FM 16 NOTES
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Statistics
BASICS OF STATISTICS
Definition: Science of collection, presentation, analysis,
and reasonable interpretation of data.
Statistics presents a rigorous scientific method for
gaining insight into data. For example, suppose we
measure the weight of 100 patients in a study. With so
many measurements, simply looking at the data fails to
provide an informative account. However, statistics can
give an instant overall picture of data based on graphical
presentation or numerical summarization irrespective to
the number of data points. Besides data summarization,
another important task of statistics is to make inference
and predict relations of variables.
POPULATION
• The entire group of individuals is called the
population.
• For example, a researcher may be interested in
the relation between class size (variable 1) and
academic performance (variable 2) for the
population of third-grade children.
SAMPLE
• Usually, populations are so large that a
researcher cannot examine the entire group.
Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the
population in a research study. The goal is to
use the results obtained from the sample to
help answer questions about the population. A
sample is a subset or a part of a given
population, its size is smaller than the size of the
population.
PARAMETER vs STATISTIC
• Parameter – a number that describes
characteristic of the population. Symbol,
(Greek letter mu)
• Statistic – a number that describes
characteristic of a sample. Symbol x (read
bar”)
DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• Descriptive Statistics – involves the use of
numerical indices to describe either a
population or sample.
• Inferential Statistics – involves taking
measurements on a sample and then, from the
observations, inferring something about a
population.
VARIABLES
• A variable is a characteristic or condition that
can change or take on different values.
• Most research begins with a general question
about the relationship between two variables
for a specific group of individuals.
TYPES OF VARIABLES
a • Qualitative variable – are non-measurable
µ characteristics that cannot assume a numerical
value but can be classified into two or more
a categories.
“x • Quantitative variable – are those quantities
that can be counted (discrete) or measured
(continuous) with the use of some measuring
devices.
• Discrete variables (such as class size) consist of
indivisible categories, and
• Continuous variables (such as time or weight)
are infinitely divisible into whatever units a
researcher may choose. For example, time can
be measured to the nearest minute, second,
half-second, etc.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
• Nominal - Categorical variables with no
inherent order or ranking sequence such as
names or classes (e.g., gender). Value may be a
numerical, but without numerical value (e.g., I,
II, III). The only operation that can be applied to
Nominal variables is enumeration.
• Ordinal - Variables with an inherent rank or
order, e.g. mild, moderate, severe. Can be
compared for equality, or greater or less, but
not how much greater or less
.
• Interval - Values of the variable are ordered as
in Ordinal, and additionally, differences
between values are meaningful, however, the
scale is not absolutely anchored. Calendar dates
and temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale are
examples. Addition and subtraction, but not
multiplication and division are meaningful
operations.
• Ratio - Variables with all properties of Interval
plus an absolute, non-arbitrary zero point, e.g.
 age, weight, temperature (Kelvin). Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division are all
meaningful operations.
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• Independent variables are variables that are
manipulated or are changed by researchers and
whose effects are measured and compared.
• Dependent variables refer to that type of
variable that measures the affect of the
independent variable(s) on the test units.
Dependent variables are the types of variables
that are completely dependent on the
independent variable(s).
• Sampling frame - The sampling frame is the
actual list of individuals that the sample will be
drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire
target population (and nobody who is not part
of that population).
• Sample size - The number of individuals in your
sample depends on the size of the population,
and on how precisely you want the results to
represent the population as a whole.
SAMPLING
When investigation of the entire population is difficult
due to material constraints like time, money, and effort,
a sample is obtained.
Random Sampling – is a technique in which every
member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected in the sample.
RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Simple random sampling - In this case each
individual is chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equal chance, of people you have access to “snowballs” as you
or probability, of being selected. get in contact with more people.
2. Systematic sampling - Individuals are selected
at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate
sample size.
3. Stratified sampling - Stratified sampling
involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important
ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is
properly represented in the sample.
4. Cluster sampling - Cluster sampling also
involves dividing the population into subgroups,
but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS
1. Convenience sampling - A convenience sample
simply includes the individuals who happen to
be most accessible to the researcher.
2. Voluntary response sampling - Similar to a
convenience sample, a voluntary response
sample is mainly based on ease of access.
3. Quota Sampling – quota samples are usually
utilized by market researchers and pollsters.
Drawn by specifying the characteristics desired
in the subjects to be interviewed.
4. Purposive sampling - This type of sampling, also
known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of
the research.
5. Snowball sampling - If the population is hard to
access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number