Physical Science - Quarter 3 - LAS 1 FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION VIII – EASTERN VISAYAS
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF LEYTE
PAGSULHUGON NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Physical Science
Quarter 3 – LAS 1:
Formation of Heavier Elements
Learning Objective:
• Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during
star formation and evolution. 11/12PS-IIIa-2
A. Motivation
Activity 1. Crossword Puzzle
Complete the crossword puzzle using the clues below the puzzle.
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B. Explore
Activity 2. Putting it All Together
Read the selection and answer carefully the questions that follow.
A STAR IS BORN
Just like living things and humans, stars have a life cycle, which consists
of birth, growth, development, middle age, old age, and death. The life cycle of
a star spans over billions of years. All stars start as a nebula. A nebula is a large
cloud of gas and dust. Gravity can pull some of the gas and dust in a nebula
together. The contracting cloud is then called a protostar. A protostar is the
earliest stage of a star’s life. A star is born when the gas and dust from a nebula
become so hot that nuclear fusion starts. Once a star has “turned on” it is known
as a main sequence star. When a main sequence star begins to run out of
hydrogen fuel, the star becomes a red giant or a red super giant.
After a low or medium mass or star has become a red giant the outer
parts grow bigger and drift into space, forming a cloud of gas called a planetary
nebula. The blue-white hot core of the star that is left behind cools and becomes
a white dwarf. The white dwarf eventually runs out of fuel and dies as a black
dwarf.
A dying red super giant star can suddenly explode. The explosion is
called as supernova. After the star explodes, some of the materials from the star
are left behind. This material may form a neutron star. Neutron stars are the
remains of high-mass stars. The most massive stars become black holes when
they die. After a large mass star explodes, a large amount of mass may remain.
The gravity of the mass is so strong that gas is pulled inward, pulling more gas
into a smaller and smaller space. Eventually, the gravity becomes so strong that
nothing can escape, not even light.
Q4a. Identify the letter that corresponds to the correct order as shown in the
illustration below. Write your answer on the space provided.
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___ 1. Black Hole
___ 2. Supernova
___ 3. Protostar
___ 4. Gravity causes this to condense into a protostar
___ 5. Main sequence star
___ 6. When a star begins to run out of fuel and grows larger
___ 7. Neutron
C. Learn
The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution

Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of
these elements change as the stars evolve.
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense
regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar
core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its
temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear
reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and
stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and
the protostar has become a main sequence star.
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-
proton chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and
the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.
Image Source: Physical Science Quipper, The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation
and Evolution, Page 7
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When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate
of fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than
twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is
depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into space. The only thing
that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such
that temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes
through a series of stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the shells around
the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion;
magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon fusion.
The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.
Image Source: Physical Science Quipper, The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star
Formation and Evolution, Page 8
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter
than iron can be fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus
with a mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as energy.
Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy. However, this does not
happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an
input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced in a
massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed.
Gravity squeezes the core until the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The
star explosion is called a supernova.
Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the
20th century provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other
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pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages of formation happening in different
areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.
Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star
formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to
the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction.
Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic
radiation by gases and dust particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer.
The IR measurements are then used to approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in
the protostar.
The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed in the cores and
shells of the stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that
fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures and pressures.
It is the reaction that fuels the stars since stars have very high temperatures and pressures in
their cores.
Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space. Thus, the formation
of heavier elements starts with hydrogen. Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that
produces energy in the stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the
proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the
main source of energy radiated by the sun and other stars. It happens due to the large kinetic
energies of the protons. If the kinetic energies of the protons are high enough to overcome
their electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.
The sequence proceeds as follows:
1. The chain starts when two protons fuse. When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a deuterium forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma
ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a helium-4 is created with the release of two
protons.
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and Evolution, Page 11
Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more
favorable route in converting hydrogen to helium.
The cycle proceeds as follows:
1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an unstable
nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen-
14.
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4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to produce
oxygen-15.
5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.
6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha particle) ending the
cycle and returning to carbon-12.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process. Carbon12 acts a
catalyst for the cycle. It is used in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.
and Evolution
Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from preexisting or
seed nuclei. Previously, you have learned about the types of nucleosynthesis. The big bang
nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen and helium, whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis
produced elements up to iron in the core of the stars.
If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements heavier than iron?
The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction
becomes unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy
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that holds the nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed
for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.
The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction
becomes unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy
that holds the nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed
for the synthesis of heavier nuclei.
Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes. In neutron
capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a heavier
isotope of the element.
𝑨𝒁𝑿 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝑨+𝒁𝟏𝑿
For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟔𝑭𝒆 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟗𝑭𝒆
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (−1β ) decay. This decay results
in an increase in the number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.
𝑨𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝑨𝟏𝒀 + −𝟎𝟏𝛃

Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-
59 undergoes beta decay to produce cobalt-59.
𝟓𝟗𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆 → 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗𝑪𝒐 + −𝟎𝟏𝛃

Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of neutrons.
It is termed slow because the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the rate of ( −01β )
decay. Therefore, if a (−01β ) decay occurs, it almost always occurs before another neutron can
be captured.
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a large
number of neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate of neutron capture is fast that an
unstable nucleus may still be combined with another neutron just 0 before it undergoes (−1β )
decay. The r-process is associated with a supernova. The temperature after a supernova is
tremendously high that the neutrons are moving very fast. Because of their speed, they can
immediately combine with the already heavy isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis is also
called supernova nucleosynthesis.
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Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after
a supernova, when there is a tremendous amount of energy available. It is because the addition
of a proton to the nucleus is not favourable because of Coulombic repulsion, which is the
repulsive force between particles with the same charge.
Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.
D. Engage
Activity 4. FACT of BLUFF
Determine whether the provided statements are correct or incorrect. Write FACT if it
is correct and BLUFF if it is incorrect.
_________ 1. Protostar was formed due fragment contraction from the star
formation theory.
_________ 2. Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through nuclear
nucleosynthesis.
_________ 3. A large amount of energy was released during the supernova
explosion which lead to the formation of heavier elements.
_________ 4. The energy detected from different stages of star formation was
Infrared Radiation.
_________ 5. The element silicon was formed through the fusion of magnesium.
_________ 6. Iron element was formed from silicon fusion.
_________ 7. The interstellar medium of gas and dust were sufficient evidences
which supported the star formation theory.
_________ 8. The main sequence star evolved from protostar by which hydrogen
was fused into helium through proton-proton chain.
_________ 9. The star turned into a red giant as the helium converted to
carbon in the core and in the surrounded core hydrogen was
converted into helium.
_________ 10. The element oxygen was formed from carbon fusion while neon was
formed from the fusion of nitrogen.
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E. Apply
Activity 3. Putting it All Together: Concept Mapping
Direction: Complete the CONCEPT MAP below by supplying and filling in the correct word or
phases indicated in the WORD BANK.
PHRASE/WORD BANK
(which evolve into ) s- process
(which eventually end up in ) r - process
which forms primarily through alpha ladder
red giant stars/super giant stars occurs in
supernova explosions main sequence stars
proton - proton chain reaction CNO cycle
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I. ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on
the space provided before each number.
___ 1. Which of the following describes stellar nucleosynthesis?
a. It is the process by which elements are formed within stars.
b. It is the formation of elements during a supernova explosion.
c. It is the process by which elements are produced in gas clouds.
d. It is the formation of light elements such as hydrogen and helium.
___ 2. Which of the following is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a
collapsed molecular cloud contract?
a. Protostar b. Supernova c. Red Giant d.Main Sequence Star
___ 3. Which of the following is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the
core and switched into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell
surrounding the core?
a. Protostar b. Supernova c. Red Giant d.Main Sequence Star
___ 4. The formation of a star starts with the dense regions of molecular clouds.
What force pulls matter together to form these regions?
a. Magnetic Force c. Electromagnetic Force
b. Nuclear Force d. Gravitational Force
___ 5. What happens when most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium in
the stellar core?
a. Hydrogen fusion continues, and the pressure in the core decreases.
b. Hydrogen fusion continues, and the pressure in the core increases.
c. Gravity squeezes the star until helium and hydrogen burning occur.
d. Nuclear energy increases until carbon and helium burning occur.
___ 6. What is the correct order for the stages of stellar evolution of a low–mass
star?
a. red giant – white dwarf – main sequence star – protostar
b. main sequence star – white dwarf – protostar – red giant
c. protostar – main sequence star – red giant – white dwarf
d. white dwarf – red giant – protostar – main sequence star
___ 7. Which of the following is the major factor predicting the fate of a star?
a. strength of gravitational force c. amount of iron produced
b. mass of the star d. temperature of the star
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___ 8. Which of the following elements are not formed during stellar evolution?
a. Carbon b. Oxygen c. Gold d. Iron
___ 9. When does a massive star enter the stage of becoming a supernova?
a. when the silicon fusion stops
b. when the star has used up all its hydrogen fuel gold
c. when the chromium fusion stops
d. when the star has burned all its oxygen
___ 10. Which of the following is true about the formation of elements lighter than
iron in the core of the stars?
a. When the elements combine, they absorb energy which can fuel the nuclear
fusion reactions in the star.
b. When the elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than
the sum of their masses.
c. When there is an input of energy from nuclear fission reactions in the star,
the elements are formed.
d. When the elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass greater
than the sum of their masses.
___ 11. Which of the following processes is likely to generate the heaviest element?
a. CNO Cycle c. triple alpha process
b. r – process d. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
___ 12. Which of the following reactions is not a part of the alpha ladder?
a. 2412𝑀𝑔 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 2814𝑆𝑖 c. 3618𝐴𝑟 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 4020𝐶𝑎

b. 3115𝑃 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 3517𝐶𝑙 d. 4422𝑇𝑖 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 4824𝐶𝑟
___ 13. If an element is used up by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning”

even though no actual combustion occurs. Which of the following processes is
likely to involve “carbon burning”?
a. Alpha ladder c. triple alpha process
b. CNO Cycle d. s – process
___ 14. Where can you find the heavy elements in the star?
a. Red Giant c. Protostar
b. Core d. Main Sequence Star
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___ 15. Which of the following statements is true about stellar nucleosynthesis?
a. In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the
beta plus decay.
b. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear reactions
begin wherein positrons and neutrons are released which increase pressure
and stop the contraction.
c. When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon,
then the rate of fusion increases.
d. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its temperature
increases.
Prepared by:
JOSHUA B. UDTUJAN, LPT, MEd

Teacher
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Physical Science - Quarter 3 - LAS 1 FORMATION OF HEAVY ELEMENTS

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Republic of the Philippines

The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle

The cycle proceeds as follows:

𝑨𝒁𝑿 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝑨+𝒁𝟏𝑿

For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

𝑨𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝑨𝟏𝒀 + −𝟎𝟏𝛃

𝟓𝟗𝟐𝟔𝑭𝒆 → 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝟗𝑪𝒐 + −𝟎𝟏𝛃

a. 2412𝑀𝑔 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 2814𝑆𝑖 c. 3618𝐴𝑟 + 42𝐻𝑒 → 4020𝐶𝑎

___ 13. If an element is used up by a star in fusion, it is sometimes called “burning”

JOSHUA B. UDTUJAN, LPT, MEd

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