ADVANCED TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION Technical Writing versus Academic Writing

Week 1 Academic and technical writing are two forms of writing between which a key difference can
be identified. Most people assume that a technical writer is, in fact, an academic writer as
INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION well. This, however, is a false assumption. Although both academic writing and technical
writing require excellent writing skills, the key differences between these two types of writing
Technical communication is written for and about business and industry, focusing on are the audience and purpose of writing. Academic Writing is a form of writing that is used in
products and services: how to manufacture them, market them, manage them, deliver them, academic disciplines. On the other hand, technical writing is a form of writing that is mostly
and use them. Technical writing is written: in the work environment or for supervisors, used in technical disciplines. As you can see, the context of the two forms of writing differ
colleagues, subordinates, vendors, and customers. Technical writing, which must be from one another. Also, the target audience for academic writing is mostly scholars, but not
understood easily and quickly, includes: memos and e-mail letters, reports, instructions, in the case of technical writing. Even a lay person can be the target audience.
brochures and newsletters, the job search, web pages, fliers, PowerPoint presentations,
and graphics. Technical writing/Technical Communication is the resume that helps get a job Technical Writing versus Creative Writing
and the web page that promotes a company. In each case, the technical document must be Technical writing and creative writing
quantifiable, precise, and easily understood. are two styles of writing, which may
very well be distinguished just by
Why would you study technical communication? Is your learning not enough without adding having a look at their traits. The
one more assignment or series of assignments? What’s the point? principal between every of them is
that, creative writing is written to
You often do not believe that you will have to write at work. Do not assume that once your enthral, entertain and arouse a certain
education is completed, writing will be a distant memory because you are wrong! Once you feeling in a reader, whereas technical
are employed, you will have to write on the job. One reason for studying teaching technical writing is to show the viewers with the
communication is so you will know the types of documents you will write on your future job. factual knowledge and is launched in
a logical technique.
So, let’s prepare ourselves for an enjoyable technical writing experiences!
Below is a poem about a tennis shoe
What Is Technical Communication?
as well as technical specifications for
Technical information is frequently communicated through documents such as proposals,
manufacturing the same shoe. These two writing samples further illustrate the difference
emails, reports, podcasts, computer help files, blogs, and wikis. Although these documents
between technical writing and other types of writing.
are a key component of technical communication, so too is the process: writing and reading
tweets and text messages, for example, or participating in webinar or videoconference
UNDERSTANDING PURPOSE
exchanges with colleagues. Technical communication encompasses a set of activities that
Technical communication begins with identifying a problem and thinking about how to solve
people do to discover, shape, and transmit information.
it. Because of the variety of problems and solutions in the working world, people
communicate technical information for a number of purposes, many of which fall into one of
When you produce technical communication, you use the four basic communication modes
two categories:
— listening, speaking, reading, and writing — to analyze a problem, find and evaluate
evidence, and draw conclusions. These are the same skills and processes you use when
Communication that helps others
you write in college, and the principles you have studied in your earlier writing courses apply
learn about a subject, carry out a task,
to technical communication. The biggest difference between technical communication and
or make a decision. For instance,
the other kinds of writing you have done is that technical communication has a somewhat
administrators with the Department of
different focus on purpose and audience.
Health might hire a media production
company to make a video that
explains to citizens how to use a
website to manage their Medicare
benefits. The president of a
manufacturing company might write
Difference of Technical writing from other types of write-ups an article in the company newsletter to
Technical Writing is different from other types of write-ups in terms of content, style, explain to employees why
language, and purpose. management decided to phase out
production of one of the company’s
products. The board of directors of a
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community-service organization might produce a grant proposal to submit to a philanthropic
organization in hopes of being awarded a grant. Figure 1.1 shows a screen capture from an
online video that explains how to create a facebook web page.
FIGURE 1.1 A Communication That Helps Others Carry Out a Task
The purpose of this online video is to help viewers carry out the task on how to create their
own web page.
Communication that
reinforces or changes
attitudes and motivates
readers to take action. A
wind energy company
might create a website with
videos and text intended to
show that building wind
turbines off the coast of a
tourist destination would
have many benefits and
few risks. A property
owners’ association might
create a website to make
the opposite argument: that the wind turbines would have few benefits but many risks. In
each of these two cases, the purpose of communicating the information is to persuade
people to accept a point of view and encourage them to act — perhaps to contact their
elected representatives and present their views about this public-policy issue. Figure 1.2
shows an excerpt from a website that promotes the building of wind turbines off the coast of
Massachusetts.
FIGURE 1.2 A Communication That Aims to Change Attitudes
The purpose of this website, created by an energy development company, is to generate
public support for an offshore wind park.
UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE
When you communicate in the workplace, you have not only a clear purpose — what you
want to achieve — but also a clearly defined audience — one or more people who are going
to read the document, attend the oral presentation, visit the website, or view the video you
produce. Sometimes audience members share the same purpose, but not always. It’s
possible, even likely, that a piece of technical communication will have multiple audiences
with different purposes.
In most of your previous academic writing, your audience has been your instructor, and your
purpose has been to show your instructor that you have mastered some body of information
or skill. Typically, you have not tried to create new knowledge or motivate the reader to take
a particular action — except to give you a “95” for that assignment.
By contrast, in technical communication, your audience will likely include peers and
supervisors in your company, as well as people outside your company. For example,
suppose you are a public-health scientist working for a federal agency. You and your
colleagues just completed a study showing that, for most adults, moderate exercise
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provides as much healthbenefit as strenuous exercise. After participating in numerous
meetings with your colleagues and after drafting, critiquing, and revising many drafts, you
produce four different documents:
 a journal article for other scientists
 a press release to distribute to popular print and online publications
 an infographic for use in doctors’ offices
 an animated blog post for your agency to share on social media
 In each of these documents, you present the key information in a different way to meet
the needs of a particular audience.
The Challenges of Producing Technical Communication
One of the most challenging activities you will engage in as a professional is communicating
your ideas to audiences. Why? Because communication is a higher-order skill that involves
many complex factors.
The good news is that there are ways to think about these complex factors, to think through
them, that will help you communicate better. No matter what document you produce or
contribute to, you need to begin by considering five sets of factors.
AUDIENCE-RELATED FACTORS
What problem or problems is your audience trying to solve? Does your audience know
enough about your subject to understand a detailed discussion, or do you need to limit the
scope, the amount of technical detail, or the type of graphics you use? Does your audience
already have certain attitudes or expectations about your subject that you wish to reinforce
or change? Does your audience speak English well, or should you present the information
in more than one language? Does your audience share your cultural assumptions about
such matters as how to organize and interpret documents, or do you need to adjust your
writing approach to match a different set of assumptions? Does your audience include
people with disabilities (of vision, hearing, movement, or cognitive ability) who have
requirements you need to meet?
PURPOSE-RELATED FACTORS
Before you can write, you need to determine your purpose: what do you want your audience
to know or believe or do after having read your document? Do you have multiple purposes?
If so, is one more important than the others? Although much technical communication is
intended to help people perform tasks, such as configuring privacy settings in a social-
media environment, many organizations large and small devote significant communication
resources to the increasingly vital purpose of branding: creating an image that helps
customers distinguish the company from competitors. Most companies now employ
community specialists as technical communicators to coordinate the organization’s day-to-
day online presence and its social-media campaigns. These specialists publicize new
products and initiatives and respond to questions and new developments. They also
manage all of the organization’s documents — from tweets to blog posts to Facebook fan
pages and company-sponsored discussion forums.
SETTING-RELATED FACTORS
What is the situation surrounding the problem you are trying to solve? Is there a lot at stake
in the situation, such as the budget for a project, or is your document a more routine
communication, such as technical notes for a software update? What is the context in which
your audience will use your document? Will the ways in which they use it — or the physical
or digital environment in which they use it — affect how you write? Will the document be 1. Traditional Technical Writing- While traditional technical writing sounds broad, pieces
used in a socially or politically charged setting? Does the setting include established norms of content within this category are specifically written for professional audiences. These
of ethical behavior? Is the setting formal or informal? Settings can have a great deal of experts rely on traditional technical writing for targeted research papers, programming
influence over how audiences think about and use technical communication. guidelines, and repair manuals.

DOCUMENT-RELATED FACTORS
What type of content will the document include? How will the content aid problem solving?
Does your subject dictate what kind of document (such as a report or a blog post) you
choose to write? Does your subject dictate what medium (print or digital) you choose for
your document? Do you need to provide audiences with content in more than one medium?
If you’re using a document template, how should you modify it for your audiences and
purposes? Does the application call for a particular writing style or level of formality? (For
the sake of convenience, we will use the word document throughout this book to refer to all
forms of technical communication, from written documents to oral presentations and online
forms, such as podcasts and wikis.)
a. Science and Medical Papers- Research results can be hard to explain, so
scientists collaborate with technical writers to interpret and organize findings.
These papers act as learning resources for practitioners to understand procedures
and results. As with any form of research, technical writers ensure that proper
credibility is given in the text.
b. Professional Reports and Review- In addition to writing for scientists and
doctors, technical writers assist in creating reports for business growth and
educational institutions. Examples of professional reports include project and
business status reports, legal case reviews, and personnel activity reports.

PROCESS-RELATED FACTORS 2. End-User Documentation- Almost every product you purchase has a written explanation
What process will you use to produce the document? Is there an established process to of operation. These “how-to” pieces are written to help users understand and operate
support the work, or do you need to create a new one? Do you have sufficient time for products correctly. Since end-user documentation requires clear and concise instruction, it’s
planning tasks, such as analyzing your audience and purpose, choosing writing tools, and important to create content that breaks down technological terms to layman’s terms.
researching and reading background information? Does your budget limit the number of
people you can enlist to help you or limit the size or shape of the document? Does your a. User Help Guides- When
schedule limit how much information you can include in the document? Does your schedule software product users
limit the type or amount of document testing you can do? Will the document require have questions that need
updating or maintenance? specific answers, they turn
to user help guides. These
Because all these factors interact in complicated ways, every technical document you are written to provide clear
create involves a compromise. If you are writing a set of instructions for installing a water and sensible answers to
heater and you want those instructions to be easily understood by people who speak only common questions that
Spanish, you will need more time and a bigger budget to have the document translated, and
may develop as use of
it will be longer and thus a little bit harder to use, for both English and Spanish speakers.
software programs continue. User help guides are broken down into sections
You might need to save money by using smaller type, smaller pages, and cheaper paper,
depending on the type of ‘help’ needed – allowing users to read ahead or re-read
and you might not be able to afford to print it in full color. In technical communication, you
do the best you can with your resources of time, information, and money. The more information to make their understanding of a product stronger.
carefully you think through your options, the better able you will be to use your resources
wisely and make a document that will get the job done. b. Product Manuals- Product manuals are
those small booklets that highlight a
product’s main features, general
Week 2: Importance of Technical Communication
maintenance, and basic operation. It
In the first week of your module, it was clearly discussed what technical communication is. contains written guidelines informing the
So, we will just have a recap of its definition. When we say technical writing, it is a form of audience how to use a certain product.
written communication – especially in engineering and other applied sciences in – which
scientific, business, and legal ideas, concepts, and data are presented in an objective, c. Assembly Guidelines- Since assembly
accurate, and logical manner. Is it also defined as the practice of documenting processes, guidelines tell users how to physically set up
such as software manuals or instructional materials. In short, technical writing is a type of a product, technical writers are responsible
writing where the author is writing about a particular subject that requires direction, for writing clear and user-friendly, step-by-
instruction, or explanation. With the different definitions of Technical Writing, we are going to step instructions. It’s important for these
discuss the Types of Writings in Technical Professions instructions to be written in a way that
ensure users can accurately assemble
Types of Technical Writing products.
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3. Technical Marketing Content -Content marketing is a strategic marketing approach
focused on creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent content to attract and
retain a clearly defined audience — and, ultimately, to drive profitable customer action. The
primary goal of marketing content is to convince the reader to buy a product or service.
Brochures- Brochures take users to a deeper level
of understanding and appeal through clear
descriptions, functions, and uses of a product. It is
intended to provide customers with additional
information on corporate offerings, and is used by
sales personnel to persuade customers to purchase
a product. The brochure – also called a data sheet,
product brief or solution brief – describes the main
features of the product, any specifications for its use
and is usually accompanied by either a picture of the
product or an architectural design, illustrating the solution.
Basic Principles of Good Technical Writing
Technical writing is one of the most important elements of a company's customer support
strategy, and these five principles that technical writers must bear in mind to be successful.
Inattention to any of these five areas often leads to a substandard document and
dissatisfaction on the client end.
Mills and Walter (1980: 13-14) identified the basic principles as follows:
1. Always bear in mind a specific reader, real or imaginary, when you are writing a report;
and always assume that he is intelligent but uninformed.
 An awareness of who is going to read a user guide, the knowledge gap that the
user guide is filling and the delivery method of the guide all play important roles.
2. Before you start to write, always decide what the exact purpose of your report is; and
make sure that every paragraph, every sentence, every word makes a clear
contribution to that purpose and makes it at the right time.
 Before beginning any writing task, the writer analyses the audience and identifies
the purpose for the document. The writer asks following questions about the
audience:* Who will read the document?* What are their biases?* What are
technical writer’s ethical responsibilities when communicating this to the audience?
 With regard to purpose, technical writers ask: what should this document
accomplish? What should it do? Should it:* Inform* Request* Instruct* Suggest*
Order* Report* Reply* Analyse/ critique* Compare
3. Use language that is simple, concrete, and familiar.
 Different types of writing have different audiences, and each audience has its own
linguistic needs, which the writer respects with tone and word choice.
4. At the beginning and end of every section of your report, check your writing according
to this principle: First you tell the reader what you’re going to tell him, then you tell him
what you’ve told him.
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5. Make your report attractive to look at.
Characteristics or Properties of Technical Writing
The following descriptive words sum up all the characteristics or properties of technical
writing that experts or authoritative people named in the book (Technical Writing in this Era
Globalization and Modern Technology) clearly expressed in their books.
Accurate
A technical written work is accurate when it deals with the facts that are completely true,
instead of things whose identity, appearance, or measurements are so difficult to determine.
An accurate report uses words, sentences, numbers, or figures that exactly express what
the written work intends to convey (Bantin, 2008). It avoids the frequent use of expressions
for hedging such as may, perhaps, maybe, seem, apparently, would, etc. Using an
expression that conveys one and only one meaning instead of an ambiguous term with
multiple meaning will help readers get an easy and quick understanding of the whole
composition (Ling, 2004).
Clear
Your written work is clear if, on one reading, your readers are able to get a quick
understanding of the main message or point of the whole composition. You can easily
achieve this if you always remember that clear writing always results from clear thinking, as
well as from the use of simple, concise, specific, and grammatically correct language
structures. How the person around you express themselves or how you express the ideas
as they come to your mind serves as your guide or pattern in writing things on the paper.
For the sake of clarity, it is important too, that you apply in your work all the principles of
good sentence construction like parallelism, consistency of tense, dangling modifiers, split
infinitive, choppy sentences, run-on sentences, comma splice, wordiness, and so on.
Applying the qualities of a good paragraph writing such as unity, coherence, and emphasis
are likewise essential to making your technical written work appear clear to your readers.
(Gustavi, 2008; and Marsh, 2005)
Formal
In technical writing, you cannot just write anything you like in any way you want on your
writing paper, because some writing standards underlie the structure, pattern, format, and
language of this kind of writing. You have to adhere to these agreed upon technical writing
rules because your readers judge the value or reputation of your output based on the how
you conform to the conventions governing this kind of writing.
Graphical
Graphs like tablets, charts, figures, diagrams, maps, pictures, and other illustrations are
absolutely necessary in technical writing. This is so because this kind of writing deals with
topics that are technical; meaning, it deals with things appealing only to certain group of
people, or uses words expressing specialized meanings or ideas known only to a specific
set of people. Considering that this nature of technical writing makes the technical work not
readable to all types of readers in this world, you then have to include in your work non-
prose materials like graphs to stress, clarify, simplify, or sum up ideas which you textually
present in your written compositions. (Bertoline, 2009)
Objective
This characteristic of technical writing is shown by any written work of yours that avoids
revealing your individual thinking, personal meaning, or emotional attitude about your
subject matter. Whatever understanding you have about your written work comes from
outside yourself; meaning, from the results of your environmental observations or sensory
experiences. Avoiding to include in your technical paper, your inner thoughts, sentiments or
feelings means adopting an impartial or impersonal stand or attitude towards what you’ve
written.
This is what others call as the “You Attitude” or “Scientific Attitude”, whereby, in your writing,
your focus is on your reader’s point of view rather than on your views as the writer. The
following are some ways to maintain an objective or impersonal tone your technical written
work.
1. Use passive voice instead of active voice structures.
2. Use third-person point of view by using words like his/her, they, or the user, instead of
the personalized first person point of view like I, We, Me, Ours, and the like.
3. Downplay the subject or personal nature of the text by avoiding the use of emotive
words like dissatisfied, uninteresting, or undignified.
However, some experts with the modern view on technical writing argued that adopting a
modern view of technical writing means humanizing technical writing; that is, feeling free to
use personal pronouns to arouse the readers’ involvement or interest in what they are
reading.
Practical
Technical writing is practical if it results in a written output that you can apply, use, or carry
out in your day-to-day living. It does not mainly deal with scenarios or situations that you
can just imagine or ponder on, but also tackles up things you can practice in your everyday
life situations like designing, constructing, repairing, selling, travelling, buying, bidding,
inquiring, cooking, painting, and many others.
Procedural
Being a formal and scientific way of writing whereby rules or conventions determine the
appropriateness of your written output, technical writing adheres to a particular course of
writing acts. It presents facts and information in a systematic or methodical manner. Here,
you act like a scientist following a certain procedure or a step-by-step method in proving
your point about your subject matter. For instance, first you have to identify and analyse
your problem, collect data about it, and present your conclusions, discoveries, or findings
about the object of your study.
Special
Writing something to cater to a specific set of people rather than to any group of people
using expressions quite understandable and familiar only to this specific set of readers, not
to all kinds of people, is what makes technical writing special. Inclined to be exclusive and
selective of its topic, language, methodology, and readers, this kind of writing is special,
unique, or extra different from the other modes of writing.
Diversionary
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Considering technical writing as on-the-job writing that is prone to extensive exposure to
multicultural clients, co-workers, cross-cultural or multilingual communication brought about
by globalization through the internet or the Email, you come to think of this kind of writing as
one that will lead you to various topic, ideas, people, methodologies, concerns, purposes,
formats, language, etc. It has some aspects or features that are as diverse or varied as the
different kinds of jobs available to all kinds of people all over the world. Though (Perkins,
2008) argued that intercultural communication is the “highest art and science of human
communication,” your technical writing acts must always be “sensitive to pitfalls” or hidden
dangers arising from diversities in a multi-cultural environment. (Canavor, 2010)
Straightforward
A straightforward manner of writing means presenting knowledge or ideas honestly and
directly. Unlike these other ways of writing – literary and expository writing that permit the
writer to hide some meanings through figurative language – technical writing brings out
things in frank, unequivocal, or clear-cut way. Metaphorical, idiomatic, or circuitous
expression of ideas has no place in technical writing because your immediate purpose as a
technical writer is to persuade your readers to say “yes” instantly to what you have written.
Hence, to realize this objective, the language of your written work has to be direct, specific,
and simple enough to make you and your readers come to terms with you immediately. The
use of complex, highfalutin or pretentious words demands longer time for the reader to think
or decide about the effectiveness of your offer. This consequently hampers or delays the
decision-making power of any person you want to agree with what you have written.
Authoritative
To describe technical writing as authoritative is to think of it as one clothed with full rights,
powers, and influence to do a thing, to command or be obeyed, or to enforce something on
any one. The authority or power that you technical writing may wield over your reader
springs form the fact that the contents of your output does not mainly come from your our
intelligence but also from other people’s expertise, knowledge, and experience that could
command respect or belief.
Proofs of the authoritativeness of your technical paper are the properly cited and
documented ideas of knowledgeable writers of technical writing books in your work,
specifically, the in-text citations, footnotes, and bibliographical entries in your paper. Another
proof is the reality that you are the creator of the paper, and, such as, you have an idea of
the extent of its excellence, and have the full control over the quality, kind, or extent of ideas
to go into your paper, including the way you react to inquiries about your output.
Presentable
The physical appearance of a technical writing output somehow mirrors the person who
produced such a paper. A dirty-looking technical written work diminishes its power,
influence or authoritativeness. So, if you want your technical paper to have a strong impact
on the reader or to elicit an immediate and positive response from him, see to it that your
written work is free from any grammatical and typographical errors. Present it nearly
whether it is handwritten, typewritten, or computerized.
The layout, order, or placement of the various parts of your work likewise makes your work
presentable. In addition, focusing your attention on these basic elements of a written prosaic
work; margin, spacing, punctuation marks, size/style of the letter, and quality/size of the
stationery or bond paper contributes a lot to making your entire composition presentable or
capable of getting serious and favourable attention from your readers.
Qualities of Technical Writer
In view of these properties and principles of technical writing, the technical writer should
possess the following basic qualification:
 Adequate knowledge of the subject matter.
 Ability to compile information.
 Ability to organize facts or ideas.
 Ability to analyze and synthesize.
 Ability to learn and use specialized vocabularies.
 Ability to write at the reader’s comprehensive level.
 Ability to use the inductive and deductive methods of reasoning.
 Accuracy of language.
 Objectivity in presenting facts and issues.
 Ability to write concise prose.
 Ability to determine the effectiveness of words, sentences, and paragraphs.
 Ability to conform to the code of ethics in the technical writing professions.
Week 3: Characteristics of Technical Communication Style
The theory of Jerome Borowick on technical writing has five (5) hallmarks, to wit: objective,
clear, concise, and convincing. He believed that these hallmark must be accomplished
when the style is descriptive and qualitative. Paul M. Zall, in his book titled “Elements of
Technical Report Writing,” discussed the different characteristics of well-written technical
works. He named these properties as the ABC’s of technical writing.
Accuracy
A technical work is considered accurate when it presents facts that are completely true. For
instance, misplaced decimal point of your grades could make years of labor worthless; a
misstated fact could create misinformation. One error in calculation, one illogical statement
can make the whole report doubtful. That is why every statement must undergo copy-editing
or proofreading to check accuracy of statements, texts, numbers, and figures. A technical
work must also avoid frequent use of expressions for hedging such as may, perhaps,
maybe, seem, apparently, among others.
In order to come up with error-free written works, you have to demonstrate a strong
“attention-to-detail” skill. This skill refers to the ability to achieve accuracy and thoroughness
when accomplishing a certain task. For example, during your internship, your supervisor
assigned you to write a report but you submitted your work with a lot of mistakes. Read and
re-read your work before submitting so that your work will
completely devoid of errors. Check mistakes on spelling,
grammar and punctuation.
Brevity
In technical communication, technical papers must be short
or brief. It also makes use of concise expressions. A good
technical writer should begin with his/her main points and
then show why it is sound. Emphasizing the highlights of
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your work, cutting out irrelevant comments as well as immaterializing excursions and
meaningless statements are highly recommended and observed.
Brevity is considered as the striking feature of any written communication. This feature can
be achieved by avoiding wordiness and repetition; thus, writing enables you to arrive quickly
of what you want to convey in a clear and understandable manner.
1. Using key words to hold attention. This method helps the reader to skim for better
information.
Example: My account balance got deducted because of activation Spotify. I did not request
for the subscription. (18 words)
Correct: Unauthorized subscription of Spotify caused balanced deduction in my account. (11
words)
2. Stating important information first. Readers get convinced when they have the
reason first. Apply this idea in writing: Bring ‘because’ part to the front; delete because;
add ‘so’ to the last sentence
Example: We need more classrooms because the University’s enrolment is increasing.
Correct: The University’s enrolment is increasing. So, we need more classrooms.
3. Delete over-polite phrases
Example: With due regards, we would like to state that the schedule of examination has
been cancelled.
Correct: The schedule of examination has been cancelled.
4. Delete repetitions. We remove repetition through:\
a. Using umbrella terms (mobiles, laptops, iPads = electronic devices)
Example: All examinees are instructed to bring their receipt of examination fee and
identification card on the day of board examination. They would not be allowed to enter the
testing rooms if they do not have receipt of examination fee and identification card.
Correct: All examinees are instructed to bring their receipt of examination fee and
identification card on the day of board examination. They would not be allowed to enter the
testing rooms if they do not have these documents
b. Using pronouns to replace nouns
Example: The SHS principal has called a meeting at 2:00 pm. The venue is SHS principal’s
meeting room.
Correct: The SHS principal has called a meeting at 2:00 pm. The venue is in her meeting
room.
c. Using abbreviations for technical terms when used twice in statements.
Example: The Dean of Student Affairs and Services said that the Electronic Voting
Machines were bugged. However, bugging an Electronic Voting Machines is highly
technical and costly.
Correct: The Dean of Student Affairs and Services said that the Electronic Voting Machines
were bugged. However, bugging an EVM is highly technical and costly.
5. Cross out Redundancies
Example: Please meet me at 3 pm in the afternoon.
Correct: Please meet me at 3 pm.
6. Cut out lengthy phrases
Example: The Office of the Dean of the Student Affairs and Services is in close proximity to
the Good Shepherd Chapel.
Correct: The Office of the Dean of the Student Affairs and Services is near the Good
Shepherd Chapel.
List of lengthy phrases and their corrections:
due to the fact that – because
In accordance with – according to
With regard to – regarding
Coherence
Coherence refers to the logical togetherness of the material. Sentences, paragraphs and
groups of paragraph hold together by means of appropriate transitional devices. Coherence
is an essential quality of a good written technical work. Without cohesion, the reader will not
understand the main points that you are trying to make. It also hampers readability.
Cohesion necessarily precedes coherence. Cohesion is achieved when sentences are
connected at the sentence level, whereas coherence is achieved when ideas are
connected.
Coherence also means as “clarity of expression.” Using simple transitions such as in
addition, additionally, furthermore, therefore, thus, on the contrary, by the same token, at
the same time, in other words, etc. is one of the strategies in ensuring coherence in
technical writing.
Other strategies are: 1) write sentences that flow by varying the lengths and structures, the
use of correct punctuation, and broadening your word choices; 2) Repeat your keywords but
be careful of excessive repetition; 3) Repeat sentence structures, which is used as a
rhetorical technique rather than cohesion to highlight parallelism between sentences; and 4)
Start every sentence or paragraph with information that hints at the content of the next
sentence
Confidence
As a writer or speaker, you have to display a sense of certainty of the things you write and
tell. You must not use “perhaps” and “maybe’s” and other forms of needless hedging and
qualifying since you know more about your subject. If you are hundred sure, say it; if you
are not, then go back and analyze where the problem lies and correct it.
Dignity
7
In technical communication, as a writer or speaker, you need formality with respect to words
and the way words are used. It refers to the quality of being honored, esteemed and worthy
by using straightforward expression as well as with simplified, summarized and well-
organized information.
Grammatical constructions should be complete. Pronouns like “which” and “that” should be
used.
For example: The CHED Commissioner informs students that classes in higher education
institutions will commence on September 15, 2020 and not The CHED Commissioner
informs students classes in higher education institutions will commence on September 15,
2020. Contractions like don’t, can’t, won’t, didn’t and others be avoided.
Emphasis
Stressing major points is major role of a technical writer. You should tell your readers what
is important and lead him from point to point by using a straightforward style, plenty of
guideposts and transitional aids.
Facility
Facility is making the report easy to read. For facility, report writing should observe pacing,
sequence, arrangement and continuity.
Grammatical Correctness
In technical communication, grammatical correctness is a must. As a writer, you need to
make your writing straightforward, logical and clear. Following the basic rules of grammar is
equally important. Below is the technical writing guide of Michigan State University (2007).
Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means using the same form for words that have the same level of
importance in a sentence or for a list of items that are joined by a coordinating conjunction,
such as “and” or “or.”
The scientist collected, dried, and weighed the samples.
When preparing bulleted or numbered lists use the same word type (i.e., all nouns, all
verbs) and maintain parallel structure. If the listed items complete the introduction
grammatically, place a period at the end of every line. Capitalize the first word in a bulleted
or numbered list.
Subjects and Verbs Stein & Smith has sold its Chicago properties.
It is important for text to flow smoothly. Subject and verb quality and agreement are
essential and allow the reader to move through the text. To ensure the reader understands 4. For clarity, make pronoun usage clear and understandable by avoiding vague
the intended meaning, abide by the following subject and verb rules and use the correct references.
verb tense. I worked hard on the experiment, and it was difficult.

Active and Passive Voice
Take responsibility by writing in active voice; use passive voice only when it is appropriate
for emphasis or when you lack information.
Active voice distinctly identifies the subject and the action taken by the subject. The
passive voice indicates that the subject receives, rather than performs, the action.
The sound’s reverberation struck the walls.
Passive voice changes the position of the previous subject into an indirect object and
focuses the sentence on what receives the action, the walls: The walls were struck by the
sound's reverberation.
When the active voice is appropriate, use it to create concise, energetic text. Only use the
passive voice when it is appropriate to say that an action is done to the subject.
Does the writer want us to consider the experiment as difficult, the work that was done
as difficult, or that it was difficult to work hard?
Compound Words
A compound word conveys a unit that is not as clearly conveyed by separate words.
1. Use a hyphen to connect elements of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-
nine and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element. The hyphen not only
unites but also separates the component words.
Example: 7-hour day, 3-inch ruler, eighty-five.
2. Use a hyphen after the “e” to designate “electronic”: e-mail, e-commerce, e-article
Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission of the hyphen
causes no confusion in sound or meaning.
Example: palm oil, eye opener, living costs

The final project was finished by the team. (passive) 3. Use a hyphen for clarification when four nouns appear in a row.
The team finished the final project. (active) Example: A sand-filtered purification system. The end-of-year report

Cases of Pronouns Capitalization

1. Nominative Pronouns: Used as a subject in the sentence (I, we, you, he, she, it, who, 1. Capitalize the name of a particular person, place, or thing, as well as an adjective that
and they): Mary and I will attend. refers to a specific name.
The guard who let us in checked our identification. Canada/Canadian, Tibetan Alpacas

2. Objective Pronouns: Used as objects of verbs or prepositions (me, us, you, him, 2. Capitalize descriptive names that are substituted frequently for the real proper names.
whom, and them): He questioned Susan and me about the copyright. Whom did you the Windy City, Honest Abe 10
ask?
3. Capitalize brand names and trademarked names.
3. Possessive Pronouns: Used to show possession or ownership (my, mine, our, your, Palmolive soap, Maxwell House coffee
his, her, theirs, its, whose, etc.): The Swartz Company may lose its best customer.
4. Generally capitalize a noun that is followed by a number or letter used to identify a unit
Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement or division.
1. A pronoun and its antecedent must agree in number. Examine the various Lot 14, Tract 833, Volume III, Chapter 8, Policy No. 12345, Catalog No. 214.
constructions of compound antecedents and the proper protocol in the examples below.
The owner is concerned about sales, but they will rebound. 5. Capitalize the names of courses of study only if they are derived from proper nouns.
English, shorthand, history, German, Business Mathematics 121
The President or his advisers should devote part of their time to this issue.
6. Unless a comma intervenes, capitalize titles that precede names; generally, do not
2. A parenthetical expression that appears between an antecedent and a pronoun does capitalize those that follow names.
not influence the form of the pronoun used. I have never met Congressman Nelson.
The accountant, rather than any of the other officers, will be asked for his or her opinion
of this purchase. 7. I have never met our congressman, Tim Nelson.
Professor Swartz did the research.
3. If the antecedent is a collective noun that refers to a group as a single unit, a singular
pronoun is needed. Company names are generally considered to be collective nouns.

8
 A name that indicates a family relationship is usually capitalized unless a noun or a
pronoun in the possessive case precedes it.
Uncle Ralph, Mother My aunt Millie, my mother
8. The names for the points of the compass and their derivatives are capitalized when
used to name regions, but not when used to indicate directions.
This sweater was made in the East. Turn west on M-20.
9. Capitalize the name of a season or the word "nature" only if it is spoken of as if it were
human. Old Man Winter left a foot of snow; our spring suits are on sale.
10. All words except articles (a, an, the), conjunctions, and short prepositions are
capitalized in names or titles that consist of more than one word. Do not capitalize "the"
if it precedes the name of an organization but is not actually a part of that organization's
name.
Official Draft of the NBA; the Eastman Kodak Company
11. Do not capitalize classes
(freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior), degrees (doctorate, doctor's, master's,
bachelor's, baccalaureate), or seasons (spring, summer, fall, winter), unless they
appear at the beginning of a sentence or in a headline.
12. Readability studies have shown that text is more easily read when in lower case as
opposed to all caps. When too many words are capitalized, they lose their importance.
Emphasis is achieved more effectively by using various font styles and sizes.
Numbers as Words
1. Generally spell out isolated numbers from one to ten.
The discussion lasted for ten minutes.
2. Unless emphasizing them, spell out indefinite numbers that may be expressed in one or
two words. Approximately thirty appliances were damaged.
3. Spell out a number that introduces a sentence. If the number is long, recast the
sentence to avoid awkwardness. Twenty people attended the lecture.
4. Spell out common fractions that are used alone. However, use figures in writing a
mixed number. He refused to accept his one-fourth share. The hike was 10 ½ miles
long.
5. When two numbers come together, express one in figures and the other in words. As a
rule, spell the first number unless the second number is a significantly shorter word;
i.e., Sixty $5 bills or 500 four-page booklets.
6. When rounding numbers, spell out million or billion to make reading easier. This tax
legislation will increase revenue by $7 million.
Numbers – Text or Digits
1. Generally use numerals to express all exact numbers above ten.
The corporate file has been missing for 31 days.
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2. Use the written form of a number for values 10 and below except to express market
quotations, dimensions, temperature, decimals, street numbers, pages and divisions of
a book, time, weights and measures, and identification numbers. The experiment had
three independent variables staged at 5, 10, and 15 degrees Kelvin.
3. If several numbers in a sentence perform similar functions, express them uniformly. If
one is written as a figure, write all as figures.
The inventory shows 21 ranges, 9 refrigerators, 37 washers, and 10 dryers. The 32 tables
sold in five days. (The numbers do not perform similar functions.)
Week 3: Characteristics of Technical Communication
Honesty
Honesty in writing acknowledges the use of other’s information or work either in footnotes or
in text. Honestly also involves reporting of your own mistakes and failures as well as
successes in the hope that it will provide a clue for some researcher working on a similar
subject from different angle.
Illustration
Illustrations (visuals or graphics in books) such as charts, graphs, diagrams and photos are
helpful in technical communication. These are used to clarify or support the text, to
summarize detailed and complex data or to simplify a complicated concept.
It can also be used to show a situation, a trend, or a movement. Illustration aids should be
referred somewhere in the text and should bear a caption referring directly to the discussion
they are supporting.
These illustration aids are used for data visualization. People will understand the report
easily by using then correctly. For example, pie graph is used for distribution and line graph
is used to determine a trend.
Judgment
Evidence in technical communication is the body of facts or data gathered and used by the
writer to develop a report. The best evidence is that which is 1) most ample; 2) most
pertinent; 3) most simple in explaining the facts with least additional evidence; and 4) most
in harmony with the rest of the available evidence. Evidence can be used as a basis for
judgment (as in conclusions and recommendation) should be included in the report.
Knowledge
The communication of knowledge is one of the chief functions of report writing. Collection of
data involves interpretation and the formulation of conclusions. Without interpretation, data
could remain useless.
Logic
Logic is thinking straight. It is chiefly a process of classification, putting things in their proper
places. Thus, there are certain trouble spots to avoid: 1) statements must not contradict
each other; 2) words must be used in a consistent sense; 3) statements must make sense;
5) judgments must not be based on too few data; 6) cause and effect should be clearly
distinguished from simple sequence; 7) conclusions should not be inferred if they have no
connection with the data; 8) an authority should not be accepted if he is biased and not an
in particular field.
Mechanical Neatness
Mechanical Neatness involves putting the report in perfect shape – neatly typed and well
marginalized. Also, the use of frequent headings, subheadings and indentations helps to
make the organization of the content clear. Your report should also be free from
typographical errors, crossings-out, smudges and the like. A clean report shows that you
care enough to send the best.
Normal Procedure
Normal procedure is conformity to standard practices, making the report easier to
understand. Report readers are used to finding information presented in standard fashion. If
you depart from the standard procedure, the reader may find report confusing and
unnerving and may be unsympathetic no matter how good the material is. If you want to
deviate from the standard way, you must re-educate the reader and explain the change in
the introduction, giving sound reasons for doing so.
Objectivity
Objectivity is the writer’s assuming a detached, impartial point of view. It involves writing in
the manner of a disinterested (not uninterested) second party. Reports must avoid the use
of person (I, me and my) except in short informal reports. By doing so, this indicates that the
work is team or company rather than individual activity.
Qualification
Qualification is explaining the circumstances surrounding your work because they might
have affected the results you are reporting. Modern scientific thinking is based on the
concept of change – what is true at a given time may no longer be true when that time has
passed. As you report your results, you are saying “This is true under the given condition.”
The scientific reader wants to know what these conditions were because he would like to
decide for himself whether your work is valid or not. You should also describe what factors
were constant and what factors were variable as you worked.
Straight Sentences
Sentences carry the full weight of meaning in report. Each paragraph begins with a
statement of its subject (topic sentence). The succeeding sentences have direct bearing on
the first one. All sentences proceed straight ahead, the subject coming first followed by the
verb. It is a good idea to limit a sentence to one idea or two closely related ideas.
Transitional aids from sentence to sentence will enable the reader to follow your thought
and also provide straightforward movement leading him where you want him to go. The
chief thing to strive for is movement so that sentences move straight ahead.
Thoroughness
Thoroughness is treating your subject fully for your report to have lasting value. It extends
throughout the report writing project from initial thinking to final submittal You can achieve
thoroughness by: 1) preparing a checklist of requirements in the planning stage, 2) marking
off each requirement as it is fulfilled, and 3) using the checklist again in the revision stage
for a final check.
Unity
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Unity implies that all details and facts in the report are clearly relevant to the main point
under discussion. One way to check unity is to read critically read as you go along, asking
“What has this to do with the subject?” Another mechanical check is to draw a line from the
subject of a paragraph to the subject of the next and succeeding paragraphs. A third check
is to prepare headings for each paragraph and then list them in outline form. A unified report
satisfies the reader.
Veracity
Veracity means truthfulness. Truth is the soul of science. This, good technical writing never
misleads or mispresents. It sticks to facts. It does not indulge in evasion, equivocation, or
shifting the issue. It is chiefly concerned with reporting the facts, no more, no less.
Viewpoint
A report is written from a certain viewpoint – that of reporter, teacher, researcher, or the like.
The viewpoint is established with the first sentence and should be maintained throughout
the report. Thus, if you begin talking like a professor, stick with that voice to the end.
Word Choice
You are the report writer, an expert or specialist. But your reader is not always a specialist
like you; he may be a non-specialist or a layman. It is safe to assume; however, that he is a
semi-specialist who has sense to grasp the meaning of specialized words from the context
or he will look them up in technical dictionary. Technical words, therefore, may be used in
technical report. But you must avoid pompous, ornate words, and specially vague words. Be
precise as you can; if you mean 24 samples say “24 samples” and not “a couple of dozen.”
If you mean the part could not be used because it rusted, say “The part was rusted beyond
use,” rather than “The part was not used due to rust.”
You-Point
Technical writing is writing exclusively for an intended reader. You should have an accurate
knowledge of the reader’s comprehension level, experience, needs and training and think of
pacing and timing. Present your information in segments appropriate to the reader’s
knowledge and needs. Get into the habit of going from the simple to complex, from the
known to the unknown, the familiar to the unfamiliar, the nontechnical to technical. Do not
smother the reader with details, but show him main ideas occasionally. Above all, avoid
overwriting.
Zest
Report writing involves thinking and working, which may not be easy to do but have to be
done. The activity need not to be painful if you write as though you were performing a
service that only you can perform and feel that you are writing something worth saying and
that you enjoy doing it. The report writing activity indeed should be characterized by zest or
hearty enjoyment. If you get tired or bored, take a break, go for a walk, read a book, or get
some sleep. Then, resume working with a fresh mind that could help bring out the best
result.
Week 4: The Language of Technical Writing
A technical communications writing style is (almost always) concise, precise, direct, and
well organized. Writing style is something you must be aware of and continually work to
refine as you develop your communication skills. A technical communications writing style
prioritizes the efficient transfer of information—this may be a change from the types of c. Avoiding nominalizations or the use of “camouflaged or shun words” (words
writing you have done in the past. “High school writing” is more typically descriptive ending in –sion or –tion), replace them with active words
expository essays with a length requirement. Technical communication asks you to
document information and communicate it in a concise, precise, and professional way. d. Omitting clichés, hackneyed, trite, old-fashioned, worn-out, expressions
e. Avoiding redundancies or words that say the same meaning
Technical Writing is easily distinguished from other types of writing because of its language.
Giving a particular attention to the language of technical writing is the clearest way to
differentiate this from other types of writing.

Read not only by company members but by other people as well, any output of technical
writing has to use words that appeal to the intellect and emotions of all its readers. Having
effects on both mind and body of the reader, any technical written work easily reaches its
audience. This is possible through its use of language that is simple, direct and specific. f. Avoiding expletive
(Rubens, 2011) with There is, There are, Here is,
It is, It has been, and many more
The Language of Technical Writing and Practical Problems Regarding Style in
Technical Communication. The following techniques on using the right language for
producing effective technical reports:
g. Cancel or drop extra words Do
1. Practice Conciseness. Conciseness which means expressing oneself in the fewest not say:
number of words at the same time retaining completeness in meaning is possible 1. Allowing the agent’s request means the showing of all confidential documents.
through the following methods: 2. I think that the checking of all records is important.
3. It is necessary for the customers that they have to surrender the receipts to the
a. Shortening words/ phrases b. officer in charge of the day in order to get a refund.

Say:
1. Allowing the agent’s request means showing confidential documents.
2. I think checking of all records is important.
3. The customers have to surrender the receipts to the officer to get a refund.

2. Express your ideas in active voice rather than in passive voice.

Sentences in active voice stress the doer of the action; in passive voice, the receiver of the
action. At times, some prefer to use passive voice to prevent the frequent use of “I” because
the repeated use of this personal pronoun somehow indicates self-centeredness, monotony,
or repetitiveness. Between these two voices of verbs, many technical writers find the use of
active voice better this clearly recognizes the identity of the person answerable for the act
(Pearsall, 2010). According to Vanhauss (2005), technical writing should be an “action-
oriented style,” rather than be one with a great deal of “hidden words.”
b. Substituting long and complex words with short simple
In addition, active voice should be used when it's important to emphasize the actor, while
passive should be used when it's more important to emphasize the action. Use active when
a particular action is required of someone or when the user/writer is expected to complete a
particular action; use passive when it's less important who or what completed the action and
more important that the action was completed.

Active voice example:

Here’s a short, active voice sentence:
The cat sat on the mat.

actor: The cat

11
 verb: sat
target: the mat

Passive voice example:

By contrast, here's that same sentence in passive voice:
The mat was sat on by the cat. 5. Avoid using jargons, gobbledygook, horse-and-buggy, verbal dead words
These expressions are long, pretentious, and high-sounding; words that have no significant
target: The mat or necessary place in the sentence. Appearing complex, they work, to hide the meaning of
passive verb: was sat the term or make the writer sound learned or professional. Eliminate these vogue
actor: the cat expressions by substituting them with simple and easier terms. One good rule of thumb in
technical writing is: write to express, not to impress. This means that you have to write the
3. Use non-sexist instead of sexist language by expressing yourself in the following way you speak or use a conversational or casual language you often use in you day-to-day
ways: interactions with people. (Guffey, 2005)

a. Use plural pronouns instead of single pronoun
Do not say:
The technician has to show his I.D. card to the guard.
Each reporter should submit his monthly report on time.
Say:
The technicians have to show their I.D. cards to the guards.
Reporters should submit their work on time.
Jargons are technical terms commonly used by people belonging to the same field of
profession. Exclusively used by a specific set of persons like the lawyers, the physicians,
the engineers, or the businessmen, these terms do not sound familiar or understandable to
ordinary persons in society. Seemingly, the use of these terms works to exclude laypersons
from knowing what are happening in a company of experts or specialists or of people
belonging to one field of profession.
Examples:

b. Using 2nd person point of view instead of 3rd person point of view. Legal profession - habeas corpus, subpoena, status quo, preliminary injunction
Do not say: Business world - rebate, assets and liabilities, amortization, mortgage,
She presented her proposal report on time. balance sheet
The customer showed his receipt to the guard. Medical world - stethoscope, hypertension, differential diagnosis,
formaldehyde
Say: Computer world - user friendly, on-line adapter, debug, quick-assess
Present your proposal report on time. storage, scramble time
Show your receipt to the guard. Teaching profession - lesson plan, intrinsic motivation, systematic functional
grammar, grade sheet
c. Using expressions like He or She – him or her. Avoid using a slash mark –
He/She – him/her. Others however find He or she – him or her wordy, hence 6. Give careful attention to words and phrases that are commonly misused and
they prefer using the plural form – their, or the 2nd person point of view – you misspell

Do not say: Example:

The customer explained her point to the manager.  Accept – to take something seriously
The X-ray technician affixed his signature to the document.  Except – to exclude a rule or statement from a list
Let him accept those tools except the one with a red mark.
Say:
The customer explained his or her point to the manager.  Adapt – to adjust or to be in harmony with somebody.
The X-ray technician affixed his or her signature to the document.  Adopt – to make a person own a thing belonging to another person.
If you are familiar with their culture, you can easily adapt yourself to their cultural
4. Avoid using words that explicitly favour one practices and will eventually make you adopt every aspect of their lifestyle in your long
gender exposure to this cultural group.

 Already – by this time or before a particular moment

 All ready – state of being fit or balanced for an immediate action or use

12
 The company secretary has already sent a notice of meeting to all members who seem
to be all ready in discussing salient points in the general assembly.
 Between – a preposition for only two persons, things, or places
 Among – a preposition for three or more persons, places, or thing
Among all the imported products, the Japan-made item placed between two big boxes
appear qualitative.
 Affect – a verb used to men having an influence on another person or thing
 Effect – a result coming from a cause
The manager’s resignation will not affect the company’s business reputation, but may
have an effect on the economic standing of his family.
 Differ from – not the same in observation
 Differ with – not the same in opinion
As to size, the two differ from each other; as to their usefulness, the prospective buyers
of the machine differ from with one another.
Week 5: Special Techniques of Technical Communication (Methods and Definition)
Introduction:
The world of business and industry depends on clear definitions. Suppose you learn that
your school pays tuition and expenses for their student workers’ education. You would need
to study the student-benefits manual to understand just what the school would pay for. Who,
for instance, is a student worker? Is it anyone who works for the school, or is it someone
who has worked for the school part-time for at least six uninterrupted months? What is
tuition? Does it include miscellaneous fees or student fees? What is a student worker’s
education? Does a second course qualify? What, in fact, constitutes education?
Definitions, then, are crucial in many kinds of technical communication, from brief letters
and memos to technical reports, manuals, and journal articles. All readers, from the general
reader to the expert, need effective definitions to carry out their jobs.
What is definition?
Definition is a way of giving or explaining the meaning of an abstract term or a concept. It is
derived from the Latin word finire (to limit); and de(from), the explanation it gives is limited
only to what the reader need to know about the term to avoid confusion with other word
belonging to the same class to where the target word belongs.
When we define then, we are narrowing or limiting down the area of meaning of the word
which prevents you to attach other meaning to the other term. As Burnett says: “definition
that fits only the word; the word only fits the definition.”
Technical writing uses many scientific, technical or abstract terms and symbols that appear
complex and ambiguous. Unless you know who your readers will be and how much they
know about the subject, you cannot determine which terms to define or what kind of
definition to write. Physicists wouldn’t need a definition of entropy, but lawyers might.
Builders know what a molly bolt is, but many insurance agents don’t. When you write for
people whose first language is not English, definitions are particularly important. So, the
extent of explanations given to a word greatly depends on the audience’s or reader’s
background knowledge of the term or on their familiarity with the word being defined.
13
Importance of Definition
1. It gives the reader a clearer and easier understanding of the concept or idea enough to
encourage him to read continuously till the end of the text.
2. It explains ideas or concepts behind various innovations, methods, and techniques in
the field of technology.
3. It lessens the gap between technologically expert or “high-tech’ people and “low-tech”
people.
4. It frees a person from any confusing, or wrong understanding of a term.
5. It helps a company member do his job more efficiently towards a certain goal.
6. It makes many technical written work readable to all kinds of audience of readers.
Placement of Definition in the Text
If you are writing a sentence definition or an extended definition, you need to decide where
to put it. The location of definition in a Technical Report is based on the following:
1. The nature of the audience or the readers;
2. The length of the definition;
3. The purpose and lay out;
4. The agreed rules and practices in an area of discipline.
Where in your technical report should you specifically place your definition of terms? A
definition is typically placed in one of these six locations:
1. In the text. The text is an appropriate place for sentence definitions that many or most
of your readers will need and for extended definitions of important terms.
2. In a marginal gloss. Sentence definitions placed in the margin are easy to see, and
they don’t interrupt readers who don’t need them.
3. In a hyperlink. In a web page, definitions can be put in a separate file and displayed.
4. In a footnote. If definition is short, it should be put in the A footnote is a logical place
for an occasional sentence definition or extended definition. The reader who doesn’t
need it will ignore it. However, footnotes can slow readers down by interrupting the flow
of the discussion. If you think you will need more than one footnote for a definition on
every two to three pages, consider including a glossary.
5. In a glossary. A glossary — an alphabetized list of definitions — can accommodate
sentence definitions and extended definitions of fewer than three or four paragraphs in
one convenient location. A glossary can be placed at the beginning of a document (for
example, after the executive summary in a report) or at the end, preceding the
appendixes.
6. In an appendix. An appendix is appropriate for an extended definition of a page or
more, which would be cumbersome in a glossary or footnote.
Types of Definition
Your audience and purpose will also determine the length and formality of your definitions.
There are three basic types of definitions: parenthetical (Informal), one sentence logical or
Aristotelian (formal), and extended (Expanded or Amplified).
1. Informal Definition
A parenthetical definition is a brief clarification within an existing sentence. Sometimes, a
parenthetical definition is simply a word or phrase that is enclosed in parentheses or
commas or introduced by a colon or a dash. It is a sentence following another sentence.
This type of definition applies to general readers and it is also called a dictionary definition
because the meanings coming in the forms of individual words or phrases written after the
term look like list of words in the dictionary sequentially arranged opposite in the target term.
In the following examples, the term being defined is shown in italics, and the definition is
underscored:
The computers were infected by a Trojan horse (a destructive program that appears to be
benign).
Before the metal is plated, it is immersed in the pickle: an acid bath that removes scales and
oxides from the surface.
Parenthetical definitions are not meant to be comprehensive; rather, they serve as quick
and convenient ways of introducing terms. But make sure your definition is clear. You have
gained nothing if readers don’t understand it:
Next, check for blight on the epicotyl, the stem portion above the cotyledons.
Readers who need a definition of epicotyl are unlikely to know the meaning of cotyledons.
To solve this problem, think carefully about your readers’ understanding of your subject
before including technical terms specific to that subject.
2. Formal Definition
A sentence definition — Aristotelian and a one-sentence logical definition — is more formal
than a parenthetical definition.
Defining a term in a formal manner requires you to:
 Mention the term or species to be defined.
 Name the genus, group or class where such term belongs;
 Give the differentia to indicate its difference from other members belonging to the class.
All these 3 elements – term, genus and differentia should be contained in one complete
sentence, not just in a phrase or a clause.
14
The term to be defined has to fall under a genus or class to exclude explicitly other
meanings that anyone may attach to the term. You need to determine and exactly name the
context or class to which the term belongs. This is because some words are ambiguous or
have multiple meanings.
A sentence definition usually follows a standard pattern: the item to be defined is placed in a
category of similar items and then distinguished from them.
In many cases, a sentence definition also includes a graphic. For example, a definition of an
electron microscope would probably include a photograph, diagram, or drawing. Writers
often use sentence definitions to present a working definition for a particular document: “In
this report, electron microscope refers to any microscope that uses electrons rather than
visible light to produce magnified images.” Such definitions are sometimes called stipulative
definitions because the writer is stipulating how the term will be used in the context of the
document rather than offering a general definition of the term.
Guidelines in giving a formal or one-sentence logical definition
1. Give one and only meaning to the term.
2. Put them in a genus or class that is familiar to your audience or readers.
3. Prevent the reader from thinking of many comparable and containing features of the
term in relation to others by using a specific class rather than a general class.
4. Use positive words in stating the differentia
5. Avoid giving a bias or subjective definition by basing your explanation on facts or
universal truths rather than on your viewpoints or opinions.
6. See to it that you do not commit any of the following errors in defining.
Erroneous ways of Defining a Term through the Formal Method
1. Tautology or Circular definition
Definitions that merely repeat the key words or the distinguishing characteristics of the
item being defined in the category. The definition “A required course is a course that is
required” is useless: required of whom, by whom?
2. Analogy or Figurative definition
This erroneous definition just compares the word being define to other term instead of
giving additional information about the word.
3. Negative or no-not definition
This definition simply presents in the sentence the term as the antithesis or the
opposite of another term. Remember that a good one-sentence logical definition
stresses the positive aspect of the term not its negative attributes.
4. Is where or is when definition
The use of where and when after the linking verb is does not compliment the term. The
where and when has to be changed to a word similar in rank or class to the target term.
Extended, Expanded or Amplified definition
An extended definition is a more detailed explanation — usually one or more paragraphs —
of an object, process, or idea. Often an extended definition begins with a sentence
definition, which is then elaborated. For instance, the sentence definition “An electrophorus
is a laboratory instrument used to generate static electricity” tells you the basic function of
the device, but it doesn’t explain how it works, what it is used for, or its strengths and
limitations. An extended definition would address these and other topics.
There is no one way to “extend” a definition. Your analysis of your audience and the
purpose of your communication will help you decide which method to use. In fact, an
extended definition sometimes employs several techniques which we are going to discuss
one by one here.
Some ways of expanding or extending a definition of a term:
1. Etymology or word derivation
Gives the origin of the term based on the country that has first introduced the term to the
world. Citing a word’s etymology, or derivation, is often a useful and interesting way to
develop a definition. The Oxford dictionary is the appropriate material to use for
etymological definitions.
2. Historical definition
Historical definition stresses the development of the term. Mentioned in this definition are
people, places, and dates that played significant roles in the existence of the word.
3. Negation or elimination
A special kind of contrast is negation, sometimes called negative statement. Negation
clarifies a term by distinguishing it from a different term with which readers might confuse it.
The following example uses negation to distinguish the term ambulatory from ambulance.
VoIP is considerably cheaper than traditional phone service: for as little as $20 per month,
users get unlimited local and domestic long-distance service. For international calls, VoIP
service is only about three cents per minute, about a third the rate of traditional phone
service. In addition, any calls from one person to another person with the same VoIP
service provider are free.
However, sound quality on VoIP cannot match that of a traditional land-based phone. On a
good day, the sound is fine on VoIP, but frequent users comment on clipping and dropouts
that can last up to a second. In addition, sometimes the sound has the distant, tinny quality
of some of today’s cell phones.
In this excerpt, the second and third paragraphs briefly compare VoIP and traditional phone
service. Notice that this passage is organized according to the part-by-part comparison-and-
contrast pattern.
6. Analysis by Partitioning
Partitioning is the process of dividing a thing or an idea into smaller parts so that readers
can understand it more easily. The photo below uses partition to define the components of a
roof.

An ambulatory patient is not a patient who must be moved by ambulance. On the contrary,
an ambulatory patient is one who can walk without assistance from another person.

Negation is rarely the only technique used in an extended definition; in fact, it is used most
often in a sentence or two at the start. Once you have explained what something is not, you
still have to explain what it is.

4. Operating principle
Describing the principle of operation — the way something works — is an effective way to
develop an extended definition, especially for an object or a process. It is arranged based
on their time of occurrence and uses connectors such as: first, second, then, next, soon,
previously, lastly, finally, afterwards, before, and so on.

5. Comparison-Contrast
Definition which makes you extend your explanation of a concept or a thing by pointing out
how such thing or concept is similar to or different from another concept. Using comparison
and contrast, a writer discusses the similarities or differences between the item being
defined and an item with which readers are more familiar.

The following definition of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) contrasts this new form of
phone service to the form we all know

Voice over Internet Protocol is a form of phone service that lets you connect to the Internet 7. Use of examples
through your cable or DSL modem. VoIP service uses a device called a telephony adapter, Examples are particularly useful in making an abstract or difficult-to-explain term easier to
which attaches to the broadband modem, transforming phone pulses into IP packets sent understand. The paragraph-length definition enumerates the many uses of one concept in a
over the Internet. particular context of life.

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8. Explication
The second, third or the succeeding sentences operate to give the meaning of some difficult
expressions used in the previous sentences. Its function is to unlock difficult words to
understand in the sentence.
9. Operational definition
This definition means you explain the indispensable function or use of the thing in the
process, project or activity. This gives the emphasis to the role or use of the thing in a
particular activity.
10. Stipulative definition
It is a way to extend the definition of a term by explaining the word based on a special
condition, a particular purpose, a requirement or a limitation affecting any agreement
between or among people. It assigns meaning to a word, sometimes without regard for
common usage. This term is often used in a pejorative sense to refer to a definition that
appears to be deliberately misleading. Stipulative definitions are also known as Humpty-
Dumpty words or legislative definitions.
A Sample Extended Definition
The figure below is an example of an extended definition addressed to a general audience.
Week 6: Description of a Process and Mechanism
According to Holloway, description is a technical writing technique that uses words and
visuals towards creating a picture of a mechanism or a product. Words are important
instrument or capital in painting on the paper a vivid impression of the object of the
description. The power of words will help readers’ sense to have visualization of a product
as well as follow a specific process.
These writing tasks entail an explanation of how something works, how somethings is done,
or how something is made. With this, the knowledge in describing a process will help
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technical writers as well as his/her readers perform certain things. Technical descriptions
can be found in almost all kinds of written communication such as technical reports,
business reports, training materials, service manuals, promotional materials and the like. In
this module, description of a “Process” and “Mechanism” will be tackled.
Process description includes sequence, instructions and procedure. Process is a description
of materials, equipment and procedures. It also uses graphic materials to show detailed
presentation of a process. Technical writers also use sequence markers such as first,
second, then, next, subsequently, finally and at last to link sentences and to follow the
natural or mechanical system.
There are four Types of a Process, these are: 1) How it operates or how it works process, 2)
How to do it process, 3) How it happens process, and 4) How it is organized process. In the
first type of process, this process description focuses on the way things function or operate.
The second type of process gives emphasis on how you do a thing or perform. This process
type occurs in giving directions or instructions.
The third process type stresses the process itself. Some call this type as Process Analysis.
Processes that you can subject to process analysis are food digestion, earthquakes, water
cycle communication process, among others. The fourth type of process also happens
when you write or talk about the way an organization or a schools assign its faculty to a
certain rank or position.
In adapting the description, it is important to consider the needs of the readers. The writer
should avoid many details and
emphasize the broad outlines of the
process if the reader is interested only
in acquiring a general knowledge of the
principles involves and has no intention
to perform the process. A process
description is organized as follows:
The Introduction
The introduction of the description of a process is a comprehensive answer to the question,
“What are you doing?” An answer to the question can be given by answering still other
questions, principally the following:

Description Of Equipment And Materials
With the possible exception of the discussion of equipment and materials, the introduction to
a description is followed directly by a description of the chief steps in the process. Two
problems appear in organizing the description of the chief steps. One is how to organize the
steps; the other is how to organize the material within each individual step. The organization
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of the steps can be dismissed at once for it is chronological in order. The organization within
the description of the individual steps requires more discussion because each individual
step constitutes a process in itself. The individual step should be introduced properly and
must be divided into sub-steps. Its description is essentially a miniature of the description of
the process as a whole.
Description Of The Action
In describing the action, the writer must say everything the readers need to know and
understand or even to visualize the process. The omission of a slight detail may be enough
to spoil everything. Care should be taken not only in connection with the details of what is
done but also of how it is done. The content of the description of a process is governed by
the reader’s need to comprehend every step in the action.
Style Of Using Sentences In Explaining A Process
A discussion in style in the description of a mechanism however would focus on the problem
of choice of the mood and voice of the predicate, and of the noun or pronoun used as a
subject. A good many possibilities exist, but three are of special importance: the active voice
and indicative mood, the passive voice and indicative mood, and the active voice and
imperative mood. See examples below.
Conclusion
The last part of the description of the process is naturally the conclusion. It is not always
necessary to write a formal conclusion. Whether one is desirable depends, of course, on
whether it will help the reader. Sometimes the reader needs help in matters like the
following:
1. Fixing the chief steps in mind (listing them again might help)
2. Recalling special points about equipment or materials
3. Analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of the process.
4. Noting how this process is related to the other processes, or other work that is being
done, or reported on.
Description of a Mechanism
 Sample Mechanism Descriptions

An electric generator is an apparatus for converting mechanical energy into electricity. It is

also called Dynamo and as such, it produces gas or steam. Derived from the Latin term
“generate or generates,” it means to beget or produce. As a source of electricity, it is used
for factory machines, lighting and home appliances. It functions either as direct current (DC)
producing electric current flowing in one direction, or alternating current (AC) producing
electric current that reverses direction periodically. It comes in different sizes. A small
generator is used in some scientific inventions while the large one is for supplying electricity
to the entire city.

Engineering and Technology

Babcock, D. and Morse, L.

The ATM effectively consists of three layers: PHY, ATM and AAL. The first layer, PHY, is
concerned with the physical transmission of data and depends on the medium being used.
There is a different set of standards for each medium. The ATM layer is concerned with
maintaining the cells and their routing through the switching network. The ATM adaptive
layer (AAL) provides standards for the segmentation and reassembling of data into the cells
and vice versa. This is also the layer that is concerned with the quality of service

Computers
Long, L. and Long, N.

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