INDORE INSTITUTE OF LAW

(AFFILIATED TO D.A.V.V. & BAR COUNCIL OF INDIA)

HUMAN RIGHTS

TOPIC: GLASS CEILING EFFECT: AN ANALYSIS ON

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES OF WOMEN

SUBMITTED BY:

Garima jain

[B.B.A.L.L.B, 3rd SEMESTER]

SUBMITTED TO:

Asst. Prof. Jaidev Mahendra

ACADEMIC SESSION

2022-23

Roll No.:

Date of Submission:
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Garima jain of B.B.A.L.L.B(Hons.) & 3rd Semester has successfully
completed the research work in Glass Ceiling Effect: An analysis on employment
opportunities of women partial fulfilment of requirements for the knowledge of given by
Asst. Prof. Jaidev Mahendra prescribed by Indore Institute of Law.

This assignment is the record of authentic work carried out during the academic year 2022-
23.

Teacher’s Signature ________

Date_________
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Glass Ceiling Effect: An analysis on
employment opportunities of women” submitted for fulfilling the essential criteria of Indore
Institute of Law, is a record of an original work done by me under the guidance of Asst. Prof.
Jaidev Mahendra in B.B.A.L.L.B, 3rd Semester, Indore Institute of Law for the academic
session 2022-23.

NAME- GARIMA JAIN

[B.B.A.L.L.B]

[3rd SEMESTER]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I, Garima jain student of B.B.A.L.L.B (Hons.), 3 rd semester would like to express my special
thanks of gratitude to my professor and guide Asst. Prof. Jaidev Mahendra who gave us the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful assignment on the topic “Glass Ceiling Effect: An
analysis on employment opportunities of women”. I am sincerely grateful to my teacher for
guiding us and providing the relevant information and thus helping me to complete the
project successfully. I would also like to give a hearty thanks to my parents who supported
me morally as well as economically in completion of this assignment without any type of
problem. I would like to appreciate and thank all my friends and alma mates for helping me
in every possible manner in the way of completion of my project. Last but not the least I want
to thank the almighty who made everything possible.
 INDEX

S. No. Topic Page No.

1. Abstract

2. Introduction

3. WHAT IS GLASS CEILING EFFECT?

4. CAUSES OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORKPLACE

5. REMEDIES

6. Conclusion

7. Bibliography
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study is empirical in nature and is based on both the primary and the secondary
data.
Secondary data was collected from various sources such as; the websites, books and
journals.

literature review

The term “Glass ceiling” was coined in a 1986 issue of The Wall Street Journal on corporate
women by Hymowitz and Schellhardt. The glass ceiling is a concept that most frequently
refers to barriers faced by women who attempt, to attain senior positions (as well as higher
salary levels) in corporations, government, education and non-profit organizations.

Lips (2013) also stated that there are several indicators to the continuing lack of pay gap
awareness and its severity among employees and employers alike. Many still see the gap as
justifiable because of differing male and female attitudes, behaviours and choices. Blake-
Beard (2005) discovered in a research study that women in the United States of America
were yet to reach the top echelon in significant numbers, irrespective of their involvement in
managerial positions. Also, in the United Kingdom, women held less than 5% of senior
management posts, and perhaps, some 26% of all managerial-type positions, in a situation
where they made up more than 40% of the total work force (Cole, 2004). In spite of the fact
that both sexes appear to have opportunities of leadership success, in reality, there existed
implicit boundaries beyond which women could not go (Crompton, 2006; Udegbe, 1997).

Mbombela P. M., De Alwis A. Chamara (2013) in their study of the glass ceiling effects have
stated that the glass ceiling effect has an impact on the growth and career development of
women. James Albrecht (2001) in his study drew the interpretation of a strong evidence of
glass ceiling in the work places.
ABSTRACT

The glass ceiling is a popular metaphor for explaining the inability of many women to
advance past a certain point in their occupations and professions, regardless of their
qualifications or achievements. "On March 24, 1986, the Wall Street Journal coined a phrase
that has come to symbolize a variety of barriers faced by thousands of women and minorities
as they seek to improve their employment status..." This phrase is "glass ceiling." The study
is undertaken with a view to study if there exists a glass ceiling in the workplaces. The study
has been conducted with the help of primary and secondary data.

Key words: Glass Ceiling, Women Career Development, women

INTRODUCTION

A women's role has changed tremendously over the last few decades and women are making
great contributions to the society. It may often appear that men are in charge, but women are
encroaching as there is a seismic economic shift of power from men to women at least if not
vertically but horizontally. However, despite this paradigm shift in women empowerment and
development, there seems to be an invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching the
top. This scenario has come to represent a variety of biases that prevent qualified minorities
and women from advancing in the work-place particularly into mid-and senior-level
management positions. Women still continue to dominate low-paying, low status,
traditionally female occupations, such as secretarial work, Human Resources management,
nursing although few of the women have managed to break through the barriers. There are
many statistics and theories that come into play; so many, in fact, that people may find it
difficult to reach a solid conclusion. Does the glass ceiling really exist, or is it all a matter of
how the facts is skewed either for or against it? Women's roles have changed at an
accelerated rate, and they are now standing tall and playing a major role in many important
areas such as politics, professional training, medicine, business and law. The glass ceiling is
arguably one of the most familiar and evocative metaphors to emerge from the 20th century.
The world has rapidly changed in the past few years with modern innovations abound among
others. However, despite being in the 21st Century, there are still some whose minds have not
been opened to the ideas of fairness and equality. We have often debated and questioned the
existence of gender inequality in the Indian scenario; however, the fact is that greater
participation of women in the workforce is good for the economy. The glass ceiling
metaphor has often been used to describe invisible barriers ("glass") through which women
can see elite positions but cannot reach them ("ceiling" These barriers prevent large numbers
of women and ethnic minorities from obtaining and securing the most powerful, prestigious,
and highest-grossing jobs in the workforce.
WHAT IS GLASS CEILING EFFECT?

The term glass ceiling refers to a metaphorical invisible barrier that prevents certain
individuals from being promoted to managerial- and executive-level positions within an
organization or industry. The phrase is commonly used to describe the difficulties faced by
women and minorities when trying to move to higher roles in a male-dominated  corporate
hierarchy. The barriers are most often unwritten, meaning that these individuals are more
likely to be restricted from advancing through accepted norms and implicit biases rather than
defined corporate policies.

History of the Glass Ceiling

The U.S. Department of Labour launched the Glass Ceiling Commission in 1991 in
response to the growing concern over barriers preventing women and minorities from
advancing.1

 It was charged with identifying the barriers that exist and policies that companies adopted or
could undertake to increase diversity at managerial and executive levels.
The commission found that qualified women and minorities were being denied the
opportunity to compete for or win decision-making positions. It also found that the
perceptions of both employees and employers often included stereotypes that held women
and minorities in a negative light.

When Hillary Clinton ran for president in 2008 and 2016, she repeatedly spoke of her goal
of shattering the “highest, hardest glass ceiling” by becoming America’s first female
president. Vice President Kamala Harris shattered the second-highest glass ceiling in the
U.S. when she became the first female and first Black and South Asian Vice President on
Jan. 20, 2021. She was also the first woman and first Black and South Asian attorney
general of California, as well as the first Black woman to be elected district attorney of San
Francisco.

1
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED340653
Does the Glass Ceiling Still Exist?

The glass ceiling still exists across various industries for different groups of people. Men
still occupy most of the executive positions in corporations and other positions of power.
Although there is more attention given to these barriers, they are still very much present in
the workforce.

CAUSES OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORKPLACE

 Unequal Pay 
Are women equally paid for work? No! According to the Institute for Women’s
Policy Research, “women earn 49 cents for all dollar men earn.” Even women have
to take time off from work or leave work to shoulder the demands of raising children
or other family obligations. More than half of women leave the workforce within a
year, which is twice the rate of men.

Unequal pay is a situation where women are paid less than men for doing the same work.
Although American women are more educated than men, still women in the U.S workforce
earn less than their male colleagues. The gender wage gap is real and it hurts women across
the board by suppressing their earnings and making it hard for them to balance work and
family.

 Sexual Harassment 

“Sexual harassment in the workplace confuses rewards for performance with rewards for
attractiveness and sexual availability.” Sexual Harassment is the biggest threat many women
face in the workplace. According to a survey by a non-profit organization, Stop Street
Harassment, “38% of women have experienced sexual harassment in the workplace, and 81%
reported experiencing some form of sexual harassment in their life that includes verbal and
physical assault.”

Although the #MeToo movement has helped to bring light to the issue. It focused on the
experiences of sexual harassment survivors and earned a large response. Sexual harassment
includes such unwelcome sexually determined behaviours as:

 Uncomfortable physical contact.

 Demand for sexual favours.
 Sexually coloured remarks.
 Showing pornography.
 Unwelcomed physical, verbal, or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature. 

 Less Promotion 
 Yet, being more educated and hard-working, women are less often promoted to higher
positions than men. Gender biases work against women on the professional front.

Historically, it was believed that men belong at work and women belong in the kitchen. This
resulted in men dominating the workplace, which has resulted in the underestimation of
women’s talent and hard work.

According to Catalyst.org, “Not having a visible role model can make women feel as if
moving into a leadership-type role is simply unattainable.”

 Bias Against Mothers 

Giving birth to a life is the greatest gift given by nature to a woman, but sometimes it impacts
the professional life of women. A working mother is expected to work like she doesn't have a
kid and raise a kid as if she doesn’t have work. Therefore, this is the root cause of gender
inequality in the workplace. 

Motherhood makes women choose between work and family, and eventually, a woman
leaves work and chooses family. According to a study published in the American Journal of
Sociology, “mothers are 79% less likely to be hired 100%, less likely to be promoted, and are
offered a lower salary.” 

The conclusion is that it is believed that a woman’s dedication to family and childcare makes
her less committed and unable to put in long working hours compared to her male colleagues,
especially at high-level jobs. 

 Job Segregation

Job segregation is one of the major causes of gender inequality in the workplace.  In society,
it is believed that men are better equipped to handle certain jobs.

Fun fact: People think that the highest-paid jobs are the jobs that men handle the best. This
discrimination leads to lower incomes. Women work more but get less recognition and
wages. 

REMEDIES

1.Support women into more senior roles

Accenture, Barclays, Credit Suisse UK and KPMG have all set gender targets, broken down
by business lines and functions.

They have clearly defined interim milestones and deadlines, so they can continually measure
themselves against their targets.
Furthermore, managers and decision makers are held responsible and accountable for meeting
those targets.

2.Implement gender neutral recruitment processes

Carefully word your job adverts.

Research shows that adjectives such as ‘competitive’ and ‘determined’ put off women. On
the other hand, words such as ‘collaborative’ and ‘cooperative’ tend to attract more women
than men.

Standardise interviews, anonymise resumes and use blind evaluation processes.

Unilever and Vodafone have found that blind evaluation procedures — including work
sample tests and neuroscientific tests of an applicant’s aptitude and skills — have helped
them recruit from more diverse backgrounds.

3. Review salaries and standardise pay

Frequently review salaries for parity between genders and races.

When recruiting, set the pay range offered on years’ experience with some leeway for special
achievements, not on how well the candidate negotiated their last pay package.

4.Provide training on unconscious bias

Educate employees about their own unconscious bias.

Although this does not guarantee that attitudes will change, it does help employees to
understand their biases and to work towards eliminating them.

5. Have a clear policy on discrimination

A Unilever study found that women and men struggle to acknowledge gender discrimination
and inappropriate behaviour (most likely sexual harassment) in the workplace.

67% of women said they feel pressured to get over inappropriate action. And most women
(64%) and slightly more than half of men (55%) said that men don’t confront each other
when witnessing this behaviour.

Create a clear, unbiased, non-retaliatory discrimination policy that ensures employees have a
proper way to comment or report on inappropriate treatment in the workplace.

Make sure everyone knows and understands the policy. Implement severe penalties for sexual
discrimination and harassment.

6. Provide flexible working and de-stigmatise shared parental leave

Shift your company mindset to assessing workers’ performance on their delivery and
achievements rather than time spent in the office.
This not only benefits working mums but dads too, those caring for elderly parents and
everyone in general.

Even millennials, perceived to have fewer responsibilities at home, are increasingly valuing
and looking for flexible working.

Telstra, the Australian telecoms firm, has made flexible work the default option.

In the UK, parents can share up to 50 weeks of leave, and up to 37 weeks of pay between
them. Ensure your employees are aware of policies like these.

7. Diversify the board

Set targets for gender diversity on your board and look beyond your existing talent pool.

A growing number of companies are eschewing traditional board candidates — retired chief
executive officers, who are predominantly older white men — and opting for diverse
members, many of them first-timers with no experience.

8. Ensure you’re actively encouraging women to progress

Make sure that female employees are applying for promotions and asking for pay rises.

At KPMG UK, when a promotion is advertised, line managers are encouraged to check
whether their high potential female colleagues have applied and if not ask why.

Martin Blackburn, People Director at KPMG UK explains: ‘Where the men would apply for
a role if they had 80% of the [required] skills, women would think they were missing 20%
and not bother’.

9. Promote a culture of meritocracy

Promote a culture where great ideas come from all levels, genders and races and all voices
are welcome and respected around the table.

When President Obama took office, two-thirds of his top aides were men. Women had to
elbow their way into important meetings. And when they got in, their voices were sometimes
ignored.

So, female staffers adopted a meeting strategy they called ‘amplification’. When a woman
made a point, other women would repeat it, giving credit to her.

This forced the men in the room to recognise the contribution — and denied them the chance
to claim the idea as their own.

It’s no surprise then that during Obama’s second term, women gained parity with men in the
president’s inner circle.
CONCLUSION

Based on the study conducted, it can be concluded that the glass ceiling exists. In other
words, the invisible barrier that hinders women to advance beyond a certain level in their
career and workplaces seems to exist. The notable factors contributing to this invisible barrier
are mainly unequal treatment given to women in comparison to men. Males are considered
superior to women in workplaces and therefore the women do not enjoy equal status with
men in their workplaces. Women have been in the workforce for decades, but many
acknowledge it is still a man's world. Many women say the corner office remains off-limits
because the unwritten rules of the workplace favour men. Companies today 'are building on
masculine norms, and therefore the study finds that there is pay disparity as well as
differences shown in promotions and increments that give rise to women’s positions
remaining stagnant. Some female employees may be reluctant to trumpet their successes and
advocate for advancement for fear of being perceived as overly aggressive or ambitious. It
could be the woman mindset that could be posing such barriers. It’s a battle of myths and
biases and India has to fight a tough battle to eliminate this social evil.

References
 Barreto, M., Ryan, M., & Schmitt, M. (2009). Introduction: Is the glass ceiling still
relevant in the 21st century? In M. Barreto, M. Ryan, & M. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass
ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality (pp. 3-19).
Washington, DC: Americal Psychological Association
 Broughton, A., & Miller, L. (2009). Women in senior management: Is the glass
ceiling still intact? Is, Guc: The Journal of Industrial Relations & Human Resources,
11(4), 7-23. doi:10.4026/1303-2860.2009. 0122.x
 Carter, N. M., & Silva, C. (2011). The Myth of the ideal worker: Does doing all the
right things really get women ahead? Catalyst. Retrieved from
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/myth-ideal-worker-does-doing-all-right-things-
really-get-women-ahead
  Lachance-Gazela, M., & Bouchard, G. (2010). Why do women do the lion's share of
housework? A decade of research. Sex Roles, 63(11/12), 767-780.
doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9797-z

 Mukherji, N. J. (2010). The Perception of 'Glass Ceiling' in India Industry: An

Exploratory Study. South Asian Journal of Management, 28-38.

 Simpson, R. (1997). Have times changed? Career barriers and the token woman
manager. British Journal of Management, 8(2), S121-S130.
 Townsend, B. (1996). Room at the top for women. American Demographics, 18(7),
28-37.
PLAGIARISM REPORT