APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN

TYPES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

There are three basic type of curriculum design:

*Subject-centered design

*Learner-centered design

*Problem-centered design

SUBJECT-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN

This is the curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum.

It is correspond mostly to the textbooks, are written-based on the specific course or

subject.

FOUR VARIATIONS

1.1 Subject design

1.2 Discipline design

1.3 Correlation design

1.4 Broad design/Interdisciplinary

1.1 Subject Design

This is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parents and other
laymen.

The drawback of this design is that sometimes, learnings is so compartmentalized. It

stresses so much the content and forgets about students’ natural tendencies, interests,
and experiences.

1.2 Discipline Design

This is related to subject design:however, while subject design centers only on the
cluster of content, descipline design focuses on academic disciplines.

Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars
use to study a specific content of their fields.

1.3 Correlation Design

Coming from a core, correlated curriculum design links separate subject design in order
to reduce fragmentation. Sujects are related to one another and still maintain their
identity.

1.4 Broad Field Design/ Interdisciplinary

This design was made to cure compartmentalization of the separate subjects and
integrate the contents that are related to one another. Sometimes called hollistic
curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration.

LEARNER-CENTERED CURRRICULUM DESIGN

Among the progressive educational psychologist, the learner is the center of the
educative process.

2. Learner-Centered Design

THREE VARATIONS

2.1 Child-centered design

2.2 Experience-centered design

2.3 Humanistic design

2.1 Child-Centered Design

This design is often attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi
and Foebel. This curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child.
The learner is not considered a passive individual but one who engages with his/her
environment. One learns by doing.

2.2 Experience-Centered Design

Experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be
pre-planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the
curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free. Learners are made to
choose from various activities that the teachers provides. The learners are empowered
to shape their own learning from different opportunities given by the teacher.

2.3 Humanistic Design

The key influence in this curriculum design is Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. The
development of the self is the ultimate objective of learning. Itstresses the whole person
and the integration of thinking, feelings and doing. It considers the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the
curriculum.

PROBLEM-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN

It draws social problems, interest, needs, and abilities of the learners.

TWO VARIATIONS

3.1 Life-situations design

3.2 Core problem design

3.1 Life-situations Design

The contents of this design are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view
problem areas. It uses the past and present experiences of learners as a means to
analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the pressing immediate problems
of the society and students’ existing concerns are utilized.

3.2 Core Problem Design

It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human
activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and
concerns of the learners.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

How will a particular design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum
based on the specific design, let us see how a teacher will approach this. We will find
out the utilization of the example design. We will find out the utilization of the example
design.

Child or Learner-Centered Approach

This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the child
or the learner is the center of the educational process. It means that the curriculum is
constructed based on the needs, interest, purposes and abilities of the learners. The
curriculum is also built upon the learners' knowledge, skills, previous learning and
potentials.

From its design, how should a child-centered curriculum be approached? Let us

consider these principles.

Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach

1. Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child

2. Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner
3. Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
Subject-Centered Approach

This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribes separate distinct subjects for
every educationa level: basic education, higher education or vocational-technical
education.

This approach considers the following principles:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may be detached from life.
3. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
4. Learning means accumulation of content, or knowledge.
5. Teacher's role is to dispense the content.

Problem-Centered Approach

This approach is based on a design which assumes that in the process of living,
children experience problems. Thus, problem solving enables the learners to become
increasingly able to achieve complete or total development individuals.
This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs
:

Curriculum Mapping

Curriculum mapping is a model for designing, refining, upgrading and reviewing the
curriculum resulting in a framework that provides form, focus and function (Hale and
Dunlap, 2010). It is a reflective process that helps teachers understand what has been
taught in class., how it has been taught and how learning outcomes are assessed. This
process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacobs in 2004 in her book Getting results with
Curriculum Mapping (ASCD, 2004).
This approach is an ongoing process or "work-in-progress". It is not a one time initiative
but a continuing action, which involves the teacher and other stakeholders, who have
common concerns. Curriculum mapping can be done by teachers alone, a group of
teachers teaching the same subject, department, the whole school or district or the
whole educational system.
Some curricularists would describe curriculum mapping as making map to
success. There are common questions that are asked by differe stakeholders, like
teachers, colleagues, parents, school officials and the community as well. These
questions may include:

1. What do my students learn?

2. What do they study in the first quarter?
3. What are they studying in the school throughout the year?
4. Do my co-teachers who handle the same subject, cover the same content?
Achieve the same outcomes? Use similar strategies?
5. How do I help my students understand the connection between my subjects
and other subjects within the year? Next year?

Curriculum mapping, may be able to answer these questions above Furthermore,

mapping will produce a curriculum map, which is a very functional tool in curriculum
development.

Benefits of Curriculum Mapping

1. Curriculum mapping ensures alignment of the desired learning outcomes,

learning activities and assessment of learning
 2. Curriculum mapping addresses the gaps or repetitions in the curriculum. It
reveals if certain program goals or learning outcomes are not adequately covered
or overly emphasized in the current curriculum.
3. Curriculum mapping verifies, clarifies and establishes alignmen between what
students do in their courses and what is taught in the classrooms and assessed
as their learning.
4. The curriculum maps visually show important elements of the curriculum and
how they contribute to student learning.
5. Curriculum mapping connects all initiatives from instruction, pedagogies,
assessment and professional development. I facilitates the integration of cross-
curricular skills.

Curriculum Mapping Process

There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome one needs to
produce. This is also true with curriculum mappin However, whatever outcome (map)
will be made, there are suggested steps to follow.

Example A.

1. Make a matrix or a spread sheet,

2. Place a timeline that you need to cover. (one quarter, one semester, one year)
This should be dependent on time frame of a particular curriculum that was
written.
3. Enter the intended learning outcomes, skills needed to be taught or achieved at
the end of the teaching.
4. Enter in the same matrix the content areas subject areas to be covered.
5. Align and name each resource available such as textbooks, workbooks, module
next to subject areas.
6. Enter the teaching-learning methods to be used to achieve the outcomes.
7. Align and enter the assessment procedure and tools to the intended learning
outcomes, content areas, and resources.
 8. Circulate the map among all involved personnel for their inputs.
9. Revise and refine map based on suggestions and distribute to all concerned.

You will find Example A as a component of an OBE-Inspired syllabus for the

higher education. However, this can be modified for basic education to serve the
specific purpose as you will see in some maps.

Example B (For a degree program in college)"

1. Make a matrix or a spreadsheet.

2. Identify the degree or program outcomes (ex. BEEd, or BSED)
3. Identify the subjects or courses under the degree (GenEd. Prof. Ed, and
Major for BSEd)
4. List the subjects along the vertical cells of the matrix in a logical or
chronological order.
5. List the degree program outcomes along the horizontal cell (use code as
PO1, PO2...if outcomes are too long to fit in the cell) PO means Program
Outcomes
6. Cross the Subject and the Outcome, and determine if such subject
accomplishes the outcomes as either Learned (L). Performed (P) or
given Opportunity (O). Place the code in the corresponding cell.
7. Fill up all cells.
8. After accomplishing the map, use it as a guide for all teachers teaching
the course for students to complete the degree in four years.

The Curriculum Map

Curriculum map are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcomes to be
achieved, contents , skills and visual taught, instructional time assessment to be used,
and the overall student movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes.
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain
excellence, efficiency and effectiveness. It is intended to improve instruction and
maintain quality of education all stakeholders need to be assured of.

Parents, teachers and the whole educational community can look at the curriculum map
to see that intended outcomes and content covered. A map can reassure stakeholders
specific information for pac and alignment of the subject horizontally or

vertically. It will also av redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment. Courses that

are t correctly aligned will allow teachers to quickly assess the mastery of the skills in
the previous grade, to avoid unnecessary reteaching.

Horizontal alignment, called sometimes as "pacing guide", will make all teachers,
teaching the same subject in a grade level foll the same timeline and accomplishing the
same learning outcomes This is necessary for state-mandated, standard-based
assessment the we have in schools. Vertical alignment, will see to it that concept
development which may be in hierarchy or in spiral form does not overlap but building
from a simple to more complicated concept and skills. Alignment, either vertical or
horizontal, will also develop interdisciplinary connections among teachers and students,
between and among courses. Teachers can verify that skills and content are addresse
in other courses or to higher levels, thus making learning more relevant.

A curriculum map is always a work in progress, that enable the teacher or the
curriculum review team to create and recreat the curriculum. It provides a good
information for modification d curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in
order to fin ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.

Curriculum Quality Audit

Curriculum Quality Audit (CQA) is a form of curriculum mapping. It is a process of

mapping the curricular program or syllabus against established standards. This process
is supported by Susan Rafe when she said that the best practice in curriculum
development and implementation require that discipline based standards embody
curricular and program scopes and sequences (Arafeh, 2016, p. 585) The curriculum
quality audit requires a written curriculum and the tested curriculum linked to both the
taught and the written curricula.

For those who want to engage in curriculum quality audit, the following questions are
worth considering:

1. Is the curriculum planned, executed, and assessed in accordance with

appropriate standards?
2. How does the school system conform to the standards of quality in instructional
organization like specificity, quality and scope for teaching, learning and
assessment?
3. Are all students achieving success equally and effectively? If not, what can be
done about it?

Benefits of Curriculum Quality Audit

1. Identify gaps, under and overrepresentation of the curriculum based on the

standards
2. Ensures alignment of learning outcomes, activities and assessment to the
standards
3. Achieves an internationally comparable curriculum as standards become the
basis of the curriculum analysis.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) can be used as anchor in
curriculum quality audit. The PPST aims to set clear expectations of teachers along well
defined career stages of professional development from beginning to distinguished
practice. The Philippines has adopted and implemented the PPST through the
Department of Education Order (DO) 42, s. 2017. Teacher educators, program heads
curriculum planners may refer to the PPST to 'quality audit the pre-service teacher
education curriculum as basis for quality assurance provision of teacher education.

The first CQA in teacher education curriculum in the Philippines was initiated by the
Research Center for Teacher Quality (RCTQ), the Philippine Normal University, Cebu
Normal University, West Visayas University, Western Mindanao State University and
other member universities of the National Network of Normal Schools (3Ns). Using the
curriculum quality audit (CQA) process, pre- service syllabi were mapped to the PPST
to ensure that standards for beginning teachers (career stage 1) are addressed in the
pre-service curriculum. Using the CQA teacher educators are assured that pre-service
teachers embody the competencies of beginning teachers as they practice their
profession in the Department of Education.

There are other standards that can used in the CQA aside from the PPST. CHED
CMOS 74 to 83 are standards set by the Commission on Higher Education, specific to
the degree program being offered and the teachers who are the outcomes of the
programs. They have both the generic standards for all teacher education degree
programs and specific standards for each degree program. For example CMO 74. S.
2017 contain the standards for Bachelor of Elementary Education, or for teachers who
will teach in the elementary level and CMO 75, s. 2017 contain the standards for
Bachelor of Secondary Education or for teachers who will teach in the secondary level.

Aside from the national standards for teachers, there are also international standards for
globalization like the Competency Framework for Teachers in Southeast Asia (CFT-
SEA) of SEAMEO and SEAMES and the European Tuning Asia Southeast (TASE)
teacher competences.
Curriculum Implementation Defined

Following the curriculum models of Tyler, Taba. Saylor and Alexander or Lewis, is the
next step to curriculum designing which is curriculum implementing. This is the phase
where teacher action take place. It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum
developmen although many education planners would say: "A good plan is work half
done." If this is so, then the other half of the success of curriculum development rests in
the hands of the implementor who is the teacher.

Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that has
been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricula guides, and subjects. It is a process
wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in society. (SADC
MoE Africa, 2000)

Ornstein and Hunkins in (1998) defined curriculum implementation as the interaction

between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teachers)
who are in charge to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the
following:

• Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum:

•Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved Change in behavior
using new strategies and resources; and
• Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable
Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a
new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. It simply
means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.

In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means "teaching" what has been
written in the lesson plan. Implementing means using the plan as a guide to engage
with the learners in the teaching-learning process with the end in view that learning has
occurred and learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves the different strategies
of teaching with the support instructional materials to go with the strategy.

In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation
with the different implementing agents, Curriculum implementation takes place in a
class, a school, a district, a division, or the whole educational system. In higher
education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, a degree program, the
institution, or the whole higher education system. It requires time, money, personal
interaction, personal contacts, and support.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change

Kurt Lewin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change. The
model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.
In the education landscape, there are always two forces that oppose each other. These
are the driving force and the restraining force. When these two forces are equal, the
state is equilibrium, or balance. There will be a status quo, hence there will be no
change. The situation or condition will stay the same. However, when the driving force
overpowers the restraining force, then change will occur. If the opposite happens that is
when the restraining force is stronger than the driving force, change is prevented. This
is the idea of Kurt Lewin in his Force Field Theory.
We shall use this theory to explain curriculum change. The illustration below shows that
there are driving forces on the left and the resisting forces on the right. If you look at the
illustration there is equilibrium. If the driving force is equal to the restraining force, will
change happen? Do you think, there will be curriculum change in this situation? Why?

According to Lewin, change will be better if the restraining forces shall be decreased,
rather than increasing the driving force As a curricularist, how would you do this?

Let us look first at the different changes that occur i the curriculum. It is important to
identify these as part of our understanding of curriculum implementation

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 2000 categorized curriculum change as follows:

1. Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one.

Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book to entirely
new one, not merely a revision.

2. Alteration. In alteration, there is a minor change to the current or existing

curriculum. For example, instead of using a graphing paper for mathematics teaching,
this can be altered by using a graphing calculator.

3. Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major change or modification in

the school system, degree program or educational system. Using an integrated
curriculum for the whole school for K to 12 requires the primary and secondary levels to
work as a team. Another example is a curriculum that will be restructured when there is
a significant involvement of parents in the child's instead of leaving everything to the
teacher. Using the "In-school Off-school" or a blended curriculum is an example of
restructuring.
4. Perturbations. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to
them within a fairly short time. For example, if the principal changes the time schedule
because there is a need to catch up with the national testing time or the dean, the
teacher has to shorten schedule to accommodate unplanned extra curricular activities.

5. Value orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this

classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are
not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.
For example, when new teachers who are recruited in religious schools give emphasis
on academics and forget the formation of values or faith, they need a curriculum value
orientation. Likewise, all teachers in the public schools, undergo teacher induction
program which is a special curriculum for newly hired teachers.

Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and implementation. the process of

change may contain three important elements. As a process, curriculum implementation
should be developmental, participatory and supportive.

It should be developmental in the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives,

increase integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness and
trust, and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be teacher
support in trying new tasks, reflection on the new experiences and challenge.

There are simple stages in the developmental change process for the teachers. First, is
orientation and preparation. The initial use is very mechanical or routinary. However, as
the skills are honed and mastery of the routine is established, refinement follows. This
means adjustments are made to better meet the needs of the learners and achieve the
learning outcomes. In this step, there will be continuous reflection, feedback and
refinement.

Participatory. For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory,

specially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum
specialists are necessary. Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to
change, skills, and readiness are critical to implementation. This should be coupled with
organizational structure, principal style, student population characteristics and other
factors. Trust among key players should also be sought as this is a positive starting
point. Involvement and participation encourage sense of ownership and accountability.
Participation builds a learning community which is very necessary in curriculum
implementation.

Supportive curriculum implementation is required in the process of change. Material

support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like classrooms
and laboratory should be made available. Likewise, human support is very much
needed. The school leader or head should provide full school or institutional support to
the implementation of the new curriculum. They too have to train to understand how to
address curriculum change as part of their instructional as well as management
functions.

Time is an important commodity for a successful change process. For any innovation to
be fully implemented, period of three to five years to institutionalize a curriculum is
suggested. Time is needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practise, provide the
necessary requirements and get support. Time is also needed to determine when the
implementation starts and when it will conclude, since curriculum implementation is time
bound.

Support from peers, principals, external stakeholders will add to the success of
implementation. When teachers share ideas, work together, solve problems, create new
materials, and celebrate success, more likely that curriculum implementation will be
welcomed.