Chinese View of Nature, Sciences, and Technologies

Astronomy
Reasons for Astronomical Observations in Premodern China
One of the primary reasons for these observations was timekeeping. This would help
the astronomers in announcing the first day of every month. Measurement of time was done
by dividing the sky into twelve branches and ten stems around the ecliptic. This gave the
Chinese a 60-year cycle, helping them in creating a calendar. Furthermore, the calendars were
a symbol of a dynasty. Astronomers of each period would often prepare a new calendar upon
the rise and fall of a dynasty.
Cosmology
Ancient Chinese had three cosmological models. The Gai Tian which supposed that
the heavens were a hemisphere covering the earth. The second model, which was associated
with Hun Tian, conceived the heavens as a godlike sphere. The third model, associated with
Xuan Ye, viewed the heavens to have an extension that was infinite. Moreover, the heavens
had celestial bodies.
Ancient Chinese Constellations
In ancient Chinese dynasties, stars were closely tied to events. Therefore, the majority
of the constellations, known in China as Xiu, were related to earthly hierarchies. Of
importance to note is that these hierarchies were seen to reflect those of the heavens. This
was because, in ancient China, the emperor was given the mandate to rule from the heavens.
In Chinese astronomy, the sky was divided into sectors with each section having a
constellation. Each constellation was divided into three regions of the sky; the purple
forbidden enclosure, the supreme palace enclosure, and the heavenly market enclosure.
Further, the constellations were grouped into the directions of North, East, West, and South.
Each direction had its unique animal symbolizing it. The dragon represented the East with the
West being occupied by the tiger. North and South were occupied by the tortoise and the
scarlet bird respectively.
Use of Astronomy in Premodern China
The ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches were invented for chronological
purposes. Hours, days, months and years would be designated by these earthly branches.
Later on, twelve animals were adopted to symbolize the twelve earthly branches.
Accordingly, each of the twelve animals represented one year in a 12-year cycle, a day in a
12-day sequence and two hours in a day of twenty-four hours. With these animal
representations, the belief was that people born in a particular time period would inherit the
personality trait of the animal representing that period.
The Compass
Chinese mythology has four spiritual creatures, each guarding a direction in the
compass. Further, each creature corresponds to a season, virtue or color, while each direction
corresponds to a quadrant in the sky. The dragon, symbolizing the East, corresponded to the
season of spring, the color blue, and the virtue of propriety; which is conforming to the set
standards of morality. In addition, it was believed that the dragons were the bringers of
wealth and good fortune in China. The scarlet bird occupied the South direction. Being a red
bird, the Chinese associated the south direction with summer, the color red, fire, and
knowledge. Additionally, South was linked to good fortunes. The white tiger was symbolic of
the west. This, therefore, signified fall season, white color, and the virtue of righteousness. As
a result, the western direction is a sign of integrity. The north was believed to be the symbol
of happiness and longevity. This was because of the direction's links to the tortoise.
How the Compass was invented in China
Before the innovation of the compass, people would use other navigation equipment
to find their way across the sea. For instance, the Vikings used the stars and wind as clues.
The compass was initially invented, during the Han dynasty of 206 BC to AD 220, as a tool
for divination by the fortune tellers. Initial compasses employed the use of loadstone in
constructing the fortune telling boards. The loadstones had the shape of a spoon and set on a
square shaped plate which represented the earth. A large circle at the plate's center
represented the heavens. Because of loadstone's natural property of exhibiting north-south
polarity, the handle of the spoon pointed towards the south, hence the name "South-
governor". The ancient Chinese, additionally, invented another type of the early compass.
This consisted of a wooden fish which had a magnetized needle in a bowl full of water.
Later, compasses were made of iron needles. The needles were magnetized by striking
them with loadstone. From early on, the people of China knew that striking the needle with
loadstone could help in the magnetization process. The present-day compass used in
navigation can be attributed to the initial compass that was invented in China.
The Chinese View of Seismic Tremor
In the Gansu province of China, the people believed that the ox was the origin of the
earthquakes. According to them, earthquakes were the result of an annoyed ox which was
shrugging. Notably, they also supposed that the ox bore the entire earth on its back.
Therefore, the shrug caused the earth to move in an uncoordinated manner resulting in
tremors. Another explanation by these people was the occasional twitching of a frog.
Likewise, there was a group that believed that the earth was resting on the back of a frog.
Periodic twitching, as per the believers, led to earth movements. These movements are what
the people perceived as earthquakes.
The Invention of the Seismograph
Zhang Heng, a scientist in ancient China, is credited with innovating the seismograph.
The first seismograph, which resembled a wine jar, was made of bronze and had a height of
approximately six feet and was five feet wide. Outside of the barrel, there were eight dragons
that were positioned face down. In each dragon's mouth, there was a small bronze ball. Eight
toads were placed beneath the dragons. The mouths of these toads were gaping. Inside the jar,
there was a pendulum which would be displaced whenever the ground moved, triggering a set
of motion which resulted in one of the balls dropping from a dragon's mouth. Therefore, balls
dropped whenever the instrument picked up an impending seismic wave. Consequently,
observers of the seismograph would be alerted to an impending earthquake.
Yijing and Daodejing in Europe
Yijing, also called the I Ching, is an ancient Chinese text on divination. The text
provides inspiration to religious people, artists and sometimes, psycho-analysts. This
divinatory text was initially used by the Zhou dynasty of 1046 to 256 BCE. Through the
divination type called cleromancy, the I Ching produces random numbers. These numbers are
then turned into hexagrams. The hexagrams, arranged in a King Wen sequence, contained
meanings applicable to everyday lives. Consequently, the texts in Yijing were used to
morally govern the people in premodern China.
 The Daodejing was first used during the Han dynasty. However, it is Laozi, of 6th
century BC, who is credited with this classic Chinese text. Through the Daodejing, a way of
life aimed at maintaining harmony and tranquillity was created. The ‘Dao' in essence
consisted of ‘Wuwei', which called for people not to take action in dispute resolution. Instead,
the text urged people to maintain complete passivity. This meant that people were supposed
to let things take their natural course. ‘De' signified inner potency or inner virtues. ‘Jing'
meant signified the book. Therefore, Daodejing could be translated to ‘The Book Way and
Virtue'.
Early European writing characterized Daoism, which includes I Ching and Daodejing,
as originating from idolatry. Furthermore, Jesuit missionaries, who had gone to China to
spread Christianity, described Daoists as magicians. This, therefore, meant that these texts
were largely unaccepted in ancient Europe. However, German philosopher Leibniz was
among the first Europeans to see a true religious expression in the Chinese texts. His theory
of monadology, which favors harmonious relations, resonates with Daoist's texts.
In modern Europe, nevertheless, the practice has been accepted, albeit limitedly. Tai
Chi and Qi Gang mediation clubs exist in Europe. Many of the members function as
independent exercisers with few joining these clubs to seek spiritual inspiration. In addition,
traditional Chinses medicine is increasingly becoming popular in the western world,
especially Europe. Philosophers and academicians in Europe are these days reading Daoist
texts. European countries are, additionally, accepting associations representing the Chinses
Daoist Association. For example, Italy has registered the Daoist Association of Italy.
Chinese Invention of the Paper
Primitive paper types were used in ancient China from as early as the second century.
These papers largely used hemp. Cai Lun is credited with creating paper. Before its
innovation, writing surfaces were made from tortoise shells and bones. The paper was made
by soaking plant fibers then later pressing them. The pressed fibers were then dried in sheets
in wooden frames. By the end of Han dynasty, however, ratton had replaced hemp paper.
Ratton paper was short-lived as it was quickly replaced by bamboo. The main reason for
ratton's replacement was that the plant was slow growing yet the demand for paper was
increasing. Therefore, a suitable, fast-growing plant such as bamboo would suffice in
papermaking. When the Song dynasty of the 10th century took over, they improved the paper
production techniques. The bark of mulberry tree had also replaced bamboo as the plant used
in paper production.
This art of papermaking then spread to East Korea. From there, a Korean monk took
his acquired skills to Japan. During the Tang dynasty war, Arab victors captured paper
making workers who took their skills to Arab nations. Through Arabs, Africans and
Europeans mastered the art of making paper.
Uses of Paper in Ancient Times
The invention of paper helped in the spread of literacy and literature. Books were less
heavy to carry, and cheaper compared to their predecessors which were made using bones.
During the Tang dynasty, the paper was used to pay tribute and taxes to the Emperors. The
Han dynasty saw the use of paper in the production of military and topographical maps.
Gunpowder Invention
Popularly referred to as Huo Yao, meaning flaming medicine, the innovation of the
gunpowder was not intentional. While traditional Chinese alchemists were trying to create a
concoction of immortality, they ended up inventing the gunpowder. Gunpowder is a mixture
of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur. This invention was made during the Tang dynasty of 850
A.D. When the powder was exposed to an open fire, the mixture exploded. This explosion led
to the realization of the potency of the powder in the production of fireworks.
Uses of Gunpowder
Initially, after the Chinese discovered that the gunpowder could explode, they used it
to make fireworks. Nevertheless, they soon found out that an exploded gunpowder had the
ability to kill people. As a result, they started using it in war as an explosive. Firstly, the
cannon was designed with the help of the gunpowder. With the cannon invention, the
traditional approach to war changed. Armies started taking out their enemies from a distant
without engaging in open-field combat. A second item made from the gunpowder was the
bullet and guns. Bullets, unlike arrows, could pierce a knight's armor, increasing the chances
of killing one's enemy with a single shot. Indeed, the modern-day ammunitions are founded
on the invention of the gunpowder by the Chinese. This is because these weapons still rely on
the use of gunpowder to facilitate an explosion. The irony of this invention, however, is that
instead of prolonging lives, as it was intended, gunpowder has played a vital role in
shortening the lives of many people since its inception.