NSC 12 – INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
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►CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO
BIOLOGY
▪ What is Biology?
- The study of life
- The science of living things
- modern name is “life science”
▪ Origins of word “biology”
- Biology (Greek or Latin origin)
- Bios = life
- Logos = study of
▪ Characteristics of Life
1. Cellular composition
2. Growth
3. Reproduction
4. Movement
5. Adaptation
6. Metabolism
7. Specific organization
8. Homeostasis
9. Responsiveness
1. Cellular Composition
- Made up of at least one cell
- Unicellular - made of one cell
(bacteria, amoeba, paramecium)
- Multicellular - made up of two or
more cells (plants, fungi, animals)
2. Growth
- Increase in cell size (unicellular)
and/or an increase in cell number
(multicellular)
3. Reproduction
- Asexual- cell division (mitosis)—
one cell becomes two Ex: bacteria
- Sexual- union of sex cells (sperm
and egg) Ex: plants and animals
4. Movement
▪ 3 types:
- Place to Place- (ex: bear running,
bird flying, etc)
- External Part- (ex: +
phototropism, plants orient leaves
toward sun)
- Internal- (ex: cytoplasmic
streaming)
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5. Adaptation
- Changing to meet the needs of the
environment
Examples:
1. Bird migration- behavioral
adaptation
2. Human body temperature-
Physiological adaptation
3. Hibernation- physiological
adaptation
4. Hare ear length (desert vs. arctic
hares)- structural adaptation
5. Metabolism
- Set of chemical reactions that
convert “food” into energy
6. Specific Organization
- Certain parts do specific jobs (ex:
heart, nucleus, chloroplasts, etc)
7. Homeostasis
- Maintaining the same state
- Homeo = same, steady
- Stasis = state
Examples:
-Water balance inside and outside of
cell
-Human body temperature
*Cells function best when these are
in balance
8. Responsiveness
- Reaction(s) to various stimuli
Examples of stimuli: light, heat, pH,
vibration, smell, etc.– earthworms
respond to all of these
▪ Biology is a Unified Science
- Biology + Chemistry + Physics=
Science
▪ Kirkoff’s Laws
- White: Good reflector (reflects
light and heat)
Poor radiator (heat is lost slowly)
- Black: Good absorber (absorbs
light and heat)
Good radiator (heat is lost quickly)
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▪ Branches of Biology - Why important? AMD,

1. Zoology- the study of animals Overpopulation, Ozone
2. Ichthyology- the study of fish Depletion/Greenhouse Effect,
- Why Important? Fish are indicator Rainforest Destruction
species. Alert humans to potential Pollution- other states pay to dump
environmental problems garbage in PA
3. Mammalogy- study of mammals 12. Cell Biology- the study of cells
(NASA) - Why Important? Need to know
4. Ornithology- the study of birds about cells to learn more about
- Why important? DDT(insecticide whole organisms
used in ‘50s and ’60s) Birds of prey
#s declined ▪ Scientific Attitudes
(Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) a - Apply to science and everyday life
colorless odorless water insoluble 1. Careful Judgment
insecticide C14H9Cl5 that is an Life examples
aromatic organochlorine banned in A. Drugs/Alcohol
the U.S. that tends to accumulate B. Driving
and persist in ecosystems and has C. Firearms
toxic effects on many vertebrates. D. Sex/STDs
- bioaccumulation- the build up of 2. Desire to Learn - based on
chemicals or toxins in living things interest
5. Botany- the study of plants Life Examples
- Why important? Food production, A. Hunting/Fishing
medicines B. Sports
6. Microbiology- study of small life 3. Cause and Effect- when cause
- Why important? Medicines, and effect is not understood,
bioterrorism superstitious beliefs replace
7. Anatomy- study of an organism’s scientific ideas
parts Science examples
8. Physiology- study of how A. Galileo- sun-centered universe
organism’s parts work vs. earth-centered universe theory
- Why important? Health B. Peace Corps – vitamin A shots
professions, veterinarians C. Spontaneous Generation- non-
9. Entomology- study of insects living materials turn into living
- Why important? West Nile virus, things
Yellow fever– carried by mosquitoes Example: mud fish
10. Genetics- study of heredity and Life examples
genetic material (DNA/RNA, A. Smoking/Chewing
chromosomes, genes) B. Tanning Beds
- Why important? Cloning, research, 4. Concern for Human Welfare
solving crime Life examples
11. Ecology- study of all life in a A. Fire/Police depts.
particular area, the relationships B. Clergy
b/t those life forms and the C. Teachers
environment D. Scouts
E. Americorps
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►Biology Pioneers - Didn’t patent vaccine, didn’t want

1. Aristotle to profit from his discovery
- Greek (1st bio. teacher) ▪ Sabin
- “Father of Biology and Zoology” - Developed oral polio vaccine (1959)
- Supported spontaneous generation - Vaccines are weakened forms of
theory disease that tricks body into making
-1st person to start classifying antibodies
organisms 7. Albert Bruce
- Created a theory of the elements
4 elements:
A. Earth
B. Air ▪ Methods Used in Science
C. Water 1. Technical Method (Cookbook
D. Fire Approach)
2. Hippocrates - Materials are given
- Greek - Directions are logical and lead to a
- “Father of Medicine” known conclusion
- Hippocratic Oath for doctors Ex: Water boils at what temperature
(part of his life-long legacy) F?
3. Leeuwenhoek Directions:
- Dutch 1. Water in beaker
- His hobby was lens grinding 2. Heat until boiling
- He did NOT invent the microscope, 3. Use thermometer to measure
he perfected microscope lenses temp.
- He was the first person to see: 2. Scientific (Research) Method
a. Bacteria -No materials given
b. Protozoans -No directions
c. Red blood cells -Unknown conclusion
d. Sperm cells ▪ 4 Basic Steps of Scientific
-He did NOT support spontaneous Method
Generation 1. Observation
Zacharias Jansen – invented the 2. Hypothesis- educated guess that
microscope tries to explain observation
4. Lister 3. Test or experiment
- British 4. Conclusion (match=finished; no
- Hospital conditions were dirty & match= start over again)
infectious
- Used phenol as a disinfectant ▪ Goldenrod Lab
- “Father of Aseptic - Female insects deposit fertilized
Surgery” or “Father of eggs along goldenrod stem early in
Modern Surgery” growing season. Eggs develop into
6. Jonas Salk and Sabin larva and the plant responds by
▪ Salk forming galls. Galls are really
- Developed 1st polio vaccine tumors.
injection (1955) - Galls are plant’s response to
foreign bodies invading it.
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- Benefits to insect structural and functional framework

of the cell.
►CHAPTER 2: CHEMICAL - Amino acid is the building block
SUBSTANCES IN THE LIVING of protein.
STATE - There are 20 types of amino
▪ Important inorganic substances acids known to exist that play an
of living things important role in forming proteins.
1. WATER is the most abundant Among the amino acids are:
substance found in all organisms 1. alanine
and very essential to life. 2. arginine
Properties and functions : 3. asparagine
- It has ionization power 4. aspartic acid
- Permits capillary process 5. cysteine
- Agents for transporting and 6. glutamic acid
absorbing substances 7. glutamine
- Minimize abrupt change in body 8. glycine
temperature 9. histidine
- Serves as medium for most of the 10. isoleucine
biochemical reactions 11, leucine
12. lysine
13. methionine
14. phenylalanine,
15. proline
16. serine
17. threonine
18. tryptophan
19. tyrosine
20. valine
▪ Functional proteins
2. Oxygen is used for oxidation of A. Carrier proteins move molecules
food thgereby releasing energy such as albumine, hemoglobin, and
3. Carbon dioxide is utilized by transferin
plants in manufacturing food B. Enzymes are proteins that act as
through the process known as catalysts to regulate the speed of
photosynthesis many chemical reactions; for
4. Acids like HCl, play a role in example, amylase.
digestion of food. Ascorbic acid plays C. G-protein is a cell messenger; it
a role in boosting resistance carries signals from the outside of
against diseases the cell to the inside
5. Mineral salts furnish many D. Information molecules are
essential ions vital to animal life hormones such as insulin, prolactin
E. Muscle protein is responsible for
▪ Important organic substances the contraction of muscles such as
1. Protein is the most important myosin and actin
organic compound found in living F. Protection such as antibodies,
things. It is the fundamental interferons and complement.
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G. Regulatory proteins control
genes and cellular activities
H. structural proteins provide
shape and organization of cell;
for example ribosome and
cytoskeleton
I. Miscellaneous protein is either
adhesion protein or channel protein
2. Carbohydrates are the chief
energy source of all organisms.
- They serve as the backbone of
other molecules such as in the
nucleic acid. They combine with
protein to form the structural
component of the living cells.
- Saccharine or glucose is the
building block of carbohydrates
▪ Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide or simple
sugar Hexose (C6H12O6) are:
a. Glucose is also known as blood
sugar, metabolized during cellular
respiration. Found also in many
juices of fruits; hence called grape
sugar.
b. Fructose is also known as fruit
sugar.
c. Galactose is one of the
constituents of lactose aside from
glucose.
d. Pentose is a five carbon sugar,
examples are xylose and ribose.
e. Ribose is a component of nucleic
acid.
2. Disaccharide is composed of
two simple sugar (C12H22O11)
a. Maltose is also known as malt
sugar; upon hydrolysis, it yields 2
glucose.
- It used in preparing infant foods
and in beverages, such as malted
milk.
b. Sucrose is known as table sugar,
composed of glucose and fructose
and extracted from sugarcane and
sugar beets.
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c. Lactose is sugar obtained from
milk; hence, called as the milk
sugar, composed of glucose and
galactose.
3. Polysaccharide are formed by a
series of simple sugar bonded to
each other forming long chain of
multiple sugars.
a. Starch is made up of glucose
units, and usually widely
distributed in plants.
b. Glycogen is a highly branched
polysaccharide, also composed of
glucose units and known as the
animal starch.
c. Cellulose is made up of glucose
units and found in the cell wall of
plant cells.
d. Chitin is found in the
exoskeleton of crabs and lobster and
is made up of N-acetylglucosamide.
3. Nucleic acids are
macromolecules built as long
chain of monomers called
nucleotides.
- Nucleic acid functions primarily in
the storage and transmission of
genetic information but they may
also have structural and catalytic
roles.
- Nucleotide the building unit of
nucleic acid.
▪ Nucleic acid found in living
things
A. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
contains the genetic material, the
hereditary information of living
things. It controls the organization
of enzymes, thus determining the
chemical activities of the cell. It
contains the following nitrogenous
base: adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine.
B. ribonucleic acid (RNA) carries
out the genetic material for most of
the viruses and is associated with
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protein synthesis of all cellular
organisms. Adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil are the
nitrogenous base compounds.
4. Lipids serve as the highest
source of energy for the body. They
act as insulators protecting animals
from extreme cold. Lipid is
composed of building units called
fatty acids and glycerol.
▪ Classification of Lipids
- Neutral fats or fats are the major
fuels of animals.
- Phospholipid resembles a fat, but
has only two fatty acids. It is an
important biological component of
the plasma membrane and
contribute to the cell membrane
selective permeability
c. Sphingolipid is a lipid found in
the lungs, brain and nerve tissues. -
They help maintain the right shape
of the tissues and organs.
d. Waxes are long chain of fatty
acids, which combined with a longer
alcohol molecule, they are
component of polishers, ointment,
and lubricant
e. Steroids are built around a four
ringed hydrocabon skeleton.
Cholesterol is one the most
important steroids and a component
of animal cell membrane.
▪ Kinds of Vitamins
1. Vitamin A (retinol or anti-
xeropthalmia) are found in liver,
eggyolk, milk, cheese, butter, cream,
green and yellow vegetables.
- Essential for normal bone and
skeletal growth.
2. Vitamin B Complex – was first
believed to be only one vitamin.
- Researchers later discovered that it
consists of 8 vitamins
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3. B1 (thiamine) – prevents beri-
beri and diseases of the nervous
system.
- Necessary for good appetite, good
muscles tone and for carbohydrate
metabolism.
4. B2 (riboflavin) – most abundant
in milk, cheese, liver, fish, poultry,
and green vegetables. Needed for
growth and for healthy skin and
eyes.
4. B6 (pyridoxine) – helps the body
use amino acids. Also needed for
healthy teeth and gums, blood
vessels, nervous system and red
blood cells. Found in cereals, yeast,
meat, poultry, fish and most
vegetables are good sources of this
vitamins.
5. B12 (cobalamin) – essential for
proper development of red blood
cells. Also helps for the proper
function of the nervous system.
Found in eggs, meat, milk, and milk
products.
6. Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) – needed
for the production of red blood cells.
Found in green and leafy vegetables,
yeast, meat, poultry and fish.
7. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) –
helps the body convert
carbohydrates, fats, and protein into
energy. Egg yolk, meat, nuts, liver,
milk and legumes are good sources
of this vitamin.
8. Vitamin B3(Niacin) – essential
for cell metabolism and absorption
of carbohydrates. It also helps
maintain healthy skin. Liver, yeast,
lean meat, whole-grains, enriched
breads and cereals are good sources
of niacin.
9. Vitamin B7 (biotin)- needed for
healthy circulatory system and for
maintaining healthy and beautiful
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skin. Egg yolk, nuts, liver, kidney, ▪ Water soluble vitamins

legumes and most fresh vegetables. 1. Thiamine
9. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) – very 2. Riboflavin
essential for sound bones and teeth. 3. Niacin
It is also needed for tissue 4. Pyridoxine
metabolism and wound healing. 5. Vitamin B12
- Good sources of vitamin c include 6. Biotin
citrus fruits, tomatoes, raw cabbage, 7. Folic acid
potatoes, guavas, strawberries, 8. Pantothenic acid
papaya, mangoes and green leafy 9. Vitamin C
vegetables.
10. Vitamin D (calciferol) – helps ►CHAPTER 3: CELL STRUCTURE
prevent rickets. It has been called
the sunshine vitamin because it
forms in the skin when the body is
exposed to sunlight. Cod liver oil,
milk, cheese, liver, sardines, tuna,
salmon, egg yolk and fortified
margarine contain large amount of
vitamin D.
11. Vitamin E (tocopherol or antI
sterility) helps the body convert
fatty acids into energy. It is also
essential in the formation and
proper functioning of the red blood
cells, muscles and other tissues.
- Found in vegetable oil, ▪ Introduction to Cells
mayonnaise, salad dressing, - Cells are the basic units of
margarine, nuts, legumes, lettuce organisms
and whole-grain cereals. - Cells can only be observed under
12. Vitamin K (menadione) microscope
– essential for normal blood clotting. ▪ Basic types of cells:
Liver, egg yolk, legumes, tomatoes
and leafy vegetables are good
sources of vitamin K.

- Vitamins are organic substances,

not synthesized within the body that
is essential in small amounts for the
maintenance of normal metabolic
functions. ▪ Number of Cells
▪ Fat soluble vitamins Organisms may be:
1. Vitamin A Unicellular – composed of one cell
2. Vitamin D Multicellular- composed of many
3. Vitamin E cells that may organize
4. Vitamin K
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▪ Cells May be Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
- Prokaryotes include bacteria &
lack a nucleus or membrane-bound
structures called organelles
- Eukaryotes include most other
cells & have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (plants,
fungi, & animals)
▪ Prokaryotes
- Nucleoid region contains the DNA
- Cell membrane & cell wall
- Contain ribosomes (no membrane)
to make proteins in their cytoplasm
▪ Eukaryotic Cell
- Contain 3 basic cell
structures:
-Nucleus
- Cell Membrane
- Cytoplasm with organelles
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▪ Two main types of eukaryotic
cell:
▪ Organelles
- Very small size
- Can only be observed under a
microscope
- Have specific functions
- Found throughout cytoplasm
▪ Organelles Found in Cells
Examples of Organelles include:
- Endoplasmic reticulum (rough &
smooth) canals for movement
- Golgi Bodies wrap & export
proteins
- Nucleolus makes ribosomes
- Lysosomes digests & gets rid of
wastes
- Ribosomes makes proteins
▪ Golgi Bodies
- Stacks of flattened sacs
- Have a shipping side & a receiving
side
- Receive & modify proteins made by
ER
- Transport vesicles with modified
proteins pinch off the ends
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▪ Lysosome
- Contain digestive enzymes
- Break down food and worn out cell
parts for cells
- Programmed for cell death (lyse &
release enzymes to break down &
recycle cell parts)

▪ Cell Powerhouse
- Rod shape
- Site of Cellular respiration

▪ Nucleolus
- Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli
- Inside nucleus
- Disappears when cell divides
- Makes ribosomes that make
proteins
▪ In Animal Cells:
- Active cells like muscles have more
mitochondria
- Burn sugars to produce energy
ATP
▪ Surrounding the Cell

▪ Smooth & Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum
- Smooth ER lacks ribosomes &
makes proteins USED In the cell
- Rough ER has ribosomes on its
surface & makes proteins to - Lies immediately against the cell
EXPORT wall in plant cells
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- Made of protein and phospholipids - Protect and support the enclosed

- Selectively permeable substances (protoplasm)
▪ Cell or Plasma Membrane - Resist entry of excess water into
▪ Living layer the cell
- Controls the movement of - Give shape to the cell
materials into and out of the cell ▪ Vacuole
- Selectively permeable - Have a large central vacuole
▪ Cell Wall - Surrounded by tonoplast
▪ Nonliving layer - Contains cell sap, sugars, proteins,
- Gives structure and shape to plant minerals, wastes, & pigments
and bacterial cells
▪ Different kinds of plant cells
▪ Cytoplasm of a Cell
Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell membrane
- Provides a medium for chemical
reactions to take place
- Contains organelles to carry out
specific jobs
Examples: chloroplast &
mitochondrion
▪ Control Organelle
- Controls the normal activities of
the cell
- Contain the DNA ▪ Animal cell
- Bounded by a nuclear membrane - No cell wall or chloroplast
- Contains chromosomes - Stores glycogen in the cytoplasm
- Control Organelle for food energy
- Each cell has fixed number of ▪ Animal cell organelle
chromosomes that carry genes
- Genes control cell characteristics
▪ Plant Cell Organelles
- Contain the green pigment
chlorophyll
- Traps sunlight to make to make
sugars (food)
- Process called photosynthesis
▪ Plant Cell
▪ Dead layer
- Large empty spaces present - Near the nucleus
between cellulose fibers - Paired structures
- Freely permeable - Help cell divide
- Made of cellulose which forms very
thin fibers
- Strong and rigid
- Found in plant cells
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▪ Different kinds of animal
Cells
▪ Similarities between plant
cells and animal cells
- Both have a cell membrane
surrounding the cytoplasm
- Both have a nucleus
- Both contain mitochondria
▪ Differences between plant
cells and animal cells
▪ Animal cells
- Relatively smaller in size
- Irregular shape
- No cell wall
- Vacuole small or absent
- Glycogen as food storage
- Nucleus at the center
▪ Plant cells
- Relatively larger in size
- Regular shape
- Cell wall present
- Large central vacuole
- Starch as food storage
- Nucleus near cell wall
▪ Compound Microscope
- Instrument for observing small
objects
- Magnify images up to 2000X
their size
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▪ The cell is the Basic Unit of Life
- Cell is the smallest unit of living
organisms
- Unicellular organisms are made of
one cell only
- The cells of multicellular
organisms are specialized to perform
different functions
e.g. mesophyll cells for
photosynthesis and root hair cells
for water absorption
▪ Levels of organization
- Cells are grouped together and
work as a whole to perform special
functions
▪ Tissue
- A group of similar cells to perform
a particular function
Animals : epithelial tissue,
muscular tissue
Plants : vascular tissue, mesophyll
▪ Organ
- Different tissues group together
to carry out specialized functions
Heart : consists of muscles,
nervous tissue and blood vessels
Leaf : consists of epidermis,
mesophyll and vascular tissue
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▪ The structure of a leaf (plant Examples of a Human Body

organ) System

▪ The Structures of a Heart

(Animal Organ)

Examples of a Human Body

System

▪ System
- Several organs and tissues work
together to carry out a particular set
of functions in a co-ordinated way
Human : digestive, respiratory,
excretory, circulatory and
reproductive systems
Plant : root and shoot systems
▪ Human Body Systems
Examples of systems :
- Digestive System
- Respiratory System
- Circulatory System
- Nervous System
- Reproductive System

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Examples of a Human Body

System

Examples of a Human Body

System

▪ Levels of Organization
- cells (muscle cells,nerve cells)
- tissues (muscle, epithelium)
- organs (heart, lungs, stomach)
- systems (circulatory system)
- organism (human)

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