Revision Notes

Class 11 Maths
Chapter 13 Limits and Derivatives

Limits:
● Consider a function f (x) = x 2 . Plotting it gives

Here, the value of x approaches 0 as the value of function f(x) moves to 0.

● In general as x → a, f ( x ) → l , then l is called limit of the function f ( x )
. This is written symbolically as lim f (x) = l .
x →a

● Irrespective of the limits, the function should assume at a given point x = a

● There are two ways in which x can approach a number. It can either be
from left or from right. This means that all the values of x near a could be
less than a or could be greater than a .
o Right hand limit - Value of f ( x ) which is dictated by values of f ( x )
when x tends to from the right. It is written as lim+ f (x) .
x →a

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 o Left hand limit - Value of f ( x ) which is dictated by values of f ( x )
when x tends to from the left. It is written as lim− f (x) .
x →a

● Here, the right and left hand limits are different. So, the limit of f ( x ) as x
tends to zero does not exist (even though the function is defined at 0 ).
● If the right and left hand limits coincide then the common value is the limit
and denoted by limf (x) .
x →a

Algebra of limits:

Theorem 1:
Let f and g be two functions such that both limf (x) and limg(x) exist, then
x →a x →a

● Limit of sum of two functions is sum of the limits of the functions, i.e.
lim  f (x) + g(x)  = limf (x) + limg(x) .
x →a x →a x →a

● Limit of difference of two functions is difference of the limits of the

functions, i.e.
lim  f (x) − g(x)  = limf (x) − limg(x)
x →a x →a x →a

● Limit of product of two functions is product of the limits of the functions,

i.e.,
lim  f (x).g(x)  = limf (x).limg(x)
x →a x →a x →a

● Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of the limits of the functions

(whenever the denominator is non zero), i.e.,
f (x) limf (x)
lim = x →a
x →a g(x) limg(x)
x →a
● In particular as a special case of (iii), when g is the constant function such
that g ( x ) =  , for some real number  , we have
lim ( .f ) (x)  = .limf (x)
x →a x →a

Limits of polynomials and rational functions:

● A function f is said to be a polynomial function if f ( x ) is zero function
or if f ( x ) = a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n where a iS is are real numbers such
that a n  0 for some natural number n .
● We know that lim x = a
x →a

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 lim x 2 = lim ( x.x ) = lim x.lim x = a.a = a 2
x →a x →a x →a x →a
Hence,
lim x n = a n
x →a

● Let f ( x ) = a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n be a polynomial function

limf ( x ) = lim a 0 + a1x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n 
x →a x →a

= lima 0 + lima1x + lima 2 x 2 + ... + lima n x n

x →a x →a x →a x →a

= a 0 + a1 lim x + a 2 lim x + ... + a n lim x n

2
x →a x →a x →a

= a 0 + a1a + a 2a + ... + a n a
2 n

= f (a)
g(x)
● A function f is said to be a rational function, if f (x) = where
h(x)
g ( x ) and h ( x ) are polynomials such that h ( x )  0 .
Then
g(x) limg(x) g(a)
limf (x) = lim = x→a =
x →a x →a h(x) limh(x) h(a)
x →a
● However, if h(a) = 0 , there are two scenarios –
o when g ( a )  0
▪ limit does not exist
o When g(a) = 0 .
g ( x ) = ( x – a ) g1 ( x ) , where k is the maximum of powers
k
▪
of ( x − a ) in g(x) .
▪ Similarly, h ( x ) = ( x – a ) h1 ( x ) as h(a) = 0 . Now, if k  l ,
l

we have
lim g(x) lim ( x – a ) g1 ( x )
k

limf (x) = x→a = x→a

x →a lim h( x ) lim ( x – a )l h1 ( x )
x →a x →a
( k −l )
lim ( x – a ) g1 ( x ) 0.g1 (a)
= x →a
= =0
lim h1 ( x ) h1 (a )
x →a
If k  l , the limit is not defined.

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Theorem 2:
xn − an
For any positive integer n , lim = na n −1 .
x →a x − a

The proof is shown below.

Dividing ( x n − a n ) by ( x − a ) ,
xn − an
lim = lim ( x n −1 + x n −2a + x n −3a 2 + ... + xa n −2 + a n −1 )
x →a x − a x →a

= a n −1 + a a n −2 + ... + a n −2 (a) + a n −1

= a n −1 + a n −1 + ... + a n −1 + a n −1 ( n terms )
= na n −1
The expression in the above theorem for the limit is true even if n is any rational
number and a is positive.

Limits of Trigonometric Functions:

Theorem 3:
Let f and g be two real valued functions with the same domain such that
f ( x )  g ( x ) for all x in the domain of definition,
For some a , if both limf (x) and limg(x) exist, then lim f (x)  lim g(x)
x →a x →a x →a x →a

Theorem 4 (Sandwich Theorem):

Let f ,g and h be real functions such that f ( x )  g ( x )  h ( x ) for all x in the
common domain of definition.
For some real number a, if limf (x) = l = limg(x) , then lim g(x) = l .
x →a x →a x →a

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To prove:
sin x 
cos x   1 for 0  x 
x 2
Proof: Use known facts that sin ( – x ) = – sin x and cos ( – x ) = cos x . Hence, it is

sufficient to prove the inequality for 0  x 
2

● From the figure, it is noted that O is the centre of the unit circle such that

the angle AOC is x radians and 0  x  .
2
● Two perpendiculars to OA are the line segments BA and CD .
● Now join AC and then,
Area of OAC  Area of sector OAC  Area of OAB
1 x 1
i.e., OA.CD  ..( OA )  OA.AB
2

2 2 2
i.e., CD  x.OA  AB
From OCD ,
CD
sin x = (since OC = OA ) and hence CD = OAsin x .
OA
AB
Also tan x = and hence AB = OAtan x . Thus
OA

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OAsin x  OA.x  OAtan x
Since OA is positive,
sin x  x  tan x

Since 0  x  , sin x is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x ,
2
x 1
1  .
sin x cos x
Taking reciprocals throughout,
sin x  x  tan x .

Since 0  x  , sin x is positive and thus by dividing throughout by sin x ,
2
x 1
1  .
sin x cos x
Taking reciprocals throughout,
sin x
cos x  1
x
Hence, Proved.
The following are two important limits
sin x
i. lim =1
x →0 x
1 − cos x
ii. lim =0
x →0 x
The proof is given as below,
sin x
The function is sandwiched between the function cos x and the constant
x
function which takes value 1 .
x
Since lim cos x = 1 and 1 − cos x = 2sin 2   ,
x →0
2
x x
2sin 2   sin  
1 − cos x  2  = lim  2  .sin  x 
lim = lim  
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x 2
2
x
sin 2  
= lim  2  .limsin  x  = 1.0 = 0
 
x →0 x x →0
2
2

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 x
Using the fact that x → 0 is equivalent to → 0 . This may be justified by putting
2
x
y= .
2

Derivatives:
Derivative of a function at a given point in its domain of definition.
● Definition 1 - Suppose f is a real valued function and a is a point in its
domain of definition. The derivative of f at a is defined by
f (a + h ) − f (a )
lim , provided this limit exists. f  ( a ) is used to denoted the
h →0 h
derivative of f ( x ) at a.
● Definition 2 - Suppose f is a real valued function, the function defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim wherever limit exists is defined to be derivative of f
h →0 h
at x denoted by f  ( x ) . This definition of derivative is also called the first
principle of derivative.
f (x + h) − f (x)
Thus f  ( x ) = lim .
h →0 h
The derivative of function f(x) with respect to x can be denoted in two ways:
f  ( x ) is denoted by
d
dx
( f ( x ) ) or if y = f ( x ) , it is denoted by
dy
dx
.

Another notation is D ( f ( x ) ) .

Further, derivative of f at x=a is also denoted by

d df  df 
f ( x ) or or even   .
dx a dx a  dx  x =a

Theorem 5:
● Let f and g be two functions such that their derivatives are defined in a
common domain. Then
o Derivative of sum of two functions is sum of the derivatives of the
functions.
d d d
f ( x ) + g ( x )  = f ( x ) + g ( x )
dx dx dx
o Derivative of difference of two functions is difference of the
derivatives of the functions.
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 d d d
f ( x ) − g ( x )  = f ( x ) − g ( x )
dx dx dx
o Derivative of product of two functions is given by following product
rule.
d d d
f ( x ) .g ( x )  = f ( x ).g(x) + f (x). g ( x )
dx dx dx
o Derivative of quotient of two functions is given by the following
quotient rule (whenever the denominator is non–zero).
d d
f (x).g(x) − f (x) g(x)
d  f (x)  dx dx
=
dx  g(x)  ( g(x) )
2

o Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) .

▪ Product Rule:
● ( uv ) = uv + uv .
● Also referred as Leibnitz rule for differentiating product
of functions
▪ Quotient Rule:
 u  uv − uv
●   =
v v2
o Derivative of the function f (x) = x is the constant.

Theorem 6:
Derivative of f (x) = x n is nx n −1 for any positive integer n .

Proof
o By definition of the derivative function, we have
f (x + h) − f (x) ( x + h ) − xn
n

f (x) = lim = lim .

h →0 h h →0 h
Binomial theorem tells that
( x + h ) = ( n C0 ) x n + ( n C1 ) x n −1h + ... + ( n Cn ) h n and
n

(x + h) − x n = h ( nx n −1 + ... + h n −1 ) . Thus
n

( x + h ) − xn
n
df (x)
= lim
dx h →0 h
h ( nx + ... + h n −1 )
n −1

= lim
h →0 h
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 = lim ( nx n −1 + ... + h n −1 ) = nx n −1
h →0
o This can be proved as below alternatively

dx
(
d n
x ) = ( x.x n −1 )
d
dx
= (x).( x n −1 ) + x. ( x n −1 ) (By product rule)
d d
dx dx
= 1.x n −1 + x.( (n − 1)x n −2 ) (By induction hypothesis)
= x n −1 + (n − 1)x n −1 = nx n −1

Theorem 7:
o Let f (x) = a n x n + a n −1x n −1 + .... + a1x + a 0 be a polynomial function, where
a i s are all real numbers and a n  0 . Then, the derivative function is given
by
df (x)
= na n x n −1 + (n − 1)a n −1x n −2 + .... + 2a 2 x + a1
dx

Quick Reference:
● For functions f and g the following holds:
lim  f (x)  g(x)  = limf (x)  limg(x)
x →a x →a x →a

lim  f (x).g(x)  = limf (x).limg(x)

x →a x →a x →a

f (x) limf (x)

lim = x →a
x →a g(x) limg(x)
x →a
● Following are some of the standard limits
xn − an
lim = na n −1
x →a x − a

sin x sin ( x − a )
lim = 1,lim =1
x →0 x x →a x −a
1 − cos x
lim =0
x →0 x
tan x tan ( x − a )
lim = 1,lim =1
x →0 x x →a x −a
sin −1 x tan −1 x
lim = 1,lim =1
x →0 x x →0 x

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 ax −1
lim = log e a,a  0,a  1
x →0 x
● Derivatives
o The derivative of a function f at a is defined by
f (a + h ) − f (a )
f  ( a ) = lim
h →0 h
o Derivative of a function f at any point x is defined by
df (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
f ( x ) = = lim
dx h →0 h
● For functions u and v the following holds:
( u  v ) = u  v
( uv ) = uv + uv 
d dv du
( uv ) = u. + v.
dx dx dx
du dv
 v. − u.
 u  uv − uv d u
  =    = dx 2 dx
v dx  v 
2
v v
● Following are some of the standard derivatives
d n
dx
( x ) = nx n −1
d
( sin x ) = cos x
dx
d
( cos x ) = − sin x
dx
d
( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx
d
( cot x ) = −cosec2 x
dx
d
( sec x ) = sec x.tan x
dx
d
( cosec x ) = − cosec x.cot x
dx

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