ANIMAL NUTRITION

Content
Nutrients
Diet
World food supplies
Human alimentary canal
Chemical digestion
Absorption and assimilation
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) list the chemical elements that make up: carbohydrates; fats; proteins;
(b) describe tests for: starch (iodine in potassium iodide solution); reducing sugars (Benedict's
solution); protein (biuret test); fats (ethanol emulsion test);
(c) list the principal sources of, and describe the dietary importance of carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, vitamins (C and D only), mineral salts (calcium and iron only), fibre (roughage) and
water;
(d) describe the deficiency symptoms of vitamins C and D and mineral salts calcium and iron;
(e) understand the concept of a balanced diet;
(f) explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and activity of an
individual;
(g) state the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, heart disease, constipation and
obesity;
(h) discuss the problems that contribute to famine (unequal distribution of food, drought and
flooding, increasing population);
(i) identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs: mouth, salivary
glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum and
anus;
(j) describe the main functions of these parts in relation to ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion of food, as appropriate;
(k) identify the different types of human teeth and describe their structure and functions;
(l) state the causes of dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth;
(m) describe peristalsis;
(n) explain why most foods must be digested;
(o) describe: digestion in the alimentary canal; the functions of a typical amylase, protease and
lipase, listing the substrates and end-products;
(p) describe the structure of a villus, including the roles of capillaries and lacteals;
(q) describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area;
(r) state the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food absorbed
from the small intestine;
(s) state: that large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units: glycogen from glucose;
proteins from amino acids; lipids (fats and oils) from glycerol and fatty acids; the role of the liver
in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids; the role of fat as a storage substance; that the
formation of urea and the breakdown of alcohol occur in the liver.

1|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 NUTRITION
Nutrition is the study of food and diet. The body’s health (survival) depends upon the intake of a
variety of nutrients found in food and water.
Uses of food
• As a source of energy (as respiratory substrate).
• For growth (food provide raw materials for the synthesis of protoplasm).
• For replacement and repair of tissues.
• To give protection against diseases.
• Maintain health
Classes of food
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats
 Macronutrients


4. Fibres (roughage)
5. Vitamins Micronutrients
6. Minerals
7. Water
Balanced Diet

Balanced diet is the daily intake of food, consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals,
vitamins, fibres and water in the right amount.

The dietary requirements vary from person to person. A balanced diet for an individual may not
be balanced for another. The diet depends on the energy requirement and related to other related
factors. The diet is related to the following factors:

1. Size of the individual.

More cells need more energy to keep them alive.
2. Age
Old people have lower metabolic rate and hence needs less energy than young people. A growing
child needs more energy than an adult.
3. Activity
Individuals doing heavy work need more energy than those doing light jobs.
4. Environment
If external temperature is low, the body looses more heat and hence more energy is required to
compensate for the heat loss.
5. Sex
Males are more muscular than females and hence need more energy for maintaining themselves.
6. Basal Metabolic Rate
Individuals with high basal metabolic rate need more energy than those with low basal metabolic
rate
Approximate daily energy requirement for an average male adult
8 hrs sleep = 2500 kJ
8 hrs awake and physically inactive = 3000 kJ
8 hrs awake and physically active = 6500 kJ

Total: 12000 kJ
2|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA
Sources of Energy

Main sources of energy are carbohydrates and fats. Protein is used only when carbohydrate and
fat are deficient.
When the daily food intake does not provide sufficient energy, the stored food and tissues are
used to provide energy, wasting and finally death results.

Nutritional needs of a pregnant woman

Calcium and phosphate is needed for development of bones. A nursing mother needs about
1600-2000 mg of calcium per day.
A pregnant woman needs 40-85 g of protein per kg of body weight per day to supply herself and
for the formation of new protoplasm of the growing foetus.
Iron, for the formation of RBC and vitamins are also needed.

Malnutrition

Malnutrition (not taking a balanced diet) is an undesirable kind of nutrition that leads to ill
health. It results from a lack, excess or imbalance of nutrients in the diet.
Malnutrition

Under nutrition Over nutrition

Insufficient supply Excessive intake of one
of essential nutrients or more nutrients.

Malnutrition may result in the following disorders:

• Constipation due to lack of dietary fibres.

• Coronary heart disease may result from many factors. One factor is malnutrition. A diet
rich in cholesterol and saturated fatty acids is harmful to the heart. The fatty substances
and cholesterol become deposited on the wall of the blood vessels. This increases the
blood pressure and the heart have to work harder to push blood around the body. In
addition, deposition of the fatty substances and cholesterol in the wall of the arteries, they
increase the risk of clotting there. And if the blood clot blocks the coronary artery, no
oxygen is supplied to the heart muscle and heart attack may results.
❑ Obesity (excessively overweight) results from:
❑ Excess intake of energy-providing food compared to energy demand of the body.
❑ Lack of physical activities.

• Obesity is associated with the following health disorders:

❑ High blood pressure
❑ Coronary heart disease
❑ Diabetes mellitus
❑ Kidney failure

3|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

Obesity can be found by calculating the BMI (Body Mass Index).

BMI = mass of person

(height)2

If BMI is greater than 25 (overweight), greater than 30 (obese), under 25 (normal), and too much
under 25 (underweight).

• Deficiency diseases due to lack of mineral salts and vitamins. For e.g, lack of iron causes
anaemia and lack of vitamin D causes rickets.
• Lack of protein causes kwashiorkor.
• Lack of carbohydrate and fats lead to lean and sick individual.

Starvation

In many countries, several years of drought greatly affect the harvest and there is not enough
food to feed all the people. The inhabitants who are poorer are those who suffer most. Many
may die from starvation.

It occurs when a human or another animal does not receive enough energy in their diet. In order
to meet his basic metabolic need, the body starts to use up its energy reserves from stored
glycogen, then fat and finally protein. Since muscles are mainly made up of protein, this leads to
muscle wasting. In addition to the skeletal muscles, the body may affect the muscle of the heart
leading to heart weaknesses.

Famine

Famine is the condition when people die due to the lack of food to meet the daily requirements.
Some of the problems that contribute to famine are:
Unequal distribution of food.

Some parts of the world produce more than enough food for the people that live there. However,
in other parts of the world (third world countries), food is largely insufficient. Thus there is an
unequal distribution of food prevailing in the world of today.

Droughts and Floods.

If an area suffers drought for several years, then it become impossible for the people to grow
crops as the soil become permanently arid.
Sometime so much rain causes flooding, which again damage crops. Thus people die of famine.
Population size.

The increase in food production is less than the rate of population increase. So some people,
specially the poor, cannot afford food.

4|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 Carbohydrates
They are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are used as source
of energy.
They are made up of simple sugar molecules called saccharides.
Chemical shorthand of carbohydrate is (CH2O)n
They are classified according to the number of saccharides units per molecules. There are three
groups of carbohydrates.
Groups of carbohydrates
Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
One simple sugar unit per Two simple sugar units, joined Many simple sugar units joined
molecule. by condensation reaction. by condensation reaction.
E.g, Glucose, Fructose and E.g, E.g,Starch,Cellulose,Glycogen
Galactose. Sucrose (glucose +fructose) and Chitin
They are sweet and soluble in Maltose (glucose + glucose) They are not sweet and not
cold water. Lactose (glucose + galactose) soluble in cold water. They
They have reducing property They are sweet and soluble in dissolve in hot water.
(convert Cu++ into Cu+) cold water. They have no reducing
They have reducing property property.
(convert Cu++ into Cu+) except
sucrose.

Condensation reaction is the reaction in which 2 or more molecules react to produce a larger
molecule, together with the loss of a smaller molecule (water).
-water
Glucose + Glucose Maltose
(glucose glucose)

glycosidic bond
Hydrolysis is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones using water. There are
two types of hydrolysis:
❑ Acid Hydrolysis (this is done by boiling the substance with a dilute mineral acid such as
HCl, e.g, Sucrose + dilute HCl glucose + fructose), and
❑ Enzymatic hydrolysis (this is brought about by a digestive enzyme)
e.g, Sucrose + water sucrase glucose + fructose
37C

Sources
Monosaccharides: glucose in fruits, fructose in fruits &d honey, and galactose in milk.
Disaccharides: Maltose in germinating barley seeds, sucrose in sugar cane & sugar beet,
and lactose in milk.
Polysaccharides: starch in potato, rice & flour, glycogen in liver &muscles, and
cellulose in plant tissues.
Functions of carbohydrates
• As a source of energy (respiratory substrate). For e.g, starch and sugars. 1gram of
carbohydrates provide 17 kJ of energy

5|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 • Structural Uses.
❑ Cellulose forms cell wall in plants.
❑ Chitin is present in exoskeleton of arthropods.
❑ Structural support of nucleic acids (Presence of ribose sugar in Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and deoxyribose sugar in Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA))
• Can be converted into other organic compounds, such as, amino acids, fats and protein
• As lubricant (Mucin)
• Nectar production in flowers
Excess of carbohydrates
1) Converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles of animals.
2) Converted to fats
3) Excess glucose in plants is converted into starch
Starch
Starch is a polysaccharide consisting of various proportions of 2 glucose polymers, amylose and
amylopectin.
Amyloses are linear chains of up to 300 linked glucose molecules. And amylopectin are highly
branched chains of glucose molecules (about 1300-1500).

Testing the presence of carbohydrates

Many tests exist, but most are effective if carried out on a solution or suspension of
carbohydrate. Therefore, if material to be tested is in solid form, then we
❑ Ground it with a little water in a mortar and pestle.
❑ Then filtration or centrifugation
❑ Then test carried out on the filtrate or supernatant liquid.

For each of the following tests, the procedures are repeated with an equal amount of water being
substituted for the carbohydrate solution under test. This is a control experiment (without
which the main experiment is not viable), which is used to compare the results of the main test
leading to scientific conclusions. This is also used to ensure that no contamination of the
apparatus or reagents occurred.

Test for reducing sugar (glucose, fructose, galactose, maltose and lactose)
❑ To 2 cm of tested solution in a test tube, add 2 cm of Benedict’s reagent (Blue solution
3 3

containing Cu++) was added. Mix the reagents thoroughly.

❑ Then place the test tube in the water bath containing boiling water (used to avoid spilling
of solution in case of direct boiling), for 5 minutes. Shake occasionally.
Brick red precipitate indicates the presence of reducing sugar in the tested solution. Reducing
sugar will reduced soluble copper (II) sulphate of Benedict’s solution into insoluble copper (I)
oxide (red precipitate). Infact, the colour of the precipitate will range from green, through
yellow, orange and brown to deep red, depending on the quantity of reducing sugar present.

Test for starch

2 drops of the solution to be tested is placed in a depression in a spotting tile or 2 cm3 is placed in
a test tube. Then a drop of iodine (potassium iodide) solution is added.
If starch is present, the yellow-orange iodine becomes a blue-black colour, due to the formation
of a starch-iodine complex.

6|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 PROTEIN

Elements Present: Organic compounds consisting of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen,
usually sulphur and sometimes phosphorus.

Building units: Amino acids are the building units of protein. There are 20 different naturally
occurring amino acids.

Amino acids:

Structure of amino acids

R O
H
N C C
H
OH
H

Amino group Acidic group

Amino acid contains a basic group (amino group or amine group- NH2) and an acid group
(carboxyl group- COOH).
Types of amino acids

Non-essential amino acids Essential amino acids

These are made in the body by There are 9 essential
using other amino acids amino acids. They cannot
be made in rthe body in
sufficient quantities, and
have to obtain them from
Formation of protein food.

Each different protein molecule is made under the direction of its own gene and performs its own
precise function.

A protein is formed by the condensation of many amino acids.

Two amino acids are joined by a peptide bond to form a dipeptide.

Amino acid 1 Amino acid 2 dipeptide

+

-H2O

Peptide bond
7|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA
Three amino acids are joined by condensation reaction to form a tripeptide, where two
molecules of sugar are lost to form two peptide bonds.

Many amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide (long chain of amino
acids). The polypeptide chains are then linked by forces such as disulphide bridges, ionic bond,
hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions to give protein.

Proteins differ from one another because of a variation in the amino acids they contain and also
because of the order in which the amino acids occur in the molecule.

Properties of protein

❑ Sensitive to heat
If heated, their structures are broken down due to the breakdown of bonds, and thus denaturation
occur. That it the 3-dimensional structure of the protein molecule is lost.

❑ Sensitive to pH.
Outside the range of pH in which a particular protein is active, denaturation of the protein occur.

Functions of protein

1. For growth (Hormone thyroxine is a protein) and repair of damaged tissues.

2. For growth and development of muscles.
3. For the formation of cell membrane (cell membrane is made up of protein and lipid).
4. For the formation of enzymes (enzymes catalyse many metabolic reactions such as
respiration, photosynthesis, excretion , etc..)
5. Proteins are used in the formation of antibodies, which are essential in the destruction of
microbes present in our body.
6. For the production of haemoglobin which is used for the transport of oxygen from the
lungs to all cells of the body.
7. Protein is used in the production of myoglobin (a red pigment in the muscle which acts as
a store of oxygen, liberating the latter when oxygen supplied by oxyhaemoglobin cannot
meet the demand of the tissues).
8. Some hormones (e.g insulin) are made up of protein.

8|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 9. Protein is important for the formation of fibrinogen (a soluble plasma protein converted
to fibrin during blood clotting).
10. Mucin is a protein, which lubricates gut wall and keeps respiratory surface moist.
11. Protein ossein provides structural support to bones.
12. Collagen provides strength and flexibility to tendons and cartilage.

Sources of protein

Deficiency of protein

Test for protein (Biuret’s test)

1. To 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested, add 2 cm3 of 10% potassium hydroxide solution and
shake the tube to mix the contents.
2. Add 0.5% of copper sulphate solution a drop at a time, shaking the tube continuously.
Do not exceed 10 drops.
3. Repeat the procedures 1 and 2 using water in the place of the test solution (Control
experiment).
The presence of protein is indicated by a purple/mauve/lilac colouration.

9|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA

 LIPIDS
Lipids are organic and are all insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents such as acetone.

Elements present: Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (But proportion of oxygen is much smaller
than in carbohydrates).

Building Units: fatty acids and glycerol

Types of lipids

Fats (solid at room Oils (liquid at room

temperature) temperature)
Formation of lipids:

Lipids are esters of fatty acids and an alcohol (glycerol). Lipids are formed by the condensation
of one molecule of glycerol with 3 molecules of fatty acids. 3 water molecules are lost.

3 fatty acids + glycerol lipid(triglyceride) + 3H2O

+ 3H2O
+

Types of fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids

❑ No double bonds ❑ Has double bonds
HHH H
e.g
e.g H-C-C-C-COOH e.g H-C-C== C-COOH
HHH HH H
The type of lipid formed depends on the type of fatty acid present. Saturated fatty acids are
considered harmful because it is converted into cholesterol in the body. Animal fat is rich in
saturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (many double bonds) are considered to be less
harmful.

Functions of lipids
❑ As energy source: upon breakdown, they yield twice as much energy as carbohydrates
(17 KJ/g). That is, 1 g of fat burnt yields about 38 KJ energy.
❑ Storage: on account of their high-energy yield, they act as excellent energy store.
❑ Insulation: fat is stored under the skin in the adipose tissue. This fat acts as an insulator
and thus reduces heat loss from the body.

10 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
 ❑ Protection: fat surrounding vital organs such as the kidneys helps to protect them
against physical damage.
❑ Waterproofing: Terrestrial plants and animals have a need to conserve water. Animal
skins produce oily secretions (sebum), which waterproof the body. This prevents
excessive loss of water during sweating which may lead to dehydration during hot
conditions.
❑ Cell membrane: Phospholipid is a major component of the cell membrane.
❑ Solvent for certain vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble vitamins and are
therefore stored in tissues containing fats.
❑ Provides buoyancy to aquatic animals: Many large animals such as the whale stores
fat as blubber. This allows the animal to float in water as fat is less dense than water.
❑ Source of metabolic water: Desert animals such as the camel can survive for a long
period without water because they make use of metabolic water. This water is obtained
from the oxidation of fat during respiration.
❑ Electrical insulation: The nerve cells are insulated by means of fatty myelin sheath
which increase rapidity of impulse transmission in nerve cells.

Test for lipids

❑ Greasy spot test

If a drop of oil is applied onto a piece of filter paper and allow drying, a translucent (i.e, it allows
light to pass through it but we cannot see through it) spot will be formed.

❑ Ethanol Emulsion Test

1. To 2 cm3 of the tested solution in a test tube, 5 cm3 of ethanol is added.
2. The tube is then sharked thoroughly until the oil is dissolved.
3. Then add 5 cm3 of water and shake gently.
As a control, the experiment (step 1-3)is repeated using water instead of the tested solution.
A milky white suspension indicates the presence of a lipid.

Sources of lipids

Excess fats in the diet are harmful. It may leads to obesity, heart problems (occlusion of
vessels, high pressure, heart attack, etc….) and even certain cancers. It appears that the safest
fatty substance in the diet is olive oil.

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 VITAMINS

❑ These are complex ORGANIC compounds.

❑ It has no energy value.
❑ Required in very small amount.
❑ Essential for normal activities of cells.
❑ Cannot be made by the body except vitamin D (produce in the presence of light where
derivative of cholesterol is converted to vitamin D in the skin, liver and kidneys). Thus
should be taken in the diet.
❑ Lack of vitamins in the diet leads to deficiency diseases.

Vitamins may be divided into two groups

Fat soluble Water soluble

Vitamin A, D, E and K Vitamin B and C (cannot be stored in the
body and thus loss in urine).
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Sources:
Citrus fruits (lemon and oranges),
guavas, kiwi fruit, green vegetables,
potatoes and tomatoes.

Much of vitamin C in food are destroyed by cooking or storing.

Functions:
Concerned with the metabolism of connective tissues and the production of strong skin.
Essential for collagen fibre synthesis.
Necessary for maintaining healthy epithelial tissues.

Deficiency and disorders:

❑ Lack of vitamin C results in a disease called scurvy which is characterized by:
o Skin of gums becomes weak and bleeds and loosening of teeth (bleeding gums).
o Wounds fail to heal properly
o Painful swollen joints.
o Haemorrhages or internal bleeding in muscles and skin
o Week muscles
o Anaemia
❑ Poor connective tissue growth.
❑ Reduced resistance to infection
❑ Vessel walls become fragile because of connective tissue degeneration.

12 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Vitamin D (Calciferol)
They requires moderate amount of bile salts and fat for absorption. They are stored to a slight
extent, whereas most are excreted via bile.
Sources: cod-liver oil, egg yolk, margarine, milk and action of sunlight on cholesterol in skin.
Functions:
❑ Helps in the absorption of calcium from the intestine.
❑ Helps in the absorption of phosphorus.
❑ Enables the body to use calcium and phosphorus, hence important for bone and teeth
formation.
❑ Essential for growth

Deficiency Diseases and symptoms:

1. Rickets in children is characterized by:
• Poor teeth and bone formation.
• In children, the bones are soft and pliable and are readily bent under the body
weight.
• Deformities such as bowed legs, knock-knees and pigeon’s chest develop.
2. In adults, a disease called osteomalacia may occur. This is the softening of bones and
may result in bone fractures.

MINERAL SALTS

Naturally occurring NON-ORGANIC substance.

No energy value
Needed in small amount.
Lack of minerals leads to deficiency diseases.
Needed for chemical activities in the body and for construction of certain tissues.
At least 13 minerals are essential to heath.
Essential minerals include: sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, iron and iodine.

Calcium

The daily requirement is 500 mg in adults and 1000 mg in children. 99% is stored in bones and
teeth. The remainder is stored in muscles, soft tissues and plasma. It is absorbed ONLY in the
presence of Vitamin D.
Functions:
• For the formation off bones and teeth. Child with rickets
• For blood clotting
• For normal muscle contraction and nerve activity

Sources: milk, egg yolk, shellfish, and green leafy vegetables.

Deficiency: rickets (children) and osteomalacia (adult).
A lack of calcium may result in:
• Muscular cramps
• Bleeding occur which take time to heal.

13 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Iron

Daily requirement is 20 mg in adults

Functions:
• Component of haemoglobin, which carry oxygen to body cells.
• It is also needed in the formation of a red pigment found in muscle, called myoglobin,
which stores oxygen.

Sources: meat, liver, kidney, shellfish, egg yolk, beans, legumes, dried fruits, nuts, yeasts and
cereals.

Deficiency:

Result in anaemia. The signs and symptoms of anaemia are:

• Low level of haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
• Red blood cells become smaller and fewer in numbers.
• Persons suffer from tiredness and breathlessness.

ROUGHAGE

Roughage mainly consists of indigestible cellulose cellulose of plant tissues. We cannot digest
cellulose because we do not produce the enzymes needed to break it, unlike herbivorous animals.

Functions:
This undigested material called fibre, helps to prevent constipation. It does this by adding bulk
to the faeces, stimulating peristalsis, which keeps it moving along the digestive tract (gut).
A diet rich in fibres reduce the risk of intestinal cancer.

Deficiency:
• Lack of roughage cannot properly stimulate the intestine and so food moves very slowly
and causes excessive absorption of water from them. As a result, the faeces become so
dry and hard that make egestion very difficult. Hence, constipation occurs.
• Intestinal disorders (e.g, intestinal cancer).

Sources: fresh fruits and vegetables, wholemeal bread and cereals.

14 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
 WATER

70 % of the total body weight of mammals is water. Protoplasm consist of about 90 % water

Functions (Importance) of water:

• Essential for life: water is a component of the protoplasm and thus essential for the cells
to stay alive.
• As a medium for:
❑ Chemical reactions to take place.
❑ For transport of food and metabolic waste such as glucose and urea respectively. In
our body, these metabolites are dissolved in plasma of blood and transported in the
body.
❑ for sperms to swim.
• As a reagent for the hydrolysis of food.
• Raw material of photosynthesis.
• Essential for germination of seeds (soften testa and activate enzyme amylase).
• Habitat: Water is a suitable habitat for aquatic animals because it has a high heat
capacity. This means that the temperature of water is more or less constant. It also
contains dissolved oxygen.
• As a cooling agent: Water helps to regulate body temperature of organisms. Heat is lost
by evaporation of water through:
❑ Sweating or perspiration in mammals and
❑ Transpiration in plants.
• As a supporting agent:
❑ Water provides buoyancy to aquatic plants and animals.
❑ It provides turgidity to cells of plants and thus supports
soft parts of plants.
❑ It provides a hydrostatic skeleton for earthworms and
the penis during copulation.
• Lubricant:
❑ Water is present in synovial fluid at the joint where it reduces friction between bones
during movement.
❑ Water present in mucus facilitates the swallowing of food.
• Solvent:
❑ Water is a universal solvent for mineral salts and sugars.
❑ Mineral salts dissolve in water to form ions, which is absorbed by the root hairs from
the soil solution by diffusion and active transport.
❑ Food eaten contains mineral salts that are absorbed by the villi of the small intestine
in the form of ions.
❑ Glucose, vitamins and amino acids that dissolve in the blood is transported to all parts
of the body.

Sources: drinks and fruits

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 NUTRITION IN MAN
Nutrition in man occurs in the digestive system. The latter have the following basic functions:

Ingestion: It is the intake of food into the gut (alimentary canal) through the mouth.
Peristalsis: It is the rhythmic movement of food along the alimentary canal. This is under the
control of regular contraction and relaxation of muscles (antagonistic pair of muscle) found in
the wall of the alimentary canal.
Digestion: It is the breakdown of complex insoluble molecules into simple, soluble and
diffusible molecules.

Digestion can be:

Physical (mechanical) Digestion: it Chemical digestion: Involves

breaks down food into smaller pieces, enzyme, which catalyse breakdown
providing a larger surface area to volume of large food molecules into
ratio for chemical digestion. smaller, soluble and diffusible ones.
E.g Mastication, E.g
Churning of the stomach
.

Absorption: It is the uptake of digested food from the gut into the bloodstream.
Assimilation: It is the utilization of the digested and absorbed food molecules in the body (for
growth, repair, reproduction, etc).
Egestion (defecation): It is the removal of undigested food through the anus.

Note: Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste product from the body. For e.g, metabolic
waste products of the body such as carbon dioxide, urea are removed from the body by excretion.
It should not be confused with the process of egestion.

Digestive system consist of

Alimentary canal Accessory structures

❑ Long continuous tube extending
from the mouth to the anus.
❑ Most of its length coiled in the
abdominal cavity as small
intestines.
❑ Consist of the mouth and buccal
cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large
intestine and the anus.
16 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Are glands or organs which are not part of
the alimentary canal (gut) but are closely
associated with the gut and are important for
digestion.
E.g are salivary glands (secrete saliva in
buccal cavity), pancreas (secrete pancreatic
juice in the small intestine), liver (produce
bile), and gall bladder (store and secrete bile
in the small intestine).
 Transverse section of gut wall

Serous coat

Mucous coat

Submucous coat

Circular muscle
Anus
Longitudinal muscle

Digestion in human

The first step is ingestion

Mouth and buccal cavity

Food enters the buccal cavity via the mouth.

Digestion in mouth

Physical digestion Chemical digestion

Solid food is broken down into Three pairs of salivary glands open
small pieces by the chewing action into the buccal cavity secreting
of the teeth (mastication) providing saliva (about 1.5 litre per day).
a larger surface area to volume ratio
for action of enzyme (chemical
digestion).
Chewing involve the teeth, muscle
of the jaws, cheek, tongue and the
lips, as shown below.

17 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Physical digestion in the mouth

Chemical digestion in the mouth

The sight and smell of food stimulates the flow of saliva into the mouth.
Saliva consists of:
❑ Water (important for chemical reactions to take place),
❑ Mucus (to lubricate the mouth; and to form a bolus of food consisting of small pieces of
food which have been formed during physical digestion).
❑ Enzyme salivary amylase (convert starch in food into maltose)
❑ NaHCO3 (to provide a pH of about 6.5-7.5).
The bolus of food is then swallowed into the oesophagus through the pharynx.

Swallowing
During swallowing, the bolus (soft rounded mass of food) is pushed to the back of the mouth by
the tongue and passed into the oesophagus through the pharynx.

The pharynx is a common passage for food and air. Food should go into the oesophagus and air
into lungs through a tube called trachea (windpipe). If food enters the trachea, the person will
choke. Thus, to prevent this, a flap of tissue called epiglottis (just above the larynx (voice-box))
closes off the entrance of the trachea during swallowing. Another structure opening into the
pharynx is the nasal cavity. This also closes during swallowing as the soft palate moves up
covering the entry.

18 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
In the oesophagus
The oesopahgus (or gullet) is a narrow muscular tube connecting the pharynx and the stomach.

Peristalsis

The wall of the oesophagus has two layers of smooth muscles

(circular and longitudinal), which contract and relax
antagonistically causing rhythmic, wave-like contractions of the
walls of the gut. Such movement is known as peristalsis, which
moves food along the gut.

During peristalsis, a ring of muscle contracts behind the bolus

while the muscles ahead of it relax, causing the wave-like
movement.
When circular muscle contracts, the longitudinal muscle relax
causing the narrowing of the gut. Thus the bolus is squeezed and
thus pushes forward.

Stomach
Digestion

Chemical Physical
Wall of stomach has numerous pits, which Food spends about 3 hours in the stomach
contain gastric glands. These glands during which time, it is churned around
secrete gastric juice when food enters the (for better mixing of gastric juice and food)
stomach. due to contraction of the muscles found in
❑ Gastric juice contain: the wall of the stomach resulting in a liquid
❑ Water (for chemical reactions). called chyme.
❑ HCl:
• convert inactive pepsinogen
into pepsin,
• convert inactive prorennin
into rennin.
• provide acidic pH (2) for
optimum action of enzyme
rennin and pepsin.
• Kill germs
• Cause partial hydrolysis of
sucrose and nucleoproteins.
❑ Pepsinogen (pepsin convert protein
into polypeptides and peptones)
❑ Prorennin (rennin convert
caseinogen (soluble milk protein)
into casein (insoluble milk protein)
on which pepsin may act)

19 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Other secretory cells in the stomach wall make mucus, which lines the stomach cavity. This
mucus protects the stomach wall from the gastric acid and the protein-digesting enzymes in the
gastric juice. Mucus secretion prevent ulcer.

During each rhythmic contraction of the stomach wall, a little chyme leaves the stomach and
enters the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter.

Small Intestine

The small intestine consists of 3 parts namely duodenum, jejenum and ileum respectively. The
small intestine is the site where chemical digestion is completed (in duodenum) and digested
food absorbed (in ileum) into the bloodstream.

Chemical digestion is completed when all carbohydrates are converted into monosaccharide,
proteins into amino acids and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Presence of chyme in the small intestine stimulates:

❑ The intestinal glands of the

small intestine secrete intestinal
juice.

❑ The pancreas to secrete

pancreatic juice in the
duodenum through pancreatic
duct.

❑ The gall bladder to release bile

through the bile duct (bile is
produced in the liver and stored in
gall bladder).

All the three fluids (intestinal juice, bile and pancreatic juice) are alkaline (presence of
NaHCO3). The alkalis neutralize the acidic chyme and also provide a suitable alkaline
medium for the action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes (bile has no enzymes)

20 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Pancreatic juice contains the following enzymes:
❑ Pancreatic amylase (convert starch to maltose).
❑ Pancreatic lipase (convert lipids into fatty acids and glycerol).
❑ Trypsinogen (inactive) is converted by enzyme enterokinase into trypsin (active form).
Trypsin converts proteins into polypeptides.

Intestinal juice contains the following enzymes:

❑ Enterokinase (convert trypsinogen into trypsin).
❑ Erepsin or peptidase (convert polypeptides into amino acids).
❑ Maltase (convert maltose into 2 glucose molecules).
❑ Sucrase or invertase (convert sucrose into glucose and fructose).
❑ Lactase (convert lactose into glucose and galactose).
❑ Lipase (convert lipids into fatty acids and glycerol).
Bile juice (green fluid) contains
❑ No enzymes
❑ Mineral salts (sodium hydrogen carbonate) to neutralize acidic chyme.
❑ Bile salts, which emulsify (break down lipids into minute droplets,
providing large surface area to volume ratio) for the action of lipase.
❑ Bile pigments.

Absorption and assimilation

In ileum (about 5m long), digestion is completed and the digested food molecules (amino acids,
fatty acids, glycerol and monosaccharides) are absorbed from the ileum into the bloodstream
through the wall.

Those digested food are then transported in the blood to different parts of the body, where they
are assimilated and used either for energy, growth, repair or maintenance.

ABSORPTION

Some relatively small molecules are absorbed in the buccal cavity and the stomach. For
example, alcohol absorption occurs in the stomach.

However, most absorption occurs in the

ileum of the small intestine. The wall of
the intestine is specially adapted for rapid
absorption of nutrients. There are
numerous folds in the wall of the small
intestine increasing its surface area. In
addition, the folds themselves have tiny
finger-like projection called villi, whose
cells (epithelial cells) have microvilli.
These greatly increase surface area for
absorption of digested food.
21 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
 Each villus contains
capillaries and a lymph
vessel (lacteal).

The small glucose and amino acids

molecules are absorbed (by
diffusion and active transport)
directly into the bloodstream
through the capillary walls.

Blood capillaries from villi collect

to form veins, which ultimately
collect to form a large vein called
hepatic portal vein, which carries
blood to the liver.

However digested fats and lipid-soluble vitamins do no dissolve in water. Therefore, they form
globular micelles, which dissolve in the surface membrane of the cells lining the villus, and
diffuse into their cytoplasm. Once inside the epithelial cell, there are reconverted to fat. These
fat then enters lacteal, which joined together to form the lymphatic duct, which opens back into
the main bloodstream into the subclavian vein.

Uptake of calcium ions is enhanced by the presence of vitamin D. Uptake of iron ions is
enhanced by the presence of vitamin C.

Large intestine

22 | D r S h a k e e l A T C H I A
Summary

23ASSIMILATION
|Dr Shakeel ATCHIA
This is the utilization of the absorbed food by the body to provide energy or
materials for the maintenance of the body.