Unit- 2

Atmosphere
Earth’s atmosphere stretches from the surface of the planet up to as far as 10,000
kilometers (6,214 miles) above. After that, the atmosphere blends into space. Not
all scientists agree where the actual upper boundary of the atmosphere is, but they
can agree that the bulk of the atmosphere is located close to Earth’s surface—up to
a distance of around eight to 15 kilometers (five to nine miles).
While oxygen is necessary for most life on Earth, the majority of Earth’s
atmosphere is not oxygen. Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases. Trace
amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and neon are some of the other
gases that make up the remaining 0.1 percent.
The atmosphere is divided into five different layers, based on temperature. The
layer closest to Earth’s surface is the troposphere, reaching about seven and 15
kilometers (five to 10 miles) from the surface. The troposphere is thickest at the
equator, and much thinner at the North and South Poles. The majority of the mass
of the entire atmosphere is contained in the troposphere—between approximately
75 and 80 percent. Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere, along with dust and
ash particles, are found in the troposphere—explaining why most of Earth’s clouds
are located in this layer. Temperatures in the troposphere decrease with altitude.
The stratosphere is the next layer up from Earth’s surface. It reaches from the top
of the troposphere, which is called the tropopause, to an altitude of approximately
50 kilometers (30 miles). Temperatures in the stratosphere increase with altitude. A
high concentration of ozone, a molecule composed of three atoms of oxygen,
makes up the ozone layer of the stratosphere. This ozone absorbs some of the
incoming solar radiation, shielding life on Earth from potentially harmful
ultraviolet (UV) light, and is responsible for the temperature increase in altitude.
The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause. Above that is the mesosphere,
which reaches as far as about 85 kilometers (53 miles) above Earth’s surface.
Temperatures decrease in the mesosphere with altitude. In fact, the coldest
temperatures in the atmosphere are near the top of the mesosphere—about -90°C (-
130°F). The atmosphere is thin here, but still thick enough so that meteors will
burn up as they pass through the mesosphere—creating what we see as “shooting
stars.” The upper boundary of the mesosphere is called the mesopause.
The thermosphere is located above the mesopause and reaches out to around 600
kilometers (372 miles). Not much is known about the thermosphere except that
temperatures increase with altitude. Solar radiation makes the upper regions of the
thermosphere very hot, reaching temperatures as high as 2,000°C (3,600°F).
The uppermost layer, that blends with what is considered to be outer space, is the
exosphere. The pull of Earth’s gravity is so small here that molecules of gas escape
into outer space.

Layers-characteristics of atmosphere
The envelope of gas surrounding the Earth changes from the ground up. Five
distinct layers have been identified using
 thermal characteristics (temperature changes),
 chemical composition,
 movement, and
 density.
Each of the layers are bounded by "pauses" where the greatest changes in thermal
characteristics, chemical composition, movement, and density occur.

The five basic layers of the atmosphere:

Exosphere
This is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends from about 375 miles (600
km) to 6,200 miles (10,000 km) above the earth. In this layer, atoms and molecules
escape into space and satellites orbit the earth. At the bottom of the exosphere is a
transition layer called the thermopause.
Thermosphere
Between about 53 miles (85 km) and 375 miles (600 km) lies the thermosphere,
known as the upper atmosphere. While still extremely thin, the gases of the
thermosphere become increasingly denser as one descends toward the Earth.
As such, incoming high energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun begins
to be absorbed by the molecules in this layer and causes a large temperature
increase.
Because of this absorption, the temperature increases with height. From as low as -
184°F (-120°C) at the bottom of this layer, temperatures can reach as high as
3,600°F (2,000°C) near the top.
However, despite the high temperature, this layer of the atmosphere would still feel
very cold to our skin. The high temperature indicates the amount of the energy
absorbed by the molecules, but with so few molecules in this layer, the total
number would not be enough to heat our skin.
Mesosphere
This layer extends from around 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface to 53
miles (85 km). The gases that comprise this layer continue to become denser as one
descends. As such, temperatures increase as one descends, rising to about 5°F (-
15°C) near the bottom of this layer.
The gases in the mesosphere are now thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling
into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. Both
the stratosphere (next layer down) and the mesosphere are considered the middle
atmosphere. The transition boundary which separates the mesosphere from the
stratosphere is called the stratopause.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends from from 4 -12 miles (6-20 km) above the Earth's
surface to around 31 miles (50 km). This layer holds 19 percent of the atmosphere's
gases but very little water vapor.
In this region, the temperature increases with height. Heat is produced in the
process of the formation of Ozone, and this heat is responsible for temperature
increases, from an average -60°F (-51°C) at tropopause to a maximum of about 5°F
(-15°C) at the top of the stratosphere.
This increase in temperature with height means warmer air is located above cooler
air. This prevents convection as there is no upward vertical movement of the gases.
As such, the location of the bottom of this layer is readily seen by the anvil-shaped
tops of cumulonimbus clouds.
Troposphere
Known as the lower atmosphere, almost all weather occurs in this region. The
troposphere begins at the Earth's surface, but the height of the troposphere varies. It
is 11-12 miles (18-20 km) high at the equator, 5½ miles (9 km) at 50°N and 50°S,
and just under four miles (6 km) high at the poles.
As the density of the gases in this layer decrease with height, the air becomes
thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also decreases with height.
As one climbs higher, the temperature drops from an average around 62°F (17°C)
to -60°F (-51°C) at the tropopause.

Structure of Atmosphere:
The structure of the atmosphere is represented in a pictorial form below:

There are five layers in the structure of the atmosphere depending upon
temperature. These layers are:
 Troposphere
 Stratosphere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
 Exosphere
This is an important topic in the geography syllabus for UPSC 2022 Exam.
Troposphere
 It is considered as the lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere.
 The troposphere starts at the surface of the earth and goes up to a height of 8
kms (poles) to 18 kms (equator). The main reason of higher height at the
 equator is due to presence of hot convection currents that push the gases
upward.
 All kinds of weather changes occurs within this layer.
 This layer has water vapor and mature particles.
 Temperature decreases with increasing height of atmosphere at the rate of 1
degree Celsius for every 165 m of height. This is called Normal lapse rate.
 Tropopause, the transitional zone, separates Troposphere and Stratosphere.
Stratosphere
 It is the second layer of the atmosphere found above the troposphere.
 It extends up to a height of 50 km from the earth’s surface.
 This layer is very dry as it contains little water vapour.
 This layer provides some advantages for flight because it is above stormy
weather and has steady, strong, horizontal winds.
 The ozone layer is found in this layer.
 The ozone layer absorbs UV rays and safeguards earth from harmful
radiation.
 Stratopause separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
Mesosphere
 The Mesosphere is found above the stratosphere.
 It is the coldest of the atmospheric layers.
 The mesosphere starts at 50 km above the surface of Earth and goes up to 80
km.
 The temperature drops with altitude in this layer.
 By 80 km it reaches -100 degrees Celsius.
 Meteors burn up in this layer.
 The upper limit is called Mesopause which separates Mesosphere and
Thermosphere.
Thermosphere
 This layer is found above Mesopause from 80 to 400 km.
 Radio waves that are transmitted from the earth are reflected by this layer.
 The temperature starts increasing again with increasing height in this layer.
 Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
Ionosphere
 The lower Thermosphere is called the Ionosphere.
  The ionosphere consists of electrically charged particles known as ions.
 This layer is defined as the layer of the atmosphere of Earth that is ionized
by cosmic and solar radiation.
 It is positioned between 80 and 400 km above the Mesopause.
Exosphere
 It is the outermost layer of the atmosphere.
 The zone where molecules and atoms escape into space is mentioned as the
exosphere.
 It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.

Composition of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere can be divided into two layers―the heterosphere and the
HomeSphere. The heterosphere is the outermost sphere of the atmosphere, where
the gases are distributed on distinct layers according to their atomic weight and
gravitational pull. The lightest elements that make up the outer layer are hydrogen
and helium. The heavier elements at the base are nitrogen and oxygen.
The layer that lies between the Earth’s surface and heterosphere is the homosphere.
The gases in this layer are uniformly mixed. The ozone layer that extends from 12
to 31 miles lies in this layer. The ozone layer is a very important layer, as it helps
protect life on the Earth from the harmful effects of the sun’s ultraviolet rays.
The three major gases that make up the atmosphere are called constant gases.
These constant gases are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Nitrogen in the atmosphere
makes up about 78% of the total composition of the atmosphere. It is one of the
building blocks of life, as it is the major component of protein. Oxygen makes up
about 21% and is necessary for plant and animal respiration. Without oxygen, fire
cannot burn, and plants release free oxygen in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Argon makes up only 0.934% of the atmosphere, and is a colorless, odorless, inert
gas.
The other trace gases are called variable gases. These variable gases include
methane, hydrogen, helium, neon, krypton, carbon dioxide, and a form of oxygen
known as ozone. The following is a list of gases with their percent volume, that
make up the atmosphere.

Composition of
Chemical Formula Percent Volume
Atmosphere
Nitrogen N2 78.08%
Oxygen O2 20.95%
Water (variable gas) H2 0 to 4%
Argon Ar 0.934%
Carbon dioxide (variable
CO2 0.0360%
gas)
Neon Ne 0.0018%
Helium He 0.0005%
Methane (variable gas) CH4 0.00017%
Hydrogen H2 0.00005%
Nitrous Oxide (variable
N2O 0.00003%
gas)
Ozone (variable gas) O3 0.00004%
The atmosphere is the reason that we have so many seasons and weather
conditions. It forms a thick blanket around the Earth, that helps protect those on the
surface from harmful sunrays, cosmic radiation, and heat.

Atmospheric Stability
Atmospheric Stability: Encouraging or Deterring Storms. Stability (or atmospheric
stability) refers to air's tendency to either rise and create storms (instability), or to
resist vertical movement (stability). The simplest way to understand how stability
works is to imagine a parcel of air having a thin, flexible cover that allows it to
expand but prevents the air inside from mixing with the surrounding air, as is true
of a party balloon.

Atmosphere’s Temperature Profile:

Now we can begin to understand the reasons for the troposphere’s typical
temperature profile. The atmosphere is mostly transparent to the incoming solar
visible radiation, so Earth’s surface warms, and thus warms and moistens the air
above it. This warm, moist air initially rises dry adiabatically, and then moist
adiabatically once a cloud forms. Different air masses with different histories and
different amounts of water mix and the result is a typical tropospheric temperature
profile that has a lapse rate of (5-8) K km-1.
If atmospheric temperature profiles were determined only by atmospheric
moisture, drier air masses would have lapse rates that are more like the dry
adiabatic lapse rate, in which case we would expect that the skies would have
fewer, thinner clouds. Moister air masses would have lapse rates that are closer to
the moist adiabatic lapse rate, resulting in a sky filled with clouds at many
altitudes.
But many processes affect the temperature of air at different altitudes, including
mixing of air parcels, sometimes even from the stratosphere, and rain and
evaporation of rain. Exchange of infrared radiation between Earth’s surface,
clouds, and IR-absorbing gases (i.e., water vapor and carbon dioxide) also plays a
major role in determining the atmosphere’s temperature profile, as we will show in
the lesson on atmospheric radiation. The resulting atmospheric profiles can have
local lapse rates that can be anywhere from less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate
to greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Look carefully at the temperature
profile below. You will see evidence of many of these processes combining to
make the temperature profile what it is.
If we average together all of these profiles over the whole year, we can come up
with a typical tropospheric temperature profile. According to the International
Civil Aviation Organization (Doc 7488-CD, 1993), the standard atmosphere has a
temperature of 15oC at the surface, a lapse rate of -6.5oC from 0 km to 11 km
(about 6.84 mi), is constant from 11 km (about 6.84 mi) to 20 km (about 12.43 mi),
and then has a positive lapse rate of 1 oC from 20 km (about 12.43 mi) to 32 km
(about 19.88 mi) in the stratosphere. Even though this standard profile is a good
representation of a globally averaged profile, it is unlikely that such a temperature
profile was ever seen with a radiosonde.
Combining knowledge of stability along with the knowledge of moist processes
enables us to understand the behavior of clouds in the atmosphere. The following
picture of water vapor released from a cooling tower at the Three-Mile Island
nuclear reactor near Harrisburg, PA shows the water vapor quickly condensing to
form a cloud. The cloud ascends, but then reaches a level at which its density
matches the density of the surrounding air. The cloud then stops ascending and
begins to spread out.

Water vapor plume rising from the Three-Mile Island nuclear power plant near
Harrisburg, PA. The mushroom shape is due to the temperature profile in the
lowest part of the troposphere.

Temperature Inversion:
A temperature inversion is a natural phenomenon and ideally with the increase in
height the temperature decreases. However, in the troposphere, the temperature of
the atmosphere decreases with the increase in altitude at the rate of 1 degree for
every 165 meters (about 541.34 ft). Besides, in this topic, we are going to discuss
the definition, types, and effects of temperature inversion.
It refers to the condition where the cool layer of air is overridden by the warm
layer of air above. Also, it is the contradictory situation of the normal situation.
Besides, there are certain ideal conditions for temperature inversion that include
stable and calm air, clear skies and long nights are the factors that give rise to
temperature inversion.
Furthermore, this phenomenon of temperature inversion happens in mountain areas
during the winter season. Also, in the long nights of the winter due to high pressure
the cold air of the mountains seeps down the valley floor and the warm air rise up.
Moreover, this gives rise to temperature inversion when the layer of warm and cold
air forms.
Types of Temperature Inversion
1. Frontal temperature inversion- This happens when the warm and cold fronts
meet, Then the warm front rises up and being heavier the cold front sinks down.
Therefore, a series of layer forms.
Furthermore, it often takes place in the temperate zone and causes anti-cyclonic
conditions which result in the precipitation in different forms.
Moreover, this frontal or cyclonic inversion is caused in the temperate zones due to
temperate cyclones that form due to convergence of warm westerlies and cold
polar winds of the northern hemisphere.
2. Vertical advection- It happens at valleys as there the air gets heated and rises
resulting in colder air from the above to sink to the bottom like a slope then a
temperature inversion form.
Moreover, valley inversion happens in the mountain valleys due to the vertical
movement of air and radiation. Besides, we refer it as the vertical advection
inversion of temperature.
3. Radiation Inversion- At day time the sun heats the earth surface and air near it.
In addition, at night, the ground air near it cool down faster than the air present
high up, creating a temperature inversion.
Besides, we also know it as non-advection inversion because it happens in the
static atmospheric conditions. Furthermore, up there is no horizontal or vertical
movement of air.
4. Subsidence Inversion- This inversion also relates to anti-cyclones. Moreover,
this kind of inversion results when the upper layer of air moves down during an
initial anti-cyclone.
Effects of Temperature Inversion
It determines the precipitation, clouds forms, and also cause frost due to
condensation of warm air due to its cooling. Also, it cause the stability of the
atmosphere that stops the downward and upward movement of air.
Furthermore, temperature inversion effects diurnal variations. Moreover, it limits
the diffusion of air pollutant and hence stagnation in weather is witnessed for some
period. Also, convection clouds can’t high upwards so there are less rainfall and no
showers. So, it causes a problem for agriculture productivity.
Besides, they also disturb the radio signals which gets reflected from the layer
above cold air. Most noteworthy, if the temperature inversion is broken then it can
cause a violent thunderstorm.
Due to the formation of cumulus clouds sometimes sunlight is unable to reach the
ground.