DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN

COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

MODULE 3
UNIT 2
OTHER THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the key concepts of Marxist theory, feminist theory and critical criminology.
• Apply the concepts of Marxist theory, feminist theory and critical criminology.

ACTIVITY # 1 – What do you know?

Instruction: Answer the following questions. WRITTEN, PLEASE WRITE LEGIBLY. Use the
space provided.
1. In your own understanding, what is a:
a. Marxist Theory

b. Feminist Theory
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

ACTIVITY # 2 – Let’s explore!

Instruction: Answer the following questions. WRITTEN, PLEASE WRITE LEGIBLY. Use the
space provided.
1. What is the impact of creating the feminist theory in criminal occurrence?

MARXIST THEORY
Marxist Theory. Explains both law and criminal justice, and focuses upon the division between
the ruling-class elite and the laborers.
In capitalist society, the ruling class elite (bourgeoisie) control the means of production,
which allows them to control the political state as well. They use this control to manipulate the
laborers (proletariat) and keep them in a position of powerlessness. The masses are thus
controlled both economically and legally.
According to Marx and Engels, criminals came from a third class in society. - The lumpen
proletariat- who would play no decisive role in the expected revolution (Siegel, 2004 as cited by
Panugaling & Caño 2019).

Bourgeois. The ruling class elite in a capitalist system; those with power
Proletariat. The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those with no power.
Capitalism. A system of economic organization in which the means of production are held
privately in the hands of a few. Late Stage Capitalism.

STRUCTURAL AND INSTRUMENTAL MARXISM

Structural Marxism. Political state is not under the total control of the ruling elite; that from time
to time, laws may be passed that harm the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may
be subject to state control.
Instrumental Marxism. The political state (including the law and the criminal justice system) is
always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress the working class.
Topics other Related Terminologies
• Crimes of Government. Crimes committed by both appointed and elected officials.
• Crimes of Domination and Repression. Crimes committed by the ruling class against
the lower class.
• Crimes of Control. Crimes committed by criminal justice personnel.
• Crimes of accommodation and resistance. Crimes committed by the lower class
against the upper class, or the capitalist system.
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY
Critical Criminology. An extension of Marxist theory that goes beyond the examination
of the effects of capitalism on crime.
It takes a critical stance against mainstream criminology.

Critical Approaches in Explaining Crime

• Critical theories grew out of the changing social landscape of the American 1960s.
• Critical theories assume that human beings are the creators of institutions and structures
that ultimately dominate and constrain them.
• Critical theories assume that society is characterized primarily by conflict over moral
values.

VARIETIES OF CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY

Variations of critical Criminology

1. Constitutive Criminology. Recommends that we search for the cause of criminal activity.
It examines how the relationships between criminals, victims and agents of control act and react
to form our understanding of crime.

2. Left Realism. While this perspective examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also
recognizes the impact, damage, and fear cause by traditional street crime.
It proposes reforms to the system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce
the use of prison, and reduce crime as a whole.
This perspective rejects both the conservative and choice perspective of the right, and
tendency of the left to overlook or disregard the true damage caused by crime.
Many critical criminologists focus on crimes committed by the powerful.
In the mid-1980s a group of social scientists in Great Britain, known as left realists, began
focusing on crime by and against the working class.

Left realists want to:

give more power to police to combat crime
want to make the police more accountable for their actions.

Left realists argue that critical criminologists need to redirect their attention to the fear and
the very real victimization experienced by working-class people.
Also known as British Realism

3. Peace Making Criminology. This perspective is often viewed as a philosophy as opposed to

a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain a religious core.
In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society (victims, offenders, and criminal
justice agents) to recognize and reduce the violence that is at the heart of the society and the
system.
The violence can then be replaced with non-violent solutions.
Mixture of anarchism, humanism, socialism, and Native American and Eastern
philosophies.
Rejects the idea that criminal violence can be reduced by state violence.
Peacemaking criminologists believe that reducing suffering will reduce crime.
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

4.Cultural Criminology. Looks at all of the cultural forces in and around the crime, the offender,
and the criminal justice system.

5.Postmodernism. Closely related to critical criminology, this perspective seeks to discover and
eliminate the power of language and text that is used to give power and privilege to specific
groups, while denying it to others.
It also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientific explanations of criminology, and
replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and advances the cause of
disadvantaged individuals.

TOPICS OTHER RELATED TERMINOLOGIES

Hegemony. A perspective that seeks modern scientific thought and testable explanations for the
causes of crime.
The postmodern movement wants to replace this view with a linguistically based
nonscientific approach that recognizes disadvantaged people in society.
Left Idealism. Overlooking the pain caused to victims as the result of criminal activities.

FEMINIST THEORY DEVELOPMENT

Feminist Theory. This theory attempts to define criminology and criminal justice based upon the
experiences, understanding and view of the world as perceived by women.
It tries to counter most theories of criminology that have been developed, tested and
applied by men to men, which have incorporated women only as an afterthought.

Adler’s Theory of Masculinity. The book published by the prominent female criminologist Freda
Adler entitle Sister in Crime: The Rise of a new Female Criminal (1975) has helped to develop
the masculinity theory.
Adler argued that, women are involved in more crime due to the increasing participation
of women in social movements since the 1970s, which changed role of female in family and the
feelings of independence n her work and thought.
All these factors promote the “masculinization processes of women” role in society
(Harrington and Nee: 2005, Ahuja:1996 as cited by Panugaling & Caño 2019).

Main Premise of this theory

Criminalities of women are mainly dependent on the masculinity behavior of female. The
empowered women are involved in more serious, violent crime than non-empowered women due
to the masculinity.
This strength of the theory is that it can explain the pattern and trends of female crime in
first world nations and it explains the involvement of women on property crime.
Criticized by feminist scholars because of the male centeredness ideology
Opportunity Theory. Was created by Rita J. Simon in her work, “|Women and Society,”
Argued that the involvement of criminal activities is increased when women have different
opportunities.
Increasing opportunities of women reduce the rates of violent female offending, of different
dimensions of female criminality, that is-type, nature and also the corrective role of jail and court
in this regard.
She showed that there is no difference between male and female in terms of morality, the
biological characteristics not being relevant for committing crime.
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

Historically, males are more active in crime because of their social opportunity, efficiency
and social communication are increased, then the rate of female criminality increases accordingly
(Small;200, Chelik:2008 as cited by Panugaling & Caño 2019).
Simon logically argued that, “when more women get access in labor market as skilled
labor and possess highly specialized position in the job sector they commit more employment
related property crime like men.
Some women take the advantage of these opportunities, just as some men do before
(Simon, 1975 as by Panugaling & Caño 2019).

Marginalization Theory. Meda Chesney-Lind and Kathleen Daly (1986): Women and Crime: The
Female Offender.
Marginality (low salary, inadequate job, lower class position, family victimization) of a
woman penetrates criminality in contemporary societies.
Those women are motivated to commit crime as a rational response to poverty and
economic uncertainty that they perceive.
They pointed out women’s unemployment, inadequate labor charges, and the increase in
the number of members in the home, that is, the care for the large family, which leads to a
reduction in the domestic budget, and on her free time can make women crime prone.
Criminologist Kathleen Daly (1989), as cited by Panugaling & Caño (2019), developed a
new term in criminology that emphasizes women’s involvement in professional criminality.
The term “Pink Collar Crime” appears as a counterpart to the “White Collar Crime” which
in turn is nothing but a “Professional crime committed by members of the upper ruling and
business circles, who use their influences and connections in the society to perform of crimes that
bring tremendous material benefit to them, and for the citizens and society a great deal of damage.
According to Dally, “Pink Collar Crime” is carried out by women whose office jobs can be
characterized as being set on a low to medium level, or more simply speaking, at a position as
accountants, managers, officers, etc. which embezzlement from their employers.
That is, women who may not have carrying main functions, but still have enough powers
and opportunities to commit fraud or theft at their jobs (Panugaling & Caño 2019).

Economic Marginalization Hypothesis. The belief that economic pressures put on women to
support themselves and their dependent children, along with the stepping back of men from their
roles of financial support of women and children has pushed women into criminal activity of
economic gain.

Critical Feminist Theory. Also known as Marxist Feminists.

It holds that gender inequality stems from the unequal power of men and women and the
subsequent exploitation of women by men.
The cause of female criminality originates with the onset of male supremacy and the efforts
of males to control female sexuality.
Women are a “commodity” like land or money.
That male exploitation acts as a trigger for female criminal or delinquent behavior.

GENDERED CONTEXT APPROACH

Gendered Context Approach. Examines the different opportunities males and females have to
commit criminal acts, and how males and females respond differently to similar situations and
events.
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

Gendered Pathways Approach. A descriptive approach that gives voice to and acknowledge
the physical and sexual abuse common to many female offenders.

POWER CONTROL THEORY

Power Control Theory. A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal and egalitarian families
are examined.
In patriarchal families, sons are more likely than daughters to be delinquent because sons
receive less supervision than daughters.
In Egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters becomes more
similar.

Patriarchal Family. Part of Hagan’s Power Control theory.

In Patriarchal family, the father is typically in a command position in the workplace and
runs the family.
Mothers are more likely to supervise daughters more closely the sons and encourage risk-
taking in sons, more than in daughters.

Paternalism. This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep women and girls in a
subservient position in society.
While women and girls may be treated less severely as indicated under the chivalry
hypothesis, they may also be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them form achieving
equality with men.

Patriarchy. A manner of societal organization where the right and privileges of men are more
important and trump the rights and privileges of women.

Egalitarian Family. Part of Hagan’s Power Control Theory.

A family in which the mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share
power and control in the family.

CHIVALRY THEORY
Chivalry Hypothesis. The view that male police officers, prosecutors, and judges, tend to have
traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the officials are more lenient on the females for
committing criminal acts than on their male counterparts.
Selectivity hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, in other words, lenient
sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle class, privileged women.
Typicality hypothesis. The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, in other words, lenient
sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes consistent with the stereotypical
view of women, and to women who can still be viewed as “feminine”.

Chivalry Thesis
Chivalry. gallantry, courtesy/politeness to women
Idea which asserts that women are let off relatively lightly (leniently) by the predominantly
male police, judges, magistrates etc. in the criminal justice system

Evidence for Chivalry Thesis

Sources of evidence which support the Chivalry Thesis:
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

• ONE self-report studies

• Give some indication of amount of unreported crime and chances that different groups
have for their offenses.

Evidence for Chivalry Thesis 1

One Self Report Studies
Graham & Bowling (1995) 1,721 14-15 year olds in England and Wales. Found males
admitted more offenses but the differences were not as great as those shown in official
statistics
55% of males and 31% of women admitted having committed any offense.
28% of men and 12% of women admitted committing an offense in the last 12 months
In official stats around 4 times as many men as women are convicted in a typical 12 month
period.

Evidence for Chivalry Thesis 2

TWO Cautioning of Offenders
• Official statistics show evidence that female suspects are more likely than male suspects
to be cautioned rather than prosecuted.
• 2007: males recorded as offending: 30% cautioned – females recorded as offending: 49%
cautioned

Evaluation
Graham & Bowling (1995) study found that females less likely than men to be involved in
more serious offenses
The seriousness of the offense could thus explain the lower proportions of females among
the convicted and cautioned than among self-reported offenders – rather than the leniency
in the Criminal Justice System.

Evidence against Chivalry Thesis

• There is also some evidence to suggest that the Chivalry Thesis has no basis
• Otto Pollak (1950) in his book, “The Criminality of Women” argues that in a patriarchal
society, women are treated more leniently than men because women are believed to be
born biologically inferior and in need of protection from men (Francklin and Fearne, 2008;
Koons-Witt, 2002 as cited by Panugaling & Caño 2019).

Paternalism Theory. Further states that traditional women are treated with extreme leniency due
to chivalry resulting from paternalistic attitudes within a patriarchal society.

ACTIVITY # 3 – Let’s elaborate!

Instruction: Answer the following questions. WRITTEN, PLEASE WRITE LEGIBLY. Use the
space provided.
1. BONUS
 DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF VIGAN
COLLEGE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Vigan City, Ilocos Sur

ACTIVITY # 4 – ASSESSMENT TASK!

Instruction: Answer the following questions. Written, please write legibly. Use the given answer
sheet, produce more pages if necessary.
1. In a tabular form, differentiate the concept of Marxist theory, feminist theories and critical
criminology and create a scenario for each. (45 points)
2. What are the roles of the victims, offenders and criminals’ justice agents as key players
in peacemaking criminology to recognize and reduce violence in the society and the
system? Explain your answer. (10 points)
3. Based on Chivalry Theory, if you relate women to a particular object, what would that be
and why? (10 points)
4. Give critics how our criminal justice systems treat women offender from men offenders?
Do you think that is just? (10 points)