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Compositional, interpersonal and representational meanings in a children's

narrrative. A multimodal discourse analysis

Article  in  Journal of Pragmatics · September 2008

DOI: 10.1016/j.pragma.2008.04.019

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Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

www.elsevier.com/locate/pragma

Compositional, interpersonal and representational

meanings in a children’s narrrative
A multimodal discourse analysis
Jesús Moya Guijarro a,*, Marı́a Jesús Pinar Sanz b
a
University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. de los Alfares 44, 16071 Cuenca, Spain
b
University of Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. Camilo José Cela s/n. 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Received 15 April 2007; received in revised form 2 November 2007; accepted 22 April 2008

Abstract
Based mainly on Kress and van Leeuwen’s social semiotic analysis and Hallidayan linguistics, this
contribution attempts to employ a multimodal analysis of a picture book in order to ascertain the extent to
which visual and verbal components create meaning.
The textual analysis reveals a strong association between the point of departure of the clause and the
story’s main characters, two hares, alongside constant and linear themes. These thematic progressions
clearly correspond with the visual component, as the illustrator subordinates all the visual elements to the
two hares. The analysis of the visual meaning also shows that there is a predominance of narrative patterns.
In addition, from an interpersonal perspective, gazes are typically the kind of offer utilized, and there is a
predominance of long shots, which tend to imply objectivity and distance. However, and more in line with
the philosophy of a children’s narrative, the images are presented frontally and from a medium angle, which
creates involvement on the part of the viewer. This interactive nature is also suggested throughout the story
by the use of the imperative mood structure: ‘‘Guess how much I love you’’, which gives the title of the tale.
The writer and the illustrator collaborate to tell the story from two different perspectives, the visual and
the verbal, with the aim of making the plot easily accessible for the young child and, in turn, keeping their
attention and interest on the story being narrated.
# 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Systemic functional grammar; Multimodality; Thematic and topical progression; Experiential meaning;
Compositional features; Picture books

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 69 179170x4722; fax: +34 69 179171.

E-mail address: arsenio.mguijarro@uclm.es (J.Moya).

0378-2166/$ – see front matter # 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2008.04.019
1602 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

1. Introduction

‘‘[. . .] There are many other modes of meaning, in any culture, which are outside the realm
of language’’ (Halliday, 1978:4). This recognition implies that the understanding of meaning
not only requires the analysis of language in text, but also the study of other semiotic
resources (images, gestures, sounds, . . .) operating independently and also interdependently
on different levels in a multimodal text (Lim Fei, 2007:195). Matthiessen (2007:2) considers
that there are different diversified and expressive modalities and all of them are
complementary and integrated contributions to the creation of meaning. In fact, as Kaindl
(2004: 176) also states, ‘‘non-verbal elements in multimodal texts not only perform the
function of illustrating the linguistic part of the text, but also play an integral role in the
constitution of meaning, whether through interaction with the linguistic elements or as an
independent semiotic system.’’
Although it is now widely recognized that both linguistic and non-verbal modalities are
bearers of meaning in a particular culture (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2001, 2006; Baldry, 2000;
Baldry and Thibault, 2006; Hagan, 2007; Matthiessen, 2007), it is far from clear how the
visual can add to the verbal or how they are coordinated in the process of creating meaning in
context. The aim of this contribution is to discover the intersemiotic relationship between
visual and textual meaning and their realizations through various linguistic and visual modes.
More specifically, we will focus on the interaction between word and image in a children’s
narrative for the under fives, Guess how much I love you, written by Sam McBratney and
illustrated by Anita Jeram. Through the use of body language and other textual means the tale
describes a competition between two hares in order to prove that love is not an easy thing to
measure.
This contribution begins with a brief introduction to systemic functional linguistics, and the
applications of visual social semiotics to picture books. Once the method of analysis has been
outlined, the focus is on aspects of the tale’s textual, interpersonal and ideational structure.
Among other linguistic factors concerning the interpersonal and experiential functions of
language, we also analyze (i) the types of themes, simple or multiple, which are the most
frequent (Halliday, 2004), (ii) the thematic progression of the narrative (Danes, 1974), (iii) and
its overall topical organization (Dik, 1997; Moya, 2006). Finally, within the framework of
visual social semiotics (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2001, 2006), the attention turns to the study
of images, what they can say and do to represent the characters and the setting. The results,
obtained from both a verbal and a visual analysis, and their relationship to each other,
conclude this paper.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Systemic functional grammar

We assume that multimodality is the use of several semiotic modes and their combination
within a socio-cultural domain which results in a semiotic product or event (Kress and van
Leeuwen, 2001:20). This definition works quite well for the analysis and interpretation of
picture books and it links multimodality to systemic functional grammar (henceforth SFG)
due to its orientation towards context. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006 [1996]), as well as
O’Toole (1994), Hofinger and Ventola (2004), and Lim Fei (2007:197), take into account the
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1603

interplay between any kind of text (either verbal or visual) and the social context in which it is
created.1
Thus, the theoretical foundation for this analysis is mainly extrapolated from the systemic
functional linguistic (henceforth SFL) approach of language as a social semiotic process
(Halliday, 1978). SFL theory provides a model of how the contextual variables, field (what the
text treats), tenor (who is communicating) and mode (by what means the message is transmitted),
determine the choices in the linguistic system, organized in three metafunctions of the language:
the experiential, the interpersonal and the textual.
The ideational metafunction is concerned with the clause as representation of patterns of
experience, conceptualized as situation types with the following components: a process, realized
by a verb, the participants involved (typically they represent persons, things or abstract entities),
the attributes ascribed to them (which typically characterize, identify or locate the participants),
and finally, the circumstances of place, time, manner, etc. attendant to the process itself (Downing
and Locke, 2006:122–123). As Royce (2007:65) states, ‘‘it is meaning in the sense of content[5_TD$IF]’’.
This lexico-grammatical system by which patterns of our experience are achieved is known as the
system of transitivity.
Simultaneously, through the system of mood the clause is also organized as an exchange or
as an interactive event which involves both the speaker and the listener in a specific situation
of communication. Now we are dealing with the meaning of the clause as a form of action.
When communicating, the speaker adopts a speech role (essentially giving or demanding
information) and assigns to the listener a complementary role which he or she wishes him or
her to adopt (Halliday, 2004). The basic illocutionary forces (statement, offer, question
and directive) are encoded by means of three syntactic moods (declarative, interrogative
and imperative). The attitudes and judgments embodied in a text, realized by the system
of polarity and modality, are also part of the interpersonal meaning of the clause as a
message.
Finally, the textual metafunction makes reference to the resources language has for creating
operationally relevant and coherent texts. Within these, the thematic structure gives the clause its
character as a message, as a communicative event, analyzed as a two-part structure with thematic
and rhematic elements.
Thus, SFG deals mainly with the study of the linguistic aspects of language in context.
However, there are other semiotic modes (among them we will focus on the visual) which can
also be assigned representational, interactive and compositional meanings (Kress and van
Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]). Independently of the mode chosen to communicate, the forms taken
by the written and visual modes of a message are closely related to the social and personal
functions the language is required to fulfil and to the social situation in which it is used (Halliday,
2004).

2.2. Visual social semiotics

Kress and van Leeuwen (2006 [1996]) develop a method of social semiotic analysis of
visual communication, based on Halliday’s social semiotics, and create a descriptive
framework of multimodality, assigning representational, interpersonal and compositional

1
Linguists such as O’Toole (1994), O’Halloran (2000), Lemke (2002), Unsworth and Wheeler (2002) and Lim Fei
(2007), among others, have proved that the applications of SFG theory may also be extended to include other semiotic
systems than language itself.
1604 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

meanings to images. Thus, any image, beyond representing the world – whether in abstract
or concrete ways – also plays a part in some interaction and constitutes a recognizable kind
of text.
Like linguistic structures, visual structures and the visual processes within them are associated
with participant roles and with specific circumstances. Thus, the analysis of the intersemiotic
relationship between visual and verbal modes in representational terms requires the
identification of the represented participants (henceforth RPs), whether animate or inanimate,
the processes or the activity described, the attributes or the qualities of the participants and,
finally, the circumstances in which the action is being developed (Unsworth and Wheeler, 2002;
Unsworth, 2008). When participants are connected by vectors of motion (actional) or by eyelines
(reactional), as in narrative images, they are represented as doing something to or for one another.
These narrative patterns, realized by specific visual techniques, serve to present unfolding actions
and events, processes of change and transitory spatial arrangements2 (Kress and van Leeuwen,
2006 [1996][6_TD$IF]:79; Royce, 2007:70).
As for the interpersonal features of multimodal texts, the relationships between the visual,
the producer and the viewer are to be considered, together with the analysis of the
intersemiotic mood in both verbal and visual modes (Unsworth and Wheeler, 2002:69–70;
Unsworth, 2008). In the verbal mode, writers address their readers by making statements,
asking questions, making offers or requiring some kind of action of them. In the visual mode,
producers use visual techniques, and often verbal support as well, to make the speech
functions clear. Among the visual techniques used to analyze interpersonal meaning are the
absence or presence of facial expressions towards the viewer, gestures which make
commands, and offers of information or offers of goods and services to the viewer (Royce,
2007:71–72). Those visuals which present information do not require the viewer to react to
anything nor do they demand the reader to carry out a particular action or adopt a specific
behaviour; they simply offer information that can be either acknowledged or contradicted. In
addition to the choices related to gaze (whether the participants look directly at the viewer or
at each other), interactive relationships are also defined on the basis of perspective and social
distance.
The level of involvement by the viewer, the power relations between the viewer and the
represented participants and, finally, the degrees of social distance and intimacy complement
the information transmitted by the verbal mode (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]). The
level of involvement between the image-producer, the viewers and the RPs in a visual is
encoded in the horizontal angle, which is concerned with frontal and oblique planes.
The vertical angle transmits power relationships between the RPs and the viewer, and the
RPs within an image. Following Kress and van Leeuwen (2006 [1996]), Royce (2007:72)
states
The high angle forces the viewers to look down on the RPs, which is suggestive of a
superiority to them, or of their significance. A low angle forces the viewers to look up to
them, which is suggestive of the viewer’s inferior position, or of the importance of the
portrayed participant(s). An eye-level angle is suggestive of a sense of equality between the
viewer and the RPs.

2
Conceptual images do not involve action or reaction on the part of RPs but represent participants in terms of their
more generalized and more/less stable and timeless essence, in terms of class, structure or meaning (Kress and van
Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]).
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1605

In addition, the degree of social distance and intimacy between the RPs and the viewers is
realized by the feature processes close up, medium shot and long shots, which affect the amount
of body that is shown in the visual frame.3
Finally, the analysis of compositional features of a multimodal text requires the study of the
aspects related to the layout of the page in order to determine the extent to which the visual and
verbal elements achieve a sense of coherence to the whole unit. In addition to the analysis of the
visual in relation to the verbal elements, the intersemiosis in compositional terms also involves the
study of the visuals in relation to each other through the main principles of composition, that is, the
distribution of the information value, visual salience (size, colour, focus, . . .) and visual framing
(Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]; Royce, 2007; Unsworth, 2008). The placement of elements
to the left (given information) or to the right (new information) of the double spreads, the relative
size of the figures in the image and the use of framing are all relevant factors of the compositional
meaning (Unsworth and Wheeler, 2002:70; Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]).
Information value is related to Moebius’s code of position (1986:139). According to this
conventional and graphic code, it often matters whether the main character is depicted high or low
on the page (ideal/real), in the centre or on the fringe (centre/margin), on the left hand side or the
right (given/new). Height on the page may be an indication of an ecstatic condition or dream vision,
a mark of social status or power, or of a positive self-image. Being low on the page is often by
contrast a signal of low spirits or of unfavourable social status (Moebius, 1986:139). Nodelman
(1988:131, 1999:136) reinforces Moebius’ point of view, as he states that an object of the same size
has more weight in the top half of a picture than in the bottom half. This fact may be strengthened or
weakened depending on whether the character is centred or on the margin, large (‘close-up’) or
small (‘distanced’), or presented in one or in more than one scene on the same page (the code of
diminishing returns).4
Size is also another feature introduced by Moebius (1986) and Nikolajeva and Scott (2001) in
the analysis of picturebooks. A character that is in the margin, ‘distanced’ or reduced in size on
the page, and near the bottom will generally be understood to possess fewer advantages than the
one that is large and centred. Finally, frames normally create a sense of detachment between the
picture and the reader, a sense of objectivity and unemotional feeling, while the absence of
frames (that is, a picture that covers the whole area of a page or a doublespread) invites the reader
into the picture5 (Moebius, 1986:141; Nodelman, 1988:51; Nikolajeva and Scott, 2001:62).

3. The analysis of Guess how much I love you and exemplification

3.1. Method of analysis

As previously stated, Guess how much I love you is analyzed in the context of systemic
functional linguistics and visual social semiotics (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]). We will
study the multiple modes of expression used in picture books, taking into account a specific

3
According to Nodelman (1988: 151), long-shots show characters surrounded by a lot of background and imply
objectivity and distance. Middle distance shots, which show characters filling most of the space from the top to the bottom
of a picture, tend to emphasize the relationship between characters. Close-ups generate involvement with the characters
by showing us their facial expressions and, presumably communicating the way they feel.
4
The more frequently the same character is depicted on the same page, the less likely the character is to be in control of
a situation, even if in the centre.
5
For further information about the essential factors for the interpretations of visual designs, see also Kress and van
Leeuwen (2006 [1996]), Matthiessen (2007) and Royce (2007).
1606 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

Fig. 1. Action/reaction [18_TD$IF]image. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of the article.)

approach to multimodality, according to which, semiotic principles operate in and across

different modes. These may reinforce each other (say the same thing in different ways) or fulfil
complementary roles (Kress and van Leeuwen, 2001:2–20).
In order to do the visual analysis we have considered 18 images distributed in 11 double
spreads and 7 single pages (1, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17 and 18). All the images, however, can not be
inserted into the present contribution. Those that have been included will be referred to as
Figs. 1–4. The 18 images have been numbered from the first to the last page and references will be
made to those numbers, which do not necessarily correspond with the page number on which they
are placed. On page 22, for example, on the basis of the relationship established between the two
pictures and the two paragraphs referring to Little and Big Nutbrown Hares, we have
distinguished two plates (12 and 13). These are followed by image 14 where Big Nutbrown Hare
is just about to pick his child up in his arms. The last three images (16, 17 and 18) are
accompanied by three paragraphs and bring the story to an end.

Fig. 2. Conceptual symbolic [18_TD$IF]image. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of the article.)
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1607

Fig. 3. Compositional meanings in terms of given/new [19_TD$IF]information. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of the article.)

Our aim is to analyze the choices made by the writer and the illustrator of our picture book for
the creation of meaning. In order to carry this out, once the visual elements have been identified, a
comparative study for evidence of similar and different meanings in the verbal mode is also
carried out. Reference is made to the correlation between verbal and non-verbal components in
the narrative by comparing the representational, interactive and compositional meanings
transmitted by the illustrations with the corresponding ideational, interpersonal and textual
meanings of the verbal component.

3.2. Verbal analysis of the tale: ideational, interpersonal and textual meanings

3.2.1. Ideational and interpersonal meanings: types of processes

We now focus on the linguistic analysis of Guess how much I love you, looking more closely at
the representational, interpersonal and mainly textual features that the verbal component of the tale
expresses.

Fig. 4. Size as an aspect of salience in [20_TD$IF]composition. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of the article.)
1608 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

As previously stated, language enables us to conceptualize and describe patterns of

experience, encoded in the clause as representation (Ideational metafunction), which deals with
the types of processes, the participants and circumstances associated with them. According to
Halliday (1994:106), ‘‘our most powerful impression of experience is that it consists of ‘goings-
on’ – happening, doing, sensing, meaning, and being and becoming’’. This leads us to a first and
basic distinction between outer and inner aspects of our experience. The former reflects the
processes of the external world (e.g., tumble), that is, material processes, while the second refers
to the processes of consciousness or to the so-called mental processes. While material processes
are typically processes of doing, happening, causing and transferring, mental processes are
processes of perception (e.g., see, hear and feel), of cognition (e.g., know, believe, understand)
and desideration (e.g., like, wish, fear and want). Added to these are those of classifying and
identifying, known as relational processes, which are processes of being or becoming in which a
participant is identified or situated circumstantially (Halliday, 2004; Downing and Locke,
2006). Finally, although not clearly set apart, further categories located at the three boundaries
can be distinguished: behavioural, verbal and existential processes (Halliday, 1994, 2004).
Behavioural processes include volitional processes (e.g., watch, listen), bodily happenings (e.g.,
laugh) and psychological states (e.g., sleep). Verbal processes are processes of saying and
communicating in which one participant is the ‘Sayer’, typically human, and what is
communicated is the ‘Said’. By means of existential processes, phenomena of all kinds are
recognized to exist, or to happen.
The analysis of transitivity in Guess how much I love you (see Table 1) shows that most of the
processes identified are mental (22) and material (18). There are also verbal (11), relational (10)
and behavioural (5) processes. Material processes, which represent 27% of the total types, convey
a feeling of activity and movement in the text and give the tale a dynamic character. They
contribute to the development of the plot by telling the child about the actions carried out by the
main characters (was going to bed, held on tight to, stretching out his arms, tumbled upside down,
bouncing up and down, reached, closed his eyes, kissed, . . .). Notice that picture books, as tales,
belong to the narrative type and are principally characterized by a presentation of the main
characters, a basic account of the development of the action and a brief account of the final
outcome (Lluch, 2003).
Four recurrent mental processes (guess, think, love and wish) have been identified and they
represent the sources of cognition (guess and think) and desire (love and wish) for the textual
and visual reality that is being described. The high frequency of mental processes (33%),
especially those expressing desideration, is due to the affectionate nature of a tale in which
two hares, father and son, compete in an attempt to show how much they love each other.

Table 1
Types of processes: absolute and relative values
Processes Absolute values Values in percentages
Material 18 27
Mental 22 33
Verbal 11 17
Relational 10 15
Behavioural 5 8
Existential 0 0
Total number 66 100
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1609

Eleven verbal processes by means of which the narrator reproduces the words uttered by the
main characters in direct speech have been counted. Say, cry and whisper are the most
common.
Regarding relational processes, they are principally used to define the characters and
quantify their feelings (that’s very far, thought Little Nutbrown Hare). The relational
processes identified are ‘‘have’’ and ‘‘be’’ and they fulfil either a descriptive function or an
identifying one, as shown in the following extracts: ‘‘Big Nutbrown Hare had even longer
arms’’; ‘‘That is quite high. . .’’; ‘‘That’s good hopping. . .’’; ‘‘He was almost too sleepy to
think any more’’. Although less frequent in number, there are also five behavioural processes
(listen, laugh, smile, look and lay down), which represent the outer manifestations of inner
aspects of the main characters’ experience. Due to their descriptive nature, a higher presence
of these might have led to detailed descriptions and digressions that could have interfered with
the narrative tension. Finally, Existential processes typically state the location and/or
quantification of an entity (Halliday, 2004; Downing and Locke, 2006) and are frequently
used as openings in traditional tales (e.g., Once upon a time. . .). However, no examples have
been found in this picture book.
Concerning interpersonal meaning, as the tale offers information rather than demands it, the
interaction between the writer/illustrator and the young child consists of non-negotiation rather
than negotiation of meanings, and the mood choices are mainly restricted to declaratives (69
tokens counted). The tale does not make use of interrogative clauses and there is only one
imperative clause, ‘‘Guess how much I love you’’. So, whereas the verbal component
accompanying the pictures does not encourage much interaction, the interpersonal analysis of the
visual part (see section 3.3) shows that the illustrator makes choices which do create visual
engagement with the reader.

3.2.2. Textual meaning: typologies of themes and topics

The linguistic analysis of the textual metafunction reveals much more relevant information. For
the purposes of this paper we have taken the Hallidayan model in which all the sentences in a text
have a thematic constituent located in initial position. In the case of compound sentences, ‘‘the point
to bear in mind is that there will be a thematic structure in each of the two constituent clauses’’
(Halliday, 1994:56–57). On repeated occasions throughout his many studies on thematicity,
Halliday (1994:52) affirms that the theme of a sentence extends from its beginning up to the first
element that fulfils a function in transitivity. When speaking of multiple themes, Halliday (1994,
2004) states that only ideational themes are, in principle, referential and can be assigned a topical
status. In contrast, textual and interpersonal components, structural elements (e.g., and, but, that,
when, . . .), conjunctives (e.g., anyway, besides, . . .), continuatives (e.g., oh, well, . . .), modal
adjuncts (e.g., probably, frankly, . . .), vocatives and finite operators which are typically located
before ideational elements do not exhaust the thematic potential of the clause and do not fulfil a
topical function.6 Thus, we have assumed that theme and topic are two different concepts that
should be defined from two distinct perspectives: theme, as a structural category whose main
function is to determine the point of departure of the message, and topic, as a contextually
referential category, independent of language-systematic coding devices, that expresses what the
clause or discourse is about (Cornish, 2004). On the basis of the aboutness criterion and the topical

6
Only those elements that express what the clause is about fulfil a function in transitivity and can be assigned a topical
status (Halliday, 2004; Moya, 2006).
1610 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

Table 2
Types of thematic progressions according to Danes
Thematic progressions Absolute values Values in percentages
Linear thematic progression 4 44
Constant thematic progression 5 56
Derived thematic progression 0 0
Total number 9 100

typology presented in Dik (1997) and Moya (2005, 2006), the clausal topics have also been
classified in order to determine the general topical sequentiality of the picture book.7
Finally, in line with Danes (1974) three basic patterns of thematic progression (henceforth TP)
are also distinguished: (1) simple linear TP or TP with linear thematization of rhemes. In this, the
rheme of a clause becomes the thematic constituent of the following clause, lending the text a
dynamic character. (2) TP with a continuous (constant) theme. In this model the same theme is
shared by a series of clauses, each of which adds new information to it. (3) Derived theme TP. This is
a broad spectrum theme, which Danes calls hypertheme, and which gives rise to the themes of the
clauses which follow to form a chain of subthemes deriving from the general theme.
As shown in Table 2, an overall view of the thematic progression of Guess how much I love you
confirms that part of it (56%) follows a constant theme pattern (Danes, 1974), realized by the
repetition of Little/Big Nutbrown Hare/I/He throughout most of the story: ‘‘Big Nutbrown Hare
had even longer arms. ‘But I love you this much’, he said[7_TD$IF]’’. In the following paragraphs the model
of constant theme is maintained another four times, as the same theme is shared by a series of
sentences. Out of the five patterns of constant thematic progression, three make reference to
Little Nutbrown Hare, the main character in the story:

(1) ‘‘Little Nutbrown Hare [. . .] held on tight to Big Nutbrown Hare’s very long ears.
He wanted to be sure that Big Nutbrown Hare was listening. [. . .]’’
‘‘[. . .] I wish I had arms like that. Then Little Nutbrown Hare had a good idea.
He tumbled upside down and reached up the tree trunk with his feet. ‘‘I love you all
the way up to my toes!’’ he said. [. . .]’’
‘‘[. . .] I wish I could hop like that. I love you all the way down the lane as far as the
river, cried Little Nutbrown Hare’’[8_TD$IF].

7
Within the functional grammar framework, Dik (1997) makes a distinction between clausal or local topics and
discourse topics. Discourse topics are identified in terms of the macropropositions expressed in the title of the tale.
Clausal topics, however, are identified by their being embodied within the discourse topic and by their referential
continuity in the text. Independent of its position in the clause, we will use the term ‘‘new topic’’ when referring to those
topical entities that are introduced for the first time in the discourse. The introductory topic is a new referent whose main
function is to activate an entity that will later become a topic in the following text (Hannay, 1985). Once a topical element
has been introduced or activated it will be called ‘‘known topic’’. A topical entity should be analysed as known, not only
in those cases when it has been previously activated directly or indirectly through an introductory topic or a subtopic
component (Dik, 1997), but also in those cases when it is presented by other informative elements of the clause (Moya,
2005, 2006). These can be either verbal processes, circumstances or nominal entities which, usually placed in rhematic
position, introduce future topics. Following Hannay (1985) and Dik (1997), the term ‘‘subtopic’’ will be used to define
those entities associated or related to a topic previously activated in the text. We will also use the term ‘‘resumed topic’’ to
refer to a topical entity that has been re-established through anaphoric reference after some time without mention in the
discourse.
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1611

On two occasions the constant theme progression focuses on Big Nutbrown Hare, the
second character: one at the beginning of the story when he is introduced as topic, ‘‘Big
Nutbrown Hare had even longer arms. But I love you this much, he said[9_TD$IF]’’, and another at the
end of the tale:

(2) ‘‘Big Nutbrown Hare settled Little Nutbrown Hare into his bed of leaves. He
leaned over and kissed him good night. Then he lay down close by and whispered
with a smile, I love you right up to the moon and back’’[10_TD$IF].

There is no doubt that constant theme is a very appropriate pattern for children’s narratives, for
in this way given information is reiterated so that the young child does not lose the thread of the
plot.
Although the constant thematic scheme is the most predominant pattern, this is not the
only type. At the beginning and in the middle of the story, at different intervals, the writer
produces four sequences of linear thematic progression. These chains give the tale a sense of
dynamism as they allow the writer to place the two main characters about whom information
is transmitted in alternative thematic positions, echoing the style of an interactive and
competing conversation. It is notable that the tale is based on the interaction between the only
two characters in the story and that this zigzag thematic pattern responds to the prototypical
nature of dialogue:

(3) ‘‘And I love you all the way up to your toes, said Big Nutbrown Hare, swinging him
up over his head.
I love you as high as I can HOP!, laughed Little Nutbrown Hare, bouncing up
and down’’[1_TD$IF].

The constant and linear thematic progressions identified are altered nine times throughout
the story, (i) by a direct appeal by the narrator to the hearer (‘‘nothing could be further than
the sky’’), (ii) by the presence of an imperative clause with a mental process in the initial slot
of the clause (‘‘Guess how much I love you’’), (iii) by the triple presence of the temporal
marker, then, which is part of the ideational theme without carrying a topical function (‘‘Then
he looked beyond the thorn bushes. . .’’), and finally (iv) by expressions that refer to the
amount of love they have for each other: ‘‘This much’’, said Little Nutbrown Hare [. . .];
‘‘Hmm, that is a lot, thought Little Nutbrown Hare’’; ‘‘Oh, that’s far, said Big Nutbrown Hare
[. . .][12_TD$IF]’’.
There are no examples of derived TP in this tale. The reason for this absence in favour of linear
and constant TPs is that the latter organize the text in a way that makes it easier for the young
child to understand the thread of the story. Even the linear TP, whose dynamic character might
cause certain difficulty for the young child, turns out to be an appropriate structural tool in our
picture book since there are only two heroes engaged in the competition. The pattern of derived
thematic progression requires inferences and associations that go beyond the cognitive ability of
children at such an early age.
Added to this is the notable coincidence throughout the text of the grammatical function of
subject, the textual function of Theme, and the pragmatic-discourse function of topic carried out
by the main characters Little Nutbrown Hare and Big Nutbrown Hare, which in turn coincides
with given information. In fact, out of 37 clausal topics identified, only in 10 of them theme and
1612 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

Table 3
Types of themes
Themes Absolute values Values in percentages
Simple theme 27 79
Multiple theme 7 21
Total number 34 100

topic are not realized by the same clause constituent.8 By following this strategy, the entities
about which information is given are activated from the beginning of the clause, usually in
subject position9[13_TD$IF]:

(4) ‘‘Big Nutbrown Hare settled Little Nutbrown Hare into his bed of leaves. He leaned
over and kissed him good night. Then he lay down close by and whispered with a smile,
I love you right up to the moon and back’’[.F]I$DT4_1

As for the typology of themes, both simple and multiple structures have been identified
(see Table 3), but the simple type occurs more frequently (79%), especially in those utterances
that make reference to the protagonists (‘‘I love you as high as I can reach [. . .] He tumbled upside
down and reached up the trunk with his feet’’). There are only seven instances of a multiple
theme, formed by textual (either continuatives: ‘‘oh’’, ‘‘Hmm’’ or structural conjunctions:
‘‘and’’, ‘‘but’’) and experiential components. They usually introduce the main characters’
reactions to their direct manifestations of love (‘‘And I love you all the way up to my toes’’).
Sometimes they also function as markers of temporal continuity in the narrative structure (‘‘Then
Little Nutbrown Hare had a good idea’’). In both cases these are textual and experiential themes
preceding the topical component. In the thematic structure no interpersonal elements have
been found as there are no modal or comment adjuncts, no vocatives and no finite operators or
wh-interrogatives. Most sentences are declarative in mood with the exception of an imperative
clause (‘‘Guess how much I love you’’). In addition, all the themes are unmarked or prototypical
realizations. All this corresponds with the idea of facilitating the young child’s understanding of
the plot.
The main character, Little Nutbrown Hare, is activated through a new topic, located in
thematic position. Its continuity is maintained by 23 given topics, 12 resumed topics and 1
subtopic.10 The second character is introduced by a given topic located in the rhematic span of a
previous sentence. Once the main characters have been introduced in the first part of the tale,
there is an alternation of interventions, up to 12, throughout the whole story. As Table 4 shows,
8
Seven out of the 10 cases identified make reference to the main character of the story, Little Nutbrown Hare. By
placing it in the final slot of the clause the writer creates expectations and attracts the child’s attention to him in a special
way. It is assumed that the young child will probably identify more with Little Nutbrown Hare. In most cases this lack of
correlation happens either when the topical entity is part of an imperative structure that postpones its activation in
discourse or when the topic is realized by the nominal entity that functions as subject of the reporting verb (Guess how
much I love you, he said).
9
The analysis verifies that the correlation between theme and topic is notable, reaching the rate of 73%. Even the new
topic that introduces the main character in the first paragraph of the story is placed in the initial slot of the clause.
10
In the text there is only one new topic, realized by a proper name, Little Nutbrown Hare, which starts the first topical
chain (the little rabbit). We also have one subtopic (his ears). The rest are known and resumed topics. The former are
realized by 5 proper nouns, the relative pronoun ‘‘who’’ and 17 personal pronouns (he, I). The latter by seven proper
nouns also referring to the main characters and by five pronouns.
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1613

Table 4
Typology of topical entities
Clausal topics Absolute values Values in percentages
New topic 1 3
Given topic 23 62
Subtopic 1 3
Resumed topic 12 32
Total number 37 100

the topical organization of the tale also requires the utilization of resumed topics. These make
reference to topical entities already introduced in the linguistic context. In fact, the presence of
resumed topics is quite relevant in the narrative (32%) and is imposed by the constant alternation
(visual and textual) of the two main characters (Little and Big Nutbrown Hare) in the story.
The simple arrangement of the structure and content of this narrative seems to be determined
by the writer’s desire to make the understanding of the plot easy for the young child. The book is
intended for young children and therefore the plot should be easy for them to decode. Children
under five may find some difficulty in decoding written information but tend to be sophisticated
readers of visual texts. At this age it is easier for a young child to understand a written passage if it
is also visualized. For this reason in children’s literature, both visual elements and verbal
information are used simultaneously.

3.3. Visual analysis of the narrative: representational, interactive and compositional

meanings

3.3.1. Representational meaning

Having concluded the verbal study, now the analysis will focus on the three semiotic functions
(O’Toole, 1994, 1999; Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]), which correlate with Halliday’s
(1985, 2004) three metafunctions: the representational, the interactive and the compositional.
The representational metafunction of a picture book is revealed in the represented
participants, that is, in the people, objects and landscape depicted. The main characters
throughout the story are two hares, Little Nutbrown Hare and Big Nutbrown Hare, as evidenced
by their position in the middle of the composition and the high colour saturation of their bodies.
Animal characters are frequently utilized in children’s literature. The animals are typically
transformed into anthropomorphic beings with human attributes, such as speech, human
motivation, and often garments. Some of these aspects are reflected in Guess how much I love
you, where the main characters are able to speak, think and transmit feelings. For example, the
title itself ‘‘Guess how much I love you’’ or ‘‘I wish I had. . .’’, among others, represent the
presence of human sentiments. They also adopt human poses, such as standing on their two hind
legs or kissing each other goodnight. The depiction of the picture book protagonist as an animal
gives the creator the freedom to eliminate various issues that are otherwise essential in an
assessment of a character, for example: age, gender and social status. In this way, any reader – be
it child or adult – can identify with the characters depicted.
In Kress and van Leeuwen’s terms, in Guess how much I love you most pictures are narrative
processes which serve to present actions and characters in their spatial arrangements. Spatial
references are frequently used in this tale to visually demonstrate feelings: In image 3, for
example, the textual component says: ‘‘This much, said Little Nutbrown Hare, stretching out his
1614 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

arms as wide as they could go[15_TD$IF]’’, and this is represented in the illustration by Little Nutbrown Hare
outstretching his arms. This also occurs in images 4, 5 and 6, where Little and Big Nutbrown Hare
say, respectively: ‘‘I love you as high as I can reach’’ and the hares’ arms are shown visually in an
upright position (see Fig. 1). The hares also alternate their position on the double spread
depending on the exchange of sentiments.
By analyzing narrative patterns in more detail, it can be observed that there is a predominance
of narrative reaction images, since the narrative is created by eyelines acting as vectors between
the two hares. In fact, there are 12 reactional images and only 6 action images (1, 9, 11, 12, 13,
and 15). The vectors are formed principally by the hares’ appendages and some components of
the landscape. We can also find some action images embedded in the reactional images,
especially when the animals use their limbs to create the narrative. This is the case of image 6
(Fig. 1), where the extended arms of Big Nutbrown Hare represent how much he loves his son, as
told in the verbal part of the picture book.
The landscape is a secondary participant or locative circumstance, following Kress and van
Leeuwen’s (2006 [1996]) terminology. The trees become locative circumstances and in some
cases are also conceptual symbolic images, such as the one in image 2 (Fig. 2) that symbolizes
protection and security and can be interpreted as the hares’ home. The tree appears in seven
images. The relationship established between it and the hares is of interest to us here, especially
regarding size and position on the page. These aspects will be further developed when we analyze
the compositional metafunction.

3.3.2. Interactive meaning

The interactive function (also called the engagement or modal function in O’Toole’s terms) is
reflected in the way images attract the viewers’ interest in the depicted participants. When
dealing with interpersonal meaning, O’Toole (1999), Martin (1992, 2002) and Hofinger and
Ventola (2004) suggest viewers should consider what engages them most in an image. In this
sense, in Guess how much I love you, the most striking elements are the two hares, their body
language, and their location in relation to other elements in the fore and background.
In relation to gaze, the RPs do not create affinity with the viewer. All the images are offers
(Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1996]), since the hares continually look at each other or at
something within the image (e.g., the river, the moon, or the actions depicted by the other hare),
without any demand on the viewer to be involved in any way beyond accepting or rejecting the
offers of information made by the illustrator. Therefore, they become objects of contemplation
for the participants reading the picture book, since no eye contact is established.
As for social distance, the hares are mainly long shots as they are usually portrayed full size.
This seems to imply objectivity, some social distance and not an intimate relationship, perhaps in
an attempt to show the young child that they do not belong to his/her world but to the world of
magic and imagination. This reinforces the meaning transmitted by the offer mentioned before,
showing that the RPs are in their own world.11 Even though it appears that the RPs are distant
from the viewer because of the presence of these two features, other devices related to perspective
demonstrate that the RPs are more approximate. The child looks at the pictures from a frontal
view point which gives him/her the feeling of being involved in the two hare’s world. In contrast
to the horizontal axis, which reflects involvement, the vertical angle usually expresses power

11
Close-ups are infrequent in picture books. If they do appear at all, they tend to be on the front cover or dust jacket and
to operate more as an introduction to a character’s appearance than as a way of revealing character. Middle shot and long
shots, however, predominate in picture books.
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1615

(Kress and van Leeuwen, 2006 [1966]:146–7). As the hares are seen neither from above nor
below, there is no power difference established between them and the young child. All the images
are represented from a medium angle, which implies that the child (and probably the adult) is at
the same level as the two hares and therefore identifies with them.

3.3.3. Compositional meaning

As previously stated, compositional meaning is concerned with the organization of the RPs
within an image and involves features such as the distribution of information, framing and
position. The juxtaposition of the elements within the composition are primarily to be understood
in terms of centre/margin and given/new. Since the hares are usually in the centre, they provide
the nucleus of information and are given special status. In this way the surrounding elements such
as the background and the text become subservient. In Guess how much I love you, the point of
departure is an image of the two prominent hares in the first illustration, which unambiguously
depicts the characters whose point of view is to orient the tale.
As for the given/new distinction, the informative structure is in some passages marked or non-
prototypical, as is the case of double spreads 4, 6, 10 and 15 which follow a new/given pattern.
The information on the right-hand side preceding them makes the RPs think about other ways to
go beyond the action represented on the left. In these cases, the hare on the right has to think of a
better way to overcome the love manifestations of the hare on the left. On the left part of the
spread, the verso, one of the hares represents how much he loves the other, whereas on the right,
the recto, the other hare observes the action depicted in the verso and says: ‘‘That is quite high’’.
This anaphoric ‘‘that’’ encapsulates the textual information transmitted on the previous page and,
therefore, represents given information.
Only when Little Nutbrown Hare is too tired to try any more, the tale follows the unmarked
order, given/new, making reference to information already introduced in the previous page as can
be seen in image 12 (Fig. 3): ‘‘That’s very far, thought Little Nutbrown Hare. He was almost too
sleepy to think any more[16_TD$IF]’’. The illustration shows that the little hare is sleepy and ready to go to
bed. The other 13 images, however, are characterized by a different informative pattern as all the
information presented on the left and right sides of the page is new. The hares throughout the tale
are alternately placed in left and right position on each new doublespread and usually introduce
new information, which gives movement and dynamism to the story.12
Framing is another aspect of the compositional metafunction. In Guess how much I love you,
there are no frames, which is once more an indication of involvement and absence of social
distance between the RPs and the young child. The lack of frames creates an intersemiotic
compositional cooperation between the visual and verbal modes, which mesh with each other
and give the tales a sense of visual and written unity. Moebius (1986) also relates framing to what
he calls the code of round versus rectilinear shapes. According to this code, a character
surrounded by a series of circular enclosures is more likely to be secure and content than one
surrounded by a series of rectangular objects. In the case of Guess how much I love you,
sometimes the characters seem to be enclosed in undefined circular shapes, generally with a tint
of blue.
Size is one aspect of salience to be considered. According to this feature, the larger the RP, the
greater the importance. The size of the hares in relation to the landscape is nearly human and
sometimes disproportionate. It has to be understood in relation to other participants. The size of

12
Martin (2002: 224) points out the forward looking function of the information on the left, assuming that the part of the
message located in rhematic position tends to be new and unfamiliar for the receiver.
1616 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

the hares tends to be the same as that of the trees, which are depicted as mature. In image 4, the
size of the trees in the background seems to be normal as well as in images 7, 10 and 11. However,
the case of image 8 (Fig. 4) is the opposite, since the height of the hares seems to be exactly the
same as that of the tree depicted. The tree and the hares, representing a strong diagonal line,
create vectors and a sense of parallelism between both participants. Both the animals and the tree
imply movement. The size of Big Nutbrown Hare in image 11 is also disproportionate and it is
foregrounded. On doublespread 3, it is in the centre of the composition, but in the background,
and in this case it also seems that the hares are bigger in size than the tree. Another example can
be found in image 7, where the ears of Big Nutbrown Hare are beyond one of the branches of the
tree and are larger in comparison to it. In this way, the reader’s attention is focused on the hares
rather than on the tree. Both hares are always placed in the foreground, therefore they have
greater salience than the rest of the elements in the landscape, which are always in the
background.
We have derived from Nikolajeva and Scott (2001:83) that RPs of great size have more power
than those that are small. Throughout the story, the big hare shows his power over the little one. In
fact, Little Nutbrown is located on a higher plane, in a position of superiority, only when held up
by his father. In turn, in some images he appears more times than Big Nutbrown Hare which,
following Moebius’s code of diminishing returns, implies less security and the state of being in a
disadvantaged position.
Finally, the use of colour is another characteristic of compositional meaning which is relevant
for our analysis. Nodelman (1988:60) states that, ‘‘the conventional meanings of colours are of
two types: those like the red of a stoplight, that are culture-specific and those that relate colours to
specific emotions[17_TD$IF]’’. Although culture-specific codes may assign particular meanings to the
objects depicted and serve to emphasize textually prominent parts of a composition, the
emotional and traditional connotations primarily influence the mood of picture books (Moebius,
1986). Specific colours come to evoke certain attitudes and, in this way, manage to convey mood
more precisely than any other features. Green has traditionally been considered as the colour of
growth and fertility and also implies calmness and serenity, as does blue. Yellow is connected
with happiness and red with warmth or danger. Some of these moods, conjured up by the colour
green, are present in Guess how much I love you as calmness and serenity are conveyed by the
father in the last pages when the little hare goes to sleep. Nodelman (1988:61) suggests that the
combination of green and brown, the colours of earth and foliage (which is the main background
depicted in the book), often creates an atmosphere of organic richness that implies that the place
is unthreatening. These effects are amply created in our tale. Blue is also associated with security.
In fact, in most images the RPs are surrounded by blue strokes which contribute to the overall
effect of security, reinforced by the use of brown (Nodelman, 1988:64).

4. Conclusion and discussions

Our aim was to discover the motivation for some of the choices that are made in rendering
information in a picture book by analyzing visual and textual meaning and, in this way, to
determine the extent to which the verbiage and the visual complement one another.
The analysis of the representational meaning shows that there is a predominance of narrative
patterns, more specifically reaction images as the narrative is basically created by eyelines. Out of
18 images analyzed, 12 are reactional and only 6 are of the action type. These narrative patterns,
which serve to present the actions carried out by the RPs as well as their feelings, have a clear
correspondence in the ideational component of language as there is a predominance of mental
 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619 1617

(22) and material (18) processes, typically associated with children’s narratives, over verbal (11),
relational (10) and behavioural (5) ones (see Table 1). As Lluch (2003) states, children’s
narratives not only show what characters do, they also represent what they feel or think.
With regard to the interpersonal metafunction, we have visuals which address the reader with
offers of information without making any demand apart from acceptance or rejection of
suggested offers. The hares keep looking at each other or at something within the image.
Concerning social distance and intimacy, long shots are used, which imply objectivity and
distance. Only one medium shot has been identified. However, although these two aspects may
imply distance with the viewer, in Guess how much I love you the frontal and medium angles are
used, creating involvement with the reader, as they suggest that the power relationship between
the RPs and the viewer is equal. The RPs are also presented in the foreground, relatively close to
the viewers. All these aspects could not have been deduced from the text alone. However, what
the text shows in relation to the interpersonal metafunction is that although there is a
predominance of declarative mood structures (69 declarative clauses out of 70 tokens identified),
an interactive nature is also suggested throughout the story due to the use of the imperative
clause: ‘‘Guess how much I love you’’, uttered by Little Nutbrown Hare. This clause, which also
gives the title to the tale, is the key utterance of the story and creates an interactive competition
between the two protagonists.
From a compositional perspective, the structure given/new seems to contradict the
prototypical pattern. The absence of frames together with the usage of white space invites
the viewer to see the story from the inside. The size of the RPs is used as a way of creating
salience. The hares represent the actions transmitted by the textual component and are given
special status by placing them in the centre of the composition. The illustrator clearly
subordinates all the visual elements to the two main characters in the story, constantly located in
the foreground. This visual pattern also has a clear correspondence in the textual component as
there is a predominance of constant and linear thematic progressions throughout. By using the
constant thematic organization, the two main characters are usually located in the initial slot of
the clause so that the young child, who is still struggling with the written word, does not lose the
thread of the plot. The constant theme, if employed in many clauses, runs the risk of making the
text somewhat static and tedious, even for the young child. Given the age of the audience (under
fives), the repeated use of this progression achieves its objective of making the story easy to
follow.
In addition, the linear thematic model (Danes, 1974) has also been identified. This second
textual pattern creates movement in the narrative as Little and Big Nutbrown Hares are located in
alternate thematic positions. This is also reflected to some extent by the visual component. Once
the initial situation has been explained, the two main characters, about whom information is
given, appear alternately so that the RP expressing his great love through the image of body
language is usually placed on the left hand page, while the one receiving and observing the
gesture is placed on the right hand page and vice versa. These alternate settings give a dynamic
character to the narrative and introduce temporal and causal relations.
The textual analysis also reveals that there is a strong association between the point of
departure of the clause as message and the two main characters in the story. The entertainment
and didactic functions of the tale determine their thematic and topical patterning, perfectly
organized in simple thematic structures and topical sequences. These textual patterns also have a
clear correspondence with the visual components shown in the colourful pictures in the story as
the illustrator clearly gives the two main animals more space and importance than the other
pictorial elements. Apart from locative circumstances relating to the natural world, such as hills,
1618 J. Moya, M.J. Pinar / Journal of Pragmatics 40 (2008) 1601–1619

rivers, butterflies, mushrooms, and large trees, the visual elements which particularly capture the
child’s attention are without doubt the two hares, father and son and their brown colour, specially
the father, who stands out for his almost human size and large ears.
To conclude, Guess how much I love you is an example of a picture book created for the
youngest audience—it has simple vocabulary, deals with a simple plot and to tell us its story, uses
very simple grammatical devices. Due to these aspects, it does not confuse children with complex
constructions or additional descriptions and allows them to focus on the main idea only. The
study of the images and their relationship with the text clearly shows that both modes, the verbal
and the visual, help to avoid monotony in an attempt to make the tale easy to understand, and in
turn, attractive for the young child.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere gratitude to Edie Cruise for her insightful comments during the elaboration of this
study and for her stylistic suggestions. Also to Walker and Co. for granting permission to
reproduce the images.

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A. Jesús Moya Guijarro is a professor of Language and Linguistics at the University of Castilla-La Mancha. He does
research in discourse and text analysis and has published several articles on information, thematicity and topicality in
international journals such as Word, Text or Functions of Language. He is co-editor of Patterns in Discourse, Text and Talk
and Texts: Studies on Spoken and Written Discourse. His research interests are also in Children’s Literature and Applied
Linguistics. Within this framework he has published The Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages within the
European Framework, published by the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). Finally, he has been part of the
LINGUA project ‘Access to language learning by extending to groups outside’ (ALLEGRO), financed by the European
Union.

Marı́a Jesús Pinar Sanz is a lecturer in Linguistics and Discourse analysis at the University of Castilla-La Mancha. Her
research interests are in multimodal discourse analysis and, more specifically, in aspects related to the analysis of election
campaigns and political advertising. She is the main investigator in a research team analyzing multimodal discourse and
has published several articles on the generic structure of political ads and the relationship between the verbal and visual
elements not only in political texts, but also in children’s narratives. Applied Linguistics is yet another area of interest: she
has been co-coordinator of the ALLEGRO and VIVACE projects, both with the financial support of the European Union.

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