pursuing sophisticated geographic enquiries.

3. GPS and Geography in higher education

While the mechanics of how the new geospatial technologies work is
straightforward, what remains unclear is how they should be introduced to
students.

There are at present two contending perspectives on this issue. While they
are being rapidly assimilated into our lives, some authors recommend that
“rather than try to fit GPS and GIS into the curriculum, just present them as Figure 19.1: Typical GPS display
technologies to be learned along with word processing, spreadsheets, Web
searching, digital photography, or video editing”.[3, Cooke, p. 93] Others (including us) additionally recommend
putting each GPS use into a geographic context to show students how the new technologies can help solve geographic
questions. Failure to do so not only underutilises the potential of such innovations but conceivably also presents them
as tools that can be used without careful consideration of how to frame and pursue a geographic inquiry. Indeed,
reducing their significance to mere equipment accessories runs the risk of discouraging their use by teachers and
students who may feel that they have no time to learn how to operate the new devices and associated software. This
has been the case for one of us (Lawrence) in a course aimed at future teachers focused on learning about mapmaking
and map interpretation- without being given the chance to think about GPS or GIS, students were frequently turned off
to the potential use of either in their own classroom activities.

Surveyed about eleven course topics, while GIS/GPS was the most-favoured overall, only 23.81% of students
chose it as their favourite subject, while another 30.16% favoured it the least. Thus, while the basic uses of a GPS
receiver are navigation and mapmaking, combination with a special context adds greater value to technical learning. In
other words, geospatial technologies can become valuable tools for investigation of, interaction with, and planning
about the future of the world at multiple scales.

In Mapping our World. GIS Lessons for Educators, Malone, Palmer, et al. [7] are quite clear about this, insisting
that the technologies we use (whether GIS or something altogether different) should always form only the background
to a much more nuanced approach to geographic inquiry consisting of five steps:

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 1. Ask geographic questions,
2. Acquire geographic resources,
3. Explore geographic data,
4. Analyse geographic information, and
5. Act on geographic knowledge.[7]

With this perspective in mind, we suggest that there are at least four distinct ways of utilizing GPS technology, any
or all of which can help develop skills in conjunction with GIS use, especially when attempting to collaborate with the
community beyond the classroom or laboratory in “participatory” GIS efforts. These ways of developing familiarity
with GPS include {a} geotourism, {b} geocaching, {c} mapping with GPS, and {d} aerial photographic interpretation
with GPS.

4. Guided tours and GPS (geotourism)

Apart for the traditional personal guided tours and guide-books that help people find their way through a landscape
or a city, digital guides already help people navigate elsewhere (for example, through a museum).

Outdoors, digital guided tours have a great potential to

complement the possibilities of helping people to explore a
landscape. The Swiss city Schaffhausen is well-known
because of its location at Europe’s biggest waterfall (Figure
19.2), the Rhinefall, for which the city now offers GPS-
guided tours for visitors. These tours are promoted with two
messages likely to frustrate geographers: {a} no map is
required, and {b} no knowledge of the place is necessary,
either. Visitors choose a thematic tour (a tour of wine and
vineyards, a gourmet tour, a city sightseeing tour, a
hiking/walking tour, or a bicycle tour). Some of the tours can
be either walked, biked or driven by car. Visitors can borrow
the GPS units and a printed description of the tour in
Schaffhausen’s tourist offices, and the units’ display will help
the users with navigation. Will this development eventually Figure 19.2: Rhinefall (Schaffhausen)
replace actual tour guides?

Certainly, it is advantageous for those visitors who prefer to avoid guided tours. Likewise, the GPS option helps
visitors focus on their special interests. But could geographers in higher education also create and modify traditional
guided field-trips and excursions to similarly individualise them? Insofar as there are obvious problems with fieldwork
in big groups of students (20 and more), the option of GPS-guided individual exploration of a region might relieve the
instructor of a significant organizational burden.

5. Geocaching (GPS treasure hunt)

While it makes sense to train in the general use of a GPS unit to mark waypoints, to measure distances and altitude
and so on, the most widely known activity today for which a GPS unit can be used is Geocaching.

In 2008, there were 207,089 active geocaches worldwide, so the fascination with geocaching is worth thinking
about. Naturally, to assess whether it is useful to integrate geocaching into university education about geographic
fieldwork requires examination of what geocaching is all about. The most direct approach is to see how the geocaching
community presents itself on its’ own website: www.geocaching.com. There we find answers to the main questions:
o What is Geocaching and how is a GPS unit used for Geocaching?
o Where can I find a Geocache and what is usually in it?
o How can I create a new Geocache?

Geocaching is also known by names like GPS Stash Hunt, Global Positioning stash hunt or Treasure hunt. The
word itself is a combination of Geo for Geography and Caching which means the process of hiding a cache (hiding
place). But why are so many people so fascinated about it? It seems to be easy: look for a geocache on the website and
see where an item is – but it is totally different to actually get there and find it. (Figure 19.3)

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 According to www.opencaching.de,
“Geocaching is an entertaining adventure game for GPS
users. Participating in a cache hunt is a good way to take
advantage of the wonderful features and capability of a GPS
unit. The basic idea is to have individuals and organizations
set up caches all over the world and share the locations of
these caches on the internet. GPS users can then use the
location coordinates to find the caches. Once found, a cache
may provide the visitor with a wide variety of rewards. All the
visitor is asked to do is if they get something they should try
to leave something for the cache.”[19]

Needless to say, even at this stage you have to be

sufficiently familiar with your GPS unit so as to enter
waypoints and interpret the information given by the display
in order to determine how far away the cache is and in which
direction.
Figure 19.3: Finding a Geocache
As shown in Figure 19.4, most geocaches have some form of a standard document inside that informs the finder
about geocaching in general:

GEOCACHE SITE - PLEASE READ

Congratulations, you've found it! Intentionally or not!

What is this hidden container sitting here for? What … is this thing doing here with all these things in it?
It is part of a worldwide game dedicated to GPS (Global Positioning System) users, called Geocaching.

The game basically involves a GPS user hiding "treasure" (this container and its contents), and publishing the
exact coordinates so other GPS users can come on a "treasure hunt" to find it. The only rules are: if you take something
from the cache, you must leave something for the cache, and you must write about your visit in the logbook.
Hopefully, the person that hid this container found a good spot that is not easily found by uninterested parties.
Sometimes, a good spot turns out to be a bad spot, though.

IF YOU FOUND THIS CONTAINER BY ACCIDENT:

Great! You are welcome to join us!

We ask only that you do not move or vandalise the container. The real treasure is just finding the container and
sharing your thoughts with everyone else who finds it. If you wish, go ahead and take something. But please also leave
something of your own for others to find, and write it in the logbook.

If possible, let us know that you found it, by visiting the web site listed below.

Geocaching is open to everyone with a GPS and a sense of adventure. There are similar sites all over the world.
The organization has its home on the Internet.

Visit our website if you want to learn more, or have any comments:
http://www.geocaching.com
Figure 19.4: Instructions – example note left in a Geocache

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 There are only three rules to observe as soon as you have found a cache (which is usually hidden in a waterproof
container): {a} take something out of the cache, {b} leave something of your own in the cache (or leave the cache
contents undisturbed without trading any items), and {c} write about the find (and yourself if you wish) in the logbook
found insider the cache container. This last step encourages development of geographic inquiry skills since logbook
entries typically describe landscape encounters while trying to
locate the cache. After returning home you can revisit the
website and leave another message there for the geocaching
virtual community, which is connected not only by the
common experience of hunting for and finding caches, but by
sharing the small gifts taken from and left behind in each
container (Figure 19.5).

Over time, a particular item taken from one cache can find
its way to another and another and another, and in this way,
too, GPS is being used to create a particular path of discovery
and migration. For that matter, geocaching can have other
effects that encourage geographic education in novel ways.
Once in a logbook, a young father mentioned that since his Figure 19.5: items found in a geocache
family started geocaching, they have had no problems at all
motivating their children to go for a walk – as long as each walk
includes a geocache. This made us think about the possible value of
geocaching that is mostly missing in traditional treasure hunts:
geocaches can provide information or at least generate curiosity about
the surrounding landscape in terms of physical geography. For
example, questions might be asked about the formation of the
landscape: Why is there a mountain and what has happened to the Figure 19.6: Location of public
valley and the river in the past? In this way, geocaching could become geocaches around Lake Constance
more than a funny outdoor-activity. Needless to say, geography
students have the perfect knowledge to create this kind of cache! For
this reason, we want to distinguish between “public” geocaches,
“geographic” geocaches, and “techniques” geocaches.

5.1 An example of a “public” Geocache

The Rhinefall Cache:
N 47° 40.558’ E 008° 36.512’

This cache is hidden about ten meters below the ruin of Neuburg in
the forest next to the Rhine falls. It is hidden next to a rock, covered
with a stone. The start point is the car park at N 47° 40.763’, E 008°
36.578’ near the public baths. From the cache you easily can walk
down to the Rhine falls. You´ll have a beautiful view at N 47° 763’, E
008° 36.578’. [17: Rhinefall Cache]

Yes, this is indeed a wonderful location for a geocache – right

above the Rhine-Fall (see Figure 19.2). But in a classroom context, it
would be easy for to elevate its’ value by including geomorphologic
description about the origin of the landscape. This could be done by
asking students to discover why Europe’s biggest waterfall is there, or Figure 19.7 Geocache Weingarten step 3
why the mountain where the geocache is found is still present while the rocks of the Rhinefall are slowly disappearing?
Such geographic questions and the information necessary to answer them could be integrated into the description of
how to reach the coordinates of the cache.

Public Geocaches like this one are found nearly everywhere in the world. Figure 19.6 shows a selection of further
“public” geocaches around the Rhine-fall (Schaffhausen) and Lake Constanze (Bodensee).

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5.2 Design of a “geographic” Geocache (geocaching in higher education, version 1)
Indeed, there is significant potential for inclusion of geocaching in higher education curricula, at the very least in
terms of training in such geographic methods as finding points of the compass, determining spatial bearings via
measurement of altitude and distance, and so forth. But a more powerful way to combine geocaching and geography
would be to deliberately incorporate geography education into the design of geocaching tasks, as the following
example created by students from the University of Weingarten demonstrates:

A “geographic” geocache for Weingarten, Germany

Starting at N 47°48.555’ E 009°38.515’ you will come to a viewpoint where you can see parts of the old town of
Weingarten. Weingarten means wine and garden or maybe vineyard – but can you see wine here?

Let´s have a look back on the history of this city – where is the connection to wine? In order to answer this question,
solve each of the following exercises in turn to find the final coordinates of a hidden geocache.

The final coordinates are:

N 47° 48.P T 9’ and X 009° 38.Z W 0’

You have to find out which single-digit numbers correspond to P, T, X, W and Z – Good luck!

Step 1. Until the beginning of the 19th century, wine was cultivated in the whole area of Upper Swabia (the south-
eastern area of Lake Constance / Bodensee in Germany). Because of declining temperatures, at present in this area we
find mostly hops and apple trees.

However, since 2000 two tiny vineyards are being cultivated again in Weingarten in commemoration of the city’s past
culture. Find them and have a look: How are they exposed? The opposite point of the compass is ___ = X

Step 2. Weingarten is found in an outwash plain that was formed by the massive Rhine Glacier in the last ice age
(18,000 years ago, the Würm period). This is another hint that temperatures have changed dramatically here in the
past. The glacier moved from the Alps across today’s Lake Constance to Weingarten (which nowadays is 40
kilometres away from the lake).

A “witness” from those days is a glacial erratic such as the big stone found close to the starting-coordinates for this
geocache. It was transported by the glacier and left in Weingarten while the glacier retreated. On the surface of the
stone, you can see scratches called glacial striations. Try to measure the weight of this glacially transported boulder (in
tons): ____ = T

Step 3. Look at the following picture. Where do you find this place? (Figure 19.7)
The coordinates of the picture are N 47°48.a b’ E 009°38.c d’ and (a+b) – (c+d) = _____ = W

Step 4. For several centuries, Weingarten was the hometown of the noble family of the Welfen. In 1056,` Welf VI
founded the local Benedictine monastery. These monks started to cultivated wine in town. A donation brought a holy-
blood-relic to Weingarten in 1094. Look at the Welfen coat of arms to determine in which century they established
themselves in Weingarten.
____ th. Centry = Z

Step 5. Inside the Basilica you can find one part of the holy relic. The two other pieces are kept in Rome and Mantua,
twin towns of Weingarten. In which country is Mantua found?
- France = 1
- Italy = 2
- Spain = 3
- Greece = 4
solution: ____ = P

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Now you can add the single-digit numbers for P, T, X W and Z and you will the cache.
The final coordinates are:
N 47° 48.P T 9’ and X 009° 38.Z W 0’

5.3 Design of a “techniques” Geocache (geocaching in higher education, version 2)

The preceding example of a geographic geocache demonstrated a possible combination of using a GPS unit to find
a certain place while learning geographic content about the surrounding region. Another way to integrate GPS use into
fieldwork is by way of simple exercises learning basic geographic concepts and techniques:

1. Beforehand, hide the treasure and determine an accurate lat/long reading. Carefully copy their coordinates for
each participant.
2. In class, quickly review the basics of latitude and longitude.
3. Move outside, hand out GPS receivers, and deliver the short version of how to run them.
4. Give the students the treasure coordinates and turn them loose….”[3, p. 94ff]

You could make this custom geocaching exercise even easier by inputting the treasure coordinates as a waypoint
and starting the “go-to” function now available on most GPS devices. But a genuine learning experience is quite
different from this, since when we ask students to look for particular coordinates, they have to think about which
direction to move in order to test their understanding of how coordinates work. Indeed, from time to time it makes
sense to come back to a question as basic as “Where is South, any way?”[3, p. 95]

Another educational exercise can help distinguish between Magnetic and True North. Start by spacing students out
along a chosen meridian. Next, unroll a plastic tape to make the GPS meridian visible. This line points to True North.
A second length of tape is then unrolled along a north-south line indicated by compasses. The resulting angle
illustrates the difference between Magnetic and True North. Some measurement information can then be combined
with required waypoints that lead to another geocache.

This exercise can be continued by making latitude and longitude visible. [3, p. 108] First, set the students’ GPS
units to display decimal latitude and longitude. Then have them establish a “virtual net” by locating four or five lines
of latitudes ending with a zero (e.g., 43.69940, 43.69950, 43.69960, and 43.69970), together with another four or five
lines of longitude. Once the students can see the result (perhaps with the help of survey pins or flags), many important
questions can be asked:
• As the grid takes form, are the boxes square? Measure each of the boxes to determine their average width and
length.
• Should the grid boxes really be squares? Which distances are shorter, those between latitudes or those between
longitudes?
• What if we lived near the North Pole and tried this exercise there? How about at the Equator?
• What would the ratios of latitude to longitude be in each of those places?

6. Beyond Geocaching: Mapping with GPS

Of course, GPS devices can be used for much more than merely locating coordinates. The more powerful way of
using these new technologies is to map an area or a “track”. One version of doing so involves mapping and later
analyzing routes; for example, while driving or sailing, hiking, cross-country skiing, or even when GPS units are
attached to animals (either pets or livestock). The track function of most commercially available GPS devices can be
run automatically or used to collect track points based on travel time or distance.

But again, a more sophisticated way to utilise this versatile technology is in connection with deliberately posed
geographic questions, including those raised by mapping of recreational land use, mapping of invasive species, or
mapping for environmental monitoring.

Example 1: The Eyes on Wildlife Project

“In the early 1990s, wolves returned to Perham, an event not anticipated by Minnesota´s Wolf Management Plan.
When state and federal agencies put out a call for more information about these canine visitors, Perham teachers saw
an opportunity to introduce authentic research into the seventh-through twelfth grade science curriculum. The Eyes on
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Wildlife Project…originally targeted the wolf populations in Minnesota, but has since expanded to include research on
deer, bittern, and black bear populations. The project incorporates manual and technology-based wildlife research
methods such as visual tracking and scent post surveys; radio, aerial and satellite telemetry; the Global Positioning
System (GPS); and geographic information systems (GIS).
…Regularly revisiting field sites with telemetry equipment, students determined the exact whereabouts of their wolf
by homing in on the signal produced by the collar, taking compass readings, and obtaining accurate geographic
coordinates using triangulation techniques of a GPS unit. They then logged that data and obtained additional
information from field biologists. Complete reports were sent …to analyse their animal’s movements.” [2, pp. 23-30].

Because of the sudden and unexpected appearance of wolves near the town, the Perham school’s GIS project
started with two simple questions: “Where did these wolves come from, and where are they going?”

At the end of the project the students put their data about the dispersal and migration patterns of the animals
together, looking at the entire map of Minnesota. Now they were able to answer further questions about the animals’
preferred habitat, where the animals were found, if they travelled along roadways, the range of an individual animal,
and the average distance that animals travelled in a day. [2, p. 26] The project involved a powerful combination of
collecting data with GPS units, connecting transmitters to the animals, and incorporating the resulting data in a GIS
that enabled highly sophisticated mapping of the animals.

Example 2: How healthy is Deer Creek?

Rivers present another interesting opportunity for mobile learning and fieldwork. Measurement of water quality
and assessment of changes at different points in the watershed can lead to creation of new maps with GIS software. For
each water sample, the test site location is pinpointed with a GPS receiver, and a GIS can be created from this data
with separate layers of information about the distribution and number of pipes running into the river, the types and
frequency of vegetation that give us hints about the effluents from those pipes, and so on. In one such study (of Deer
Creek, Minnesota) “The dramatic change in water quality raised several intriguing questions. Was the pollution from a
point source, such as a sewage leak?

Could a non-point source such as bank erosion or storm runoff be responsible for the deterioration in water
quality?” [2, pp. 55-61].

But why do students need to use a GPS unit and GIS software for such investigations? They could easily pinpoint
test locations on a paper map and try to find out which source might be responsible for the contamination. Audet et al.
respond “The maps created…allowed them to see the spatial relationships that were critical for understanding the
environmental condition of Deer Creek. Because of its unique ability to integrate data in tabular form with graphs and
maps,

GIS enabled [students] to identify the locations where they collected data and to analyse the relationships between
water quality and land use. This type of analysis can open new possibilities for students in their development as critical
thinkers”.[2, p. 61] Needless to say, this example can be transferred to study any other river system, where it could
become one of the first steps for students to use GPS units for projects monitoring water quality.

6.1 Aerial photographic interpretation with GPS - Mobile learning in an airplane

In an airplane we can measure with a GPS unit where we are, how high we are flying, and how fast we are going.
Combining this data with an atlas that has a coordinate grid or latitude and longitude tic marks, we can also figure our
where we are flying. Reading the landscape from the air is a technique that might even change a student’s field-trip
experience inasmuch as the field trip really starts even before we arrive on site.

For this sort of work, students have to learn how to spot and decode myriad geographical features - landforms,
waterways, clear-cuts, freeway systems, suburban sprawl, grid patterns, crop patterns, other signs of city planning, and
much more. Before takeoff, the probable route can be checked on a map so that points of interest to look for can be
picked out.[4] Pictures taken by a digital camera that time-stamps each image can be matched with the track points
afterwards. Such integration of digital tools can motivate students tasked with satellite-picture interpretation or similar
geographic studies.

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 An ongoing example of such a project at the university where one of us (Lawrence) teaches involves a student
using GPS and GIS to map “Class V” wells on the White Earth Indian Reservation in remote northern Minnesota.
Class V wells are shallow underground disposal systems that have the potential to contaminate drinking water supplies
by discharging hazardous waste into groundwater tables. Potential Class V wells are found at such facilities as
automotive repair shops, welding shops, and other repair/industrial service environments. On the White Earth
Reservation, it has proven difficult to locate the physical addresses of many potential Class V facilities, thereby
slowing down the response rate at which inspectors operate in accordance with Safe Drinking Water Act mandates that
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is supposed to follow. Using aerial photography in conjunction with GIS
software has significantly improved database management, mapping of well addresses, preliminary inspection
inventorying of contaminant sites, and pre-closure activity scheduling for facilities within reservation boundaries.
Ultimately, the project produced an online mapper highlighting high- and low-priority Class V sites, providing aerial
photos of the sites that can be connected to a database viewer of preliminary inspection notes taken in the field, and
improving pinpointing of wells by utilizing GPS data.

6.2 Participatory GIS and interactive mapping

Geocaching and other forms of mobile mapping have significant potential to emphasise the value of developing
sensitivity to geographic perspective when confronting problem-solving scenarios of various types. But beyond
treasure hunts and even relatively static interpretation, much more can be developed out of the use of GPS technology
when combined with a GIS (Figures 19.8 and 19.9). This is especially the case when the “experts” in assembly and
interpretation of a GIS collaborate with members of the community outside the narrow confines of the classroom or
laboratory. Indeed, such “participatory” GIS can even go so far as to establish parallel authorities, with community
members empowered to critically assess the value of a GIS and to therefore play a leading role in defining how it
should be used. This effort lies at the heart of the “Social Implications of How People, Space, and Environment are
Represented in GIS” initiative of the U.S. National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (also called the
NCGIA Varenius Initiative), launched in 1996 to critically adress concerns about ‘objectivity’, value-neutrality,
access, ownership, democratic representation, control, privacy, confidentiality, ethics and public service values in
creation of GIS.

One of us (Lawrence) has been engaged in this sort of work for several years in Kibwezi, Kenya, a rural
community of about 3,000. Surrounded by East Africa’s biggest wildlife preserve, Kibwezi lies at the heart of one of
Kenya’s “hardship” districts, most of its population coping with crushing poverty and food insecurity while trying to
farm marginal lands after losing property in other regions. Students from Bemidji State University (BSU) in the United
States have for several summers utilised GPS devices to collect waypoint data linked to sites involved in research on a
variety of topics. A partial list of these topics has included interviews of different populations in the Kibwezi area:
• to determine their migration and settlement histories, to determine land-use patterns by different ethnic groups
in the area,
• to determine sites where biointensive organic agriculture training and demonstration farm establishment is
likely to be successful,
• to determine distance-to-healthcare and distance-to-schooling impacts on different populations, and
• to determine property dispute boundaries between a nearby commercial plantation and populations claiming
ancestral land adjacent to or within the plantation.

In the absence of up-to-date official maps of the area- and especially in light of the inability of most Kibwezi
residents to gain access to those maps that government agencies might have archived in distantly located headquarters-
BSU students have been able to produce a series of maps (Figure 19.8) using ESRI’s ArcGIS software and GPS
waypoints collected with a Garmin 76.[21] An initial map located Kibwezi Division within Kenya’s Makueni District
(Eastern Province), showing the boundaries of administrative locations and sub-locations within the Division.

It is important to appreciate that for this map ArcView drew polygons based on officially available sectional data
so that only a “top-down” perspective is displayed, giving no authority to local people (and, therefore, no opportunity
to challenge official depictions of the landscape). But a second map (Figure 19.9) shows Kibwezi Town in a much
more intimate style. Many waypoints refer to sites of personal interaction between the BSU students and local people
recognised as homestay hosts, interview subjects, translators, assistants regarding other logistical issues, or important

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community members. Despite- or perhaps, especially because of- this “bottom-up” approach to mapmaking, a wealth
of information is presented beyond mere location of waypoints. Why, for example, are “Mary’s clinic”, the “Muslim
children’s cemetery”, and a dressmaker’s shop all given equal standing with the administrative compound of the
District Officer (D.O.)? A powerful new level of geographic inquiry becomes accessible when confronted with this
kind of map, especially when it is noted that many
waypoints were included at the request of local people,
rather than only because student researchers considered
them important.

Importantly, two villages (Kikoo and Ngumbe)

appear on the eastern periphery of the town in this map,
together with a series of waypoints marked as “Spray
Line”. This represents another layer of participatory GIS,
insofar as the farmers in those areas not only resist efforts
by local government officials to include them inside the
administrative boundaries of Kibwezi Town, but also
insisted that BSU student researchers make a GPS/GIS
record of a dispute over the boundary line between their
villages and the Dwa Estate.

Dwa is an enormous sisal plantation established Figure 19.8: Creating new maps with GPS – example 1
during British colonial rule. At least part of the estate was (participatory GIS)
established by evicting the ancestors of people today
farming adjacent areas in Ngumbe, Kikoo, and Kalamba
villages, as well as by evicting people from another area
(Syetali) now unoccupied. The estate continues to control
access to the best water source in all of Kibwezi
Division, and Dwa Directors occasionally still lay claim
to fully half of Kibwezi Town on the basis of colonial
land grant surveys not yet challenged by the Government
of Kenya even after more than forty years of
independence. In 1995, Dwa asserted that the de facto
present boundary of the villages should not be allowed to
advance further east into the plantation, spending several
days spraying defoliants and setting fire to crops and
property that the Director considered illegally located.
When villagers complained, Dwa threatened to sue them
for the costs of supplies used to establish the Spray Line. Figure 19.9: creating new maps with GPS – example 2
In the absence of clear government policy with regard to (participatory GIS)
land grants made during the colonial period, villagers being studied by BSU researchers concerning their farming
practices insisted on having their version of events recorded and the Spray Line marked with GPS waypoints.

A final example of the power of participatory GIS is demonstrated by the production of a third map (Figure 19.10).
At a smaller scale, it shows the aforementioned villages and part of a colonial survey line now marked on the
landscape by tree clearance and vegetation overgrowth control (shown as the “Survey Cut” across the abandoned
Syetali Village). It also shows a “Dwa Cut” line, a series of GPS waypoints identified along the de facto border
between the estate and Ngumbe village.

But interestingly, this second line of disputed ownership was shown to BSU student researchers not by Ngumbe
people but by villagers in Kalamba instead, in part because they insist on distinguishing their struggles with Dwa from
those experienced by their neighbours, despite the fact that on the ground there is little appreciable difference in
location between the two villages. Kalamba people are also insistent that a dam be marked on the map which officially
is called Kilui and is considered by authorities to be a government utility. For Kalamba villagers, however, the dam is

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called Kivongoni in remembrance of an abandoned village in the area, and the location of the dam behind the Dwa Cut
line is considered significant. This is an example of what elsewhere has been called “countermapping”.[10]

Finally, many villagers- but especially those in Kikoo-

persuaded BSU student researchers to mark the extent of
Kangesu, a village which does not exist officially but
which many local farmers feel is being developed by
unscrupulous landowners. Importantly, Kangesu stretches
across the map north of the Public Utility Land (PUL)
designated for development by the local government, and
some villagers fear that encroachment on the PUL will
result in “land-grabbing” in the established villages by
officials willing to exploit the uncertain status of land
ownership along the Dwa Estate border. For that matter,
recent fieldwork has indicated that the PUL is already
being illegally settled and subdivided by a variety of
parties, a scenario not revealed on official planning maps
and therefore generating interest among BSU students as a
topic of further fieldwork investigation utilizing GPS and Figure 19.10: creating new maps with GPS – example 3
participatory GIS. (participatory GIS)

7. Critical considerations about the new geospatial technologies

In this chapter, we have tried to demonstrate that the new geospatial technologies of GPS and GIS have significant
potential to enrich geographic inquiry. Important social issues can be organised and depicted by a GIS, whether only
by expert users of the technology or, better yet, in association with communities subject to study. But while such
participatory GIS remains a laudable goal, basic facility with the underlying technology is required, and geocaching
offers a wonderful way of developing this skill. However, while it is easy to be mesmerised by global positioning
system (GPS) technology, it is important to remember that it has its limitations, some deliberately built into it. The
worst of these is that the transmission frequencies with which GPS units work are very limited, and especially in urban
areas (where most GPS users reside and study), lack of frequency diversity leads to interference from other
transmissions.[5] For that matter, the existing satellite constellation is owned and operated by the U.S. government,
which until recently regularly altered the transmission signals being received by ground-based GPS units in order to
protect military installations from being accurately targeted.

While teaching at Northwest Missouri State University, one of us (Lawrence) discovered that it was effectively
impossible to have students map the campus with GPS because of this “selective availability” problem, presumably
because the university was relatively close (within 140 kilometers) of Stategic Air Command in Omaha, Nebraska. In
the extreme, positions can be erroneously reported by as much as 100 meters due to selective availability (up to ten
times less accuracy than without selective availability). This is a particularly thorny issue since even though President
Clinton decreed an end to the selective availability degradation of civil GPS frequency accuracy [11], some observers
believe that post-September 11th security concerns provide ample opportunity to impose such restrictions again.

Ownership issues continue to complicate GPS effectiveness, especially now that the European Space Agency is
likely to start launching a rival GPS system (called Galileo) in 2008, able to connect to Russia’s Glonass navigation
satellites. China is also working on an independent GPS system.

In any case, there are other problems confronting the use of GPS, in the classroom or elsewhere. One of these is
the problem of “GDOP”, geometric dilution of precision, where the angle of the transmitting satellite relative to a
receiver on the ground can magnify or lessen all uncertainties in position, creating an error box surrounding true
position. The smaller the angular separation, the larger the box and the less accurate the determination of position.

Another problem is called ephemeris, variations in satellite orbit due to gravitational pull by the planet; twice
daily, the U.S. Air Force corrects orbital decay, but this has the net effect of producing variations in accuracy of GPS
readings. A third problem involves what is called “multipath error”; that is, even though a primary signal arrives from

142
a GPS satellite directly, other signals bounce around local terrain features (especially in urban areas or regions with
substantial topographic variation) before reaching the receiver and may interfere with the primary signal. Two other
problems clock errors in receivers and atmospheric delays of signal reception- are less severe because usually they can
be corrected for, but only with considerable effort (i.e., relying on more satellites above the local horizon for
triangulation, using an average correction factor between transmission times, or by comparing difference in arrival
times of two transmission frequencies).

Under the circumstances, it seems reasonable to insist that educators need to retain basic skill of map
understanding even as GPS and GIS become increasingly available and user-friendly. That is, if we don’t want
students to be altogether digitally determined, we need to impress them with the unique utility offered by “hard-copy”
technology in terms of more immediately engaging with the landscape around them in critical ways. Some observers
note with alarm the ways in which GPS, GIS, and associated technologies produce representations of landscapes as
“natural” that are actually subject to the conditions of the digital environment.[8] In other words, far from providing an
objective view, geospatial technologies only let us see what hardware and software designers have made it possible to
see; more to the point, we see the digital environment only in the way that the technology reveals it. At its worst, the
territorial boundaries created by tyrannical regimes are sometimes utilised by GIS software developers without
questioning the consequences, as in apartheid representations in a digital landscape of contemporary South Africa [16].
At the very least, this all means remaining dedicated to teaching students the practical skill of how to use a traditional
map and how to use it for development of their spatial thinking [6].

Even some of the strongest proponents of mobile learning are concerned, as when Wagner wondered “Will
Learning Survive Our Good Intentions?”[13] For that matter, the very strength of the new geospatial technologies to
produce uniquely flexible approaches to geographic education has embedded within it an equally serious weakness
common to all new technologies. That is, not every learner or teacher has the same access to mobile learning
technologies, nor to the same sorts of equipment, the same level of processing speed, the same range of data.
Universities and schools habitually face issues of funding shortfalls which are likely to worsen as mobile learning
encourages some administrators and legislators to imagine that the traditional classroom experience is less necessary,
to say nothing of problems with network capacity and security and the even more basic problem of maintenance and
upgrades of whatever equipment for which educators are able to secure investment funding. A significant gap exists
between the frankly naïve worldview of m-learning technology developers and the realistic worldview of teachers
trying to integrate it into their student preparation. At a recent conference about new developments in mobile learning,
while developers celebrated the rapid growth in expansion of “3G” (third-generation) networks and the increasing
availability of multimedia “smartphones”, one attendee complained that “Scanning international horizons makes
[developers] much more optimistic than [teachers], but they seem to sweep away much of the resistance and heel-
digging, as they ask us to clap our hands, say ‘I believe,’ and imagine a higher ed that is capable of adaptation and
change” [15; see also, 20]. Such outbursts of frustration reveal an important dimension to our call here for critical
consideration of the new geospatial technologies; namely, that their availability is itself subject to a geographic
phenomenon of uneven distribution. For example, while 76% of South Korea’s households have broadband access, the
availability in the United States is only 30% [9].

At the end of the day, technological euphoria [1] needs to be tempered with respect for practical difficulties of
seamlessly implementing use of the GPS and GIS into the curriculum (whether at university or in schools), as well as
for more serious concerns about the social, political, and epistemological impacts of the new geospatial technologies
generally.[12] We believe that the way forward in meeting these concerns involves, at least in part, carefully situating
GPS use in the context of geographic inquiry and ultimately situating GIS use in the context of extracurricular
community participation in analysis and use of data interpretation [22].

References
[1] Abler, R. “Everything in its place: GPS, GIS, and Geography in the 1990s”, The Professional Geographer 45,
1993, pp. 131-139.

[2] Audet R. and G. Ludwig, GIS in Schools, ESRI Press, Redlands, California, 2000

[3] Cooke D., Fun with GPS, ESRI Press, Redlands, California, 2005

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[4] Dicum G., Window seat: Reading the landscape from the air, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, California, 2004

[5] Frost, J.B. “GPS users still lost in the woods”, Wired News, 30 September; online at
http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,60379,00.html, 2003

[6] Hüttermann A., „Kartenkompetenz: Was sollen Schüler können?“, Praxis Geographie, Westermann-Verlag,
Braunschweig, issue 11, 2005, pp. 4-8

[7] Malone L., Palmer A., et al., Mapping our World. GIS Lessons for Educators, ESRI Press, Redlands, California,
2005

[8] McCusker, B. and D. Weiner, “GIS representations of nature, political ecology, and the study of land use and land
cover change in South Africa”, in: Zimmerer, K.S. and T.J. Bassett, eds., Political ecology: An integrative approach to
geography and environment-development studies, Guilford,
New York, 2003, pp. 201-220

[9] n.a. “Waiting on Mobile”, San Francisco Chronicle, March 15, 2005, p. C1.

[10] Peluso, N. “Whose woods are these? Counter-mapping forest territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia”, Antipode
27(4), 1995, pp. 383-388.

[11] Reuters, “Clinton unscrambles GPS signals”, Wired News, 1 May, online at
http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,36021,00.html. 2000

[12] Robbins, P. and T. Maddock, “Interrogating land cover categories: Metaphor and method in remote sensing”,
Cartography and Geographic Information Science 27(4), 2001, pp. 295-309.

[13] Wagner, E.D., “Will Learning Survive Our Good Intentions?”. In: Transforming Culture: An Executive Briefing
on the Power of Learning, Charlottesville, Virginia: Batten Institute at the Darden Graduate School of Business
Administration, University of Virginia.2002, pp. 47-52

[14] Wagner, E.D., “Enabling Mobile Learning”, EDUCAUSE Review 40(3), 2005, pp. 40–53.

[15] Wagner, E.D. and R. Robson, “Education Unplugged: Mobile Learning Comes of Age”, presentation at the
Annual Meeting of the National Learning Infrastructure Initiative, New Orleans, Louisiana, 24 January, 2005;
including blog entry by Colleen Carmean, 24 January, available online at http://blog.educause.edu/carmean, 2005

[16] Weiner, D; Warner, T.A.; Harris, T.M.; and R.M. Levin “Apartheid representations in a digital landscape: GIS,
remote sensing and local knowledge in Kiepersol, South Africa”, Cartography and Geographic Information System,
22(1), 1995, pp. 30-44

[17] www.opencaching.de

[18] Zemsky, R. and W.F. Massy, Thwarted Innovation: What Happened to eLearning and Why, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, Learning Alliance for Higher Education, 2004

[19] A note of special appreciation for work creating the maps shown here goes to Christopher A. Kaczmarek, student
in BSU’s Spring 2004 Directed Independent Study course “GIS and land use in Kenya”.

[20] Mountain, D. and MacFarlane, A., Geographic information retrieval in a mobile environment: evaluating the
needs of mobile individuals, Journal of Information Science, 33(5): 515–530, 2008

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List of contributors

Kostis C. Koutsopoulos, National Technical University of Athens, Greece

Joseph J. Kerski, Ph.D. ESRI Inc., USA
Miguel Calvo Melero, Laboratory of Experimental Cartography and GIS. Basque Country
University, Spain
Mary Fargher, Institute of Education, University of London, UK
Nikos Lambrinos, Department of Primary Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Jan Ketil Rød and Wenche Larsen, Department of Geography, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Norway
Manuella Borghs1 and Tino Johansson2, 1 CVO HIKempen and KOGEKA, Sint-Dimpnacollege,
Geel, Belgium, 2 Department of Geography, University of Helsinki, Finland.
Clare Brooks, Institute of Education, University of London, UK
Isabelle Duvaux-Bechon a, Laurence Ghayeb, Juerg Lichteneggerc, Emanuele Loretd, Peter
Brøgger Sørensene, Birgit Strømsholmf, Maurizio Feag, a Education Department ESA-
Headquarters, Paris, France, bEarth Observation Directorate ESA-ESRIN, Frascati, Italy, cZurich,
Switzerland, dLiceo Classico Statale, Ariccia, Italy, eAabenraa Gymnasium og HF, Aabenraa,
Denmark, fNorwegian Space Centre, Oslo, Norway, gEarth Observation Directorate ESA-ESRIN,
Frascati, Italy
Gabor Bartha, University of Miskolc, Hungary
Maria Attard, GIS Laboratory, University of Malta, Malta
Maria A. Brovelli, Diego Magni, Fernando Sansò, Politecnico di Milano, Polo Regionale di
Como, Italy
Adrijana Car, Centre for Geoinformatics, Salzburg University, Austria
Vít Voženílek, Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic
Aneta Szablowska-Midor, Jacek Kozak, Wojciech Widacki, GIS Laboratory, Institute of
Geography and Spatial Management, Jagiellonian University, Poland
Kostis C. Koutsopoulos and N. Androulakakis, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Stelian Dimitrov, Anton Popov and Alexander Kotsev, Faculty of Geology and Geography,
Sofia University “St.Kliment Ohridski”, Bulgaria
Mark Lawrence1 and Yvonne Schleicher2, 1Bemidji State University, Bemidji,Minnesota, USA,
2
University of Education Weingarten, Germany

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