Module 1

Introduction to Statistics

STUDY GUIDE

A. Answer the following question

1. Describe the nature of statistics with your knowledge of statistics learned from this module, how
do you apply it in life situations?

Statistics is a practice of analysing, collecting numerical data. It is very helpful in our daily
lives it is usually based on facts and figures. It is being applied in real life, such as for calculating the
time to get ready for office, how much money is required to visit work in a month, diet count of a
week, in education, and much more.

2. What is statistics?

The science of collecting, analysing, presenting, and interpreting data. Governmental need
for census data as well as information about a variety of economic activities provided much of the
early impetus for the field of statistics. Currently the need to turn the field of statistics. The need to
turn the large amount of data available in many applied fields into useful information has stimulated
both theoretical and practical development in statistics.

3. Summarize the historical origin of statistics?

Simple forms of statistics have been used since the beginning of civilization, when pictorial,
animals and in animate on skins, alas, or sticks of wood and wall of caves. Before 300BC, the
Babylonians used small clay tablets to record tabulation of agricultural yields and commodities
bartered or sold. At present, statistics is a reliable means of describing accurately the values of
economic, political, social, psychological, biological and physical data and serves as a tool to
correlate and analyse such data. Statistics as a problem began with the beginning of man’s existence.

In ancient times, it was used to provide information pertaining to taxes soldier, agricultural
crops and even athletic endeavours.

Statistics also developed as a science partly due to man’s posterity for gambling. This
inclination then led to the early development of the probability theory.

B. Multiple choice. Choose the best answer.

1. In the historical development of statistics, which of the following centuries recorded as the first
government to gather extensive data about wealth of the territories?

a. Jewish

b. Roman

c. Israelites

Answer: B
2. Which of the following is considered to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a branch of
Mathematics?

a. Mathematics

b. Science

c. Statistics

Answer: C

3. In statistics, which of the following theories increased the scope of statistical applications?

a. Theory of Probability

b. Theory of Error

c. Theory of Motivation

Answer: A

Study Guide

A. Answer the following question

1. What is population? Define.

The word population refers to group as aggregates of people, animals, objects, materials,
happening or things of any form. This means that there are population of students, teachers,
supervisors, principals, laboratory, animals, and trees manufactured articles, birds, insects and many
others. Your concern is the properties descriptive of the group of aggregate rather than properties of
particular members.

2. Differentiate population from sample.

A population consists of all elements, individuals, items or objects whose characteristics are
being studied. The population being studied is called the target population. A portion of the
population selected for study is referred as sample. A sample that represents the characteristics of
the population as closely as possible is called a representative sample. While a sample drawn in such
a way that each elements of the population have equal chances of being selected is called a Random
Sample.

B. Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer.

1. A portion of the population is referred to as a

a. sample b. population c. element

Answer: A
2. It consists of all elements, individual items or objects.

a. sample b. population c. element

Answer: B

3. A sample that closely represents the characteristics of the sample.

a. representative sample b. population c. sample

Answer: A

4. The selection of a few elements.

a. sample b. population c. sampling

Answer: C

5. The population being studied

a. sampling b. sample size c. target population

Answer: C
 Module 2

The Variable

Study Guide

1. What is meant by Variable?

A characteristic under study that assumes different values for different elements.

2. Differentiate qualitative from quantitative variables, discrete from continuous variables.

Quantitative variables can be measured numerically, while qualitative variables cannot

assume a numerical value but can be classified into two or more non-numerical categories.

3. Discuss the classification of variables

A. According to continuity of Values

1. Continuous Variables - Variable that can take the form of decimals.

2. Discrete or Discontinuous Variable – Variables cannot take form of decimals.

B. According to Scales of Measurement

1. Nominal Variable – This property allows one to make statement of similarities or

differences

2. Ordinal Variables – These variables refer to a property whereby members of a

group are ranked.

3. Interval Variable – This property allows one to make statement of equality of

intervals.

4. Ratio Variables – This property permits making statement of quality ratios.

C. According to Functional Relationship

1. Independent Variable – This is sometimes called criterion variables.

2. Dependent Variables –This is sometimes called an I.Q., I.Q is dependent variable

an academic achievement is the dependent variable.

4. Discuss the uses of statistics

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that can be used for much purpose. Some of these are
briefly described below:

1. It can give precise description of data

 2. It can predict the behaviour of individual, in school, the grades of students can be
predicted through a scholastic aptitude test.

3. It can be used to test hypothesis.

5. Match column A with column B

Column A Column B
1. A characteristics under study that assumes a. Discrete Variable
different values for different element. b. Continuous Variable
2. A variable that can be measured c. Quantitative variables
numerically. d. Qualitative Variable
3. A variable whose values are countable
4. A variable that can assume any numerical e. Variable
value over a certain interval or f. Classified Variable
intervals.
5. A variable that cannot assume a numerical
value but can be classified into two or more
non-numerical categories

Answer Key: 1. E 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. d
 Module 4

Scales Measurement

Study Guide:1. Define and give the difference of nominal data, ordinal data, interval data, and ratio
data.

- Nominal: the data can only be categorized.

- Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked.
- Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced.
- Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.

2. Give example of each of the following scales of measurement.

- Nominal: it includes country, gender, race, hair color etc. of a group of people, while that of
ordinal data includes having a position in class as “FIRST” or “SECOND”.
- Ordinal: examples of ordinal data are socio economic status, educational level, income level,
satisfaction rating.
- Interval: an interval scale is one where there is order and the difference between two values
is meaningful. Example: Temperature (Fahrenheit), Temperature (Celsius).
- Ratio: examples of ratio data analysis are: age, mass, weight, and distance. In market
research it is used to evaluate: sales, prices, number of customers.

3. Classify the type of data that will be obtained from the following variables as real nominal,
artificial nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.

- Breads of cattle: Artificial Nominal

- Electric power consumptions of household appliances: Real Nominal
- Competitive test results (pass/fail): Ordinal
- Types of beans: Artificial Nominal
- Efficiency ratings of employees: Ordinal
- Popularity ratings of government officials: Ordinal
- Scores of an entrance examination: Interval
- Heights of high school students: Ratio
- Scores of basketball players: Interval
- Popularity ratings of basketball players: Ordinal
- Ranks in the army: Ordinal
- Levels of schooling (Elementary, Secondary, Tertiary/Graduate): Ordinal
- Types of personality: Artificial Nominal
- I.Q.: Interval
- Aptitudes: Ordinal
- Types of profession: Ordinal
- Attitude toward the teaching profession: Real Nominal
- Grades in high school: Interval
 Module 5

Selecting Appropriate Statistical Techniques

Study Guide:

1. What are the primary considerations you have to include in the choice of your statistical test?

- The choice of statistical test for the analysis of your data requires careful and deliberate
judgement on your part. The following primary considerations will prove to be useful.
- The choice of statistical test is dictated by the questions for which the research is designed,
and
- The level distribution and dispersion of data also suggest the type statistical test to be used.

2. How can you tell if you are using an appropriate statistical technique in your study?

- For a statistical test to be valid, your sample size needs to be large enough to approximate
the true distribution of the population being studied. To determine which statistical test to
use, you need to know; weather your data meets certain assumptions. The types of variable
that you’re dealing with.

3. Discuss briefly the primary and secondary considerations in the choice of a statistical test.

- Your choice of statistical techniques depends primarily on your research problem and raw
data research observation.
- In selecting appropriate statistical technique, you have to consider your knowledge of
statistical test and the availability of resources in connection with computation and
interpretation of data.
 Module 6
Different Sampling Techniques

Study Guide:

1. What are the two properties of Random Sampling?

- Systematic Sampling
- Stratified Sampling

2. What are the steps you have to follow in using the Table of Random Numbers?

Steps In using the table of random numbers.

- Numbers each member of the population.

- Determine the population size and sample size.
- Select a starting point on the random number table.
- Choose direction in which to read (up to down, left to right, right to left).
- Continue this way the table until you have selected your entire sample, whatever you’re in
is.

3. What are the steps you need to follow in using the Lottery Sampling Technique?

- A researcher randomly picks numbers, with each number corresponding to a subject or item, in
order to create the sample.

- Each number of the population is assigned a number, after which numbers are selected
random.

4. When are you going to use Systematic Sampling Technique?

Systematic sampling is the preferred method over simple random sampling when a study
maintains a low risk of data manipulation.

5. Give the process of Stratified Sampling Technique?

The process of stratified sampling researches divide subjects into subgroups called strata based
characteristics that they share (example: race, gender, educational attainment, etc.) Once divided,
each group is randomly sampled using another probability sampling method.

6. How do you use Cluster Sampling Techniques?

How to use cluster sampling method:

- Define your population.

- Divide your sample into clusters.
- Randomly select clusters to use as your sample.
- Collect data from the sample.

7. What are other types of Non-Random Sampling?

 - Haphazard Sampling
- Volunteer Sampling
- Judgement Sampling
- Web Panels
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Random Sampling

8. Define the following Sampling Techniques

- Random Sampling: is a subset of individuals chosen from a larger set in which a subset of
individuals are chosen randomly, all with the same probability.
- Systematic Sampling: is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an
ordered sampling frame.
- Lottery Sampling: is to create a sample this way, the researcher must ensure that the
numbers are well mixed before selecting the sample population.
- Stratified Sampling: is a method of sampling from a population which can be partitioned
into subpopulations.
- Cluster Sampling: is a sampling plan used when mutually homogeneous yet internally
heterogeneous groupings are evident in statistical population. It is used in marketing
research.
- Purposive or Deliberate Sampling: It is where a researcher selects a sample based on their
knowledge about the study and population.
- Quota Sampling: is a type of non-probability sampling method. This means from the
population are choose on a non-random basis and all members of the population do not
have an equal chance of being selected to be a part of the sample group.
- Convenience Sampling: is a type of non-probability sampling that involves the sample being
drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand
 Module 7

Measures of Centrality, Location, and Variation

Study Guide:

Solve the following problems:

1. The grades of a student on 12 examinations were 90, 78, 85, 75, 92, 86, 85, 94, 84, 91, 83. Find the
mean, median, and mode of grades.

A. Mean: 85.7272727
B. Median: 85.5
C. Mode: 85

Solution:
A. M = Sum of the terms
Mean Number of terms

M= 90+78+85+75+92+86+85+94+84+91+83 (Grades)
Students

M= 943 Mean = 85.7272727

11

B. Lowest to highest

75 78 83 84 85 85 86 88 90 91 92 94

85 + 86
2

= 171 Median = 85.5

2

C. Mode= 85

2. Find the mean, median, and mode of the number of hamburgers sold in 7 days: 25, 23, 28, 25, 27,
24.

A. Mean: 25.333
 B. Median: 25
C. Mode: 25

Solution:

A. M= Sum of the terms

Number of terms

M= 25+23+28+25+27+24
6

M= 152
6

M= 25.33333

B. 23 24 25 25 27 28 28

Median = 25

C. Mode: 25

VIII. Study Guide

Practice exercise
Exercise 1
1. The data given are the heights (in cm) of 15 junior students. Calculate the mean height.
150 151 152 147 152
154 149 150 153 145
148 153 151 149 150
2. Joseph got the following marks for the third-grading period.
Filipino 80
Biology 82
Mathematics 78
English 76
History …
 a. Find the mean x for the four subjects.
b. What grade must he get in history to raise his average to 80?

Exercise 1 ( answer)
1. mean = 150.26666
2. history = 84
a. m = 79
b. m = 84

Exercise 1 (solutions)
1. m = Sum of the terms
Number of terms

m = 150 + 154 + 148 + 151 + 149 + 153 + 152 + 150 + 151 + 147 + 153 + 149 + 152 + 145 + 150

15

m = 2.254

15

m = 150.26666

2. m = Sum of the terms

Number of terms

m = 80 + 82 + 78 + 76

m = 316

m = 79

Study Guide:

If in one hour of fishing, nine fishermen caught the following number of tilapia.
( 7 4 8 6 5 8 10 7 8 )

1. Find the two measures of central tendency, mean, and median.

A. Mean= 7+4+8+6+5+8+10+7+8
9

Mean= 63
 9

Mean= 7

B. 4 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 10

Median= 7

 Practice Exercise Answers

Exercise 1:

1. Mean= 150.26666

2. History= 84

a) M= 79
b)M= 84

Exercise 2:

1. Median= 4

Exercise 3:

M= 5

M= 7

Exercise 4

1. median = 15

2. median = 23

 Practice Exercise (solutions)

Exercise 1
1. m = sum of the terms
number of terms
m = 150 + 154 + 148 + 151 + 149 + 153 + 152 + 150 + 151 + 147 + 153 + 149 + 152 + 145+ 150
 15

M = 2.254
15

Answer: m = 150.26666

2. A. m = sum of the terms

Number of terms

M = 80 + 82 +78 + 76
4

M = 316
4

M = 79

Example 2: Exercise 2

Find the median of the set 3, 5, 6, 7

2 3 5 6

3+5 = 8 =4
2 2

Mean = 2 + 3 + 5 + 2 Median : 2 2 3 5
4

M = 12 =2+3 =5
4 2 2

M=3 = 2.5

The mean and median are not the same value

Exercise 3
M=1+3+7+9 Median: 1 3 5 7 9
5
M=5

Median = 5

M = Sum of the terms

Numbers of terms

M = 1+2+3+4+6+12+21
7
Median: 1 2 3 4 6 12 21

M = 49
7

M=7 Median = 4

Exercise 4:

1.

11 12 13 15 16 19 20

Median = 15

2.

18 20 22 23 24 25 28

Median = 2
 Module 8

Statistical Test and Their Uses

Study Guide:

1. What statistical analysis should you use when we are conducting a research?

- Correlation
- Person Correlation
- Spearman Correlation
- Chi- Square
- Paired T- Test
- Independent T- Test
- Anova
- Simple Regression
- Multiple Regression
- Wilcoxan Rank- Sumtest
- Sigh Test

2. How do we compute for the Z-test of One Sample Mean?

One Sample Ƶ test

A Ƶ - test used when we want to measure if a sample comes from a specified population. In other
words, does is the sample different than what we expect from a given population.

Ƶ= X -M X= Sample Mean
0/ n m= Population Mean
O= Population Standard Deviation
N= Sample Size

3. How do you know what kind of test to use?

Your choice of what kind of test to use depends on the type of variables you is
dealing with and weather your data certain assumptions.
 MODULE 3
Data Presentation

School Year

Enrolment Statistics of a Private Graduate School from 2003-2009

Questions:

1. In what year(s) was there a marked increase in enrolment?

-Year 2008
2. In what year(s) was there a marked decrease in enrolment?
-Year 2003
3. Can you speculate on the possible reasons for the increase and decrease in enrolment?
-Possible reason
 Low Birth & Population
 Business Number
 Reform Policies
 School Transition
 Need for employment
 Pregnancy
 Poor Grades
 School Alternatives

Exercises B

1. Following the guidelines, construct a table for the school year 2013-2014 enrolment of a high
school. Classify it by sex and year level.
First Year: Male, 2015; Female, 214
Second Year: Male, 182; Female, 193
Third Year: Male, 168; Female, 172
Fourth Year: Male, 159; Female 167
Exercises: B (Answer)

Year Level Male Female

First Year 2015 214
Second Year 182 193
Third Year 168 172
Fourth Year 159 167 Figure 3.2
Percentage of People below the Poverty Line for the Period 2006 to 2011 in Country x.

Questions:

a. In what year(s) is the economy of Country x relatively better?

-Year 2011
b. In what year(s) is the economy relatively bad?
-Year 2006
 c. Could you predict the percentage of people below the poverty line in 1988? Explain
your answer?
-I think 1988 has the low poverty line because this might seem like no-brainer. Without a
job or a livelihood, people will face poverty.

Study the graph in figure 3.3 and answer the questions that follow.

School Year

Fig.3.3 Enrolment Statistics of a Private High School from 2011 to 2008

Questions:

a. In what year(s) was there a marked increase in enrolment?

-2007
b. In what year(s) was there a marked decrease in enrolment?
-2001

STUDY GUIDE

1. How will you present and arrange gathered data in a tabular form?
What are the concepts needed in a tabular presentation?
Organize tabular data into rows and columns. Each row represents a single record or data point,
while columns contain information pertaining to that record. Each record row in data set should be
uniquely identified by one or more column in combinations.

2. What is the graphic presentation? Give an example.

Graph Presentation represents a highly developed body of techniques for elucidating, interpreting
and analysing numerical facts by means of points, lines, areas, and other geometric forms and
symbols.

Example: Line Graphs, Bar Graphs. Histograms

3. Based in a given sample data, construct a textual presentation of data.

School Year Number of Students in

Educational Stat.
2003 100
 2004 150
2005 220
2006 230
2007 310
2008 350

Module Test
1. Below are monthly data on sales of a department store. What type of graph will best represent
the data? Draw and explain the graph.

Month Sales (in thousand pesos)

January February 200
March 400
April 600
May 500
June 750
July 750
August 450
September October 400
November 350
December 300
550
1000

2. Get a sample population of ten families in a certain barangay. Using the family as a unit, obtain
the following data.
a. Number of people in a household (separate the adults from dependent children of school age)
b. Total income per household
c. Number of wage earners in a family.
d. Number of TV sets in a household
e. Number of families who own or rent houses.
f. Number of families who own a car.

Provide and tabulate the data systematically based on the suggestions found in this chapter. Put
the appropriate title and label all the data. Give a general description of the families surveyed.
Family name No. of people in Total income No. of wage No. of TV No. of Number of
a household per household earners in a sets in a families who families
family household own or rent who own a
a house car
Jose Family 5 undisclosed undisclosed 1 1 0
Lara Family 6 undisclosed undisclosed 3 1 1
Bakal Family 5 undisclosed undisclosed 2 1 0
Oray Family 3 undisclosed undisclosed 3 1 1
Tibo Family 4 undisclosed undisclosed 2 1 0
Loro Family 6 undisclosed undisclosed 1 1 0
Tan Family 7 undisclosed undisclosed 3 1 2
Cruz Family 6 undisclosed undisclosed 3 1 2
Chan Family 6 undisclosed undisclosed 4 1 2
Lee Family 5 undisclosed undisclosed 2 1 1

3. The per capita gross national product (GNP) is a key economic indicator. Below is a set of data on
per capita GNP of some selected countries as of January 1989. Draw and interpret the graph that
will represent the data.

Compute the total GNP for each country

Country Population (in millions) Per Capita GNP (in U.S.
dollars)
Japan 122.9 23,533
Malaysia 17.1 1800
Philippines 59.5 650
Singapore 2.6 9675
Taiwan 20.0 7053
Thailand 55.1 881
U.S.A 246.8 19750
(Answer)TOTAL GNP = 63, 342

4. The world’s watch production in 1988 was 560 million. The percentage Production of key regions
and countries are found below. Draw the graph that best represents the data.

Region/Country Percentage Production

China 9.2
Japan 6.8
Western Europe 21.8
North America 21.6
Eastern Europe and USSR 10.4
South and Southeast Asia 12.2
Latin America 7.2
Others 10.8
5. Below is the comparison of the number and type of nuclear weapons between the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact countries as of 1987. Draw the graph that best
represents the data.

Type of Weapon Number of Weapons

Short-range Missile NATO Countries: Warsaw Pact
Intermediate-range missile Countries:
Artillery (nuclear capable) 88 661
Nuclear-capable tactical aircraft 18 289
2924 4598
1382 2349