Nuclear Reactions

A nuclear reaction is generally represented by an equation indicating the nuclear characteristics of reactants
and products. For example the bombardment of nitrogen nuclei by α particles producing protons and oxygen
atom can be written as
14
7N + 2He4 17
8O + 1H
1

In more condensed representation it can be written as N14 (α,p)O 17

These reactions also follow laws of conservation such as
i. The total energy of the particle before and after the reaction remains the same.
ii. Total number of nucleons before and after the reaction remains the same.
iii. The total charge is conserved.
The law of conservation of mass, however, does not hold in nuclear reactions because a conversion of
some of the mass into other forms of energy or vice versa, generally accompanies these reactions.
The conservation laws can be easily stated by referring to a prototype of a nuclear reaction.
(Z1. A1) + (Z2. A2) (Z2 . A2) + (Z4 . A4)
Thus,
Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4 (Charge conservation)
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4 (Nucleon conservation)
E1 + E2 = E3 + E4 (Energy conservation)
To these we must also add
i. Conservation of linear momentum
ii. Conservation of angular momentum (spin)

Types of Nuclear Reactions

We can classify nuclear changes as a number of different types of nuclear reactions. Each has its own
characteristics (and potential applications). In addition, like chemical reactions we can write down an infinite
number of nuclear changes that could occur by simply constructing a balanced equation.

1. Fission
We can classify a number of nuclear reactions. The first important reactions are fission reactions. In fission
reactions, a heavy nucleus is "split" into two (or more) smaller nuclei. Generally, we discuss reactions which
are downhill in energy (exothermic). Fission reactions are exothermic that start with nuclei that are heavier
than iron.
An example of an important fission reaction is
92U
235
+ 0n1  56Ba136 + 36Kr97 + 2 0n1
This is the fission of uranium-235 to make barium-137 and krypton-97 plus a couple of neutrons. Note: there
are neutrons on both sides of this reaction. It is important to show them both in the reaction since the neutron
instigates the reaction. The fission is actually a uranium-236 nucleus that is created from the collision of a
neutron and a uranium-235. Fission reactions are widely used to generate electrical power using uranium as a
fuel and generating a wide array of fission products.

2. Fusion
Fusion reactions is when two (or more) lighter nuclei come together to make a heavy nucleus. For example
1H + 1H  2He + 0n
2 3 4 1

The fusion of four hydrogen atoms and two electrons into a single helium atom is the primary reaction in the
sun (although it happens in a number of steps). Fusion reactions are exothermic for nuclei smaller than iron.
Fusion reactions of light elements can be extremely exothermic. And per mass generate by far the most
energy. Research is on going to maintain stable fusion reactions on earth. Currently, reactions can be
maintained for infinitesimally short times (or in uncontrolled reactions such as the hydrogen bomb).

3. Nuclear Decay
Nuclear decay is perhaps the most important process to understand in nuclear chemistry. This is the origin of
"radioactivity" and is the basis of most applications of nuclear chemistry outside of the nuclear power
1
industry. Nuclear decay is the process by which an unstable isotope of a particular element spontaneously
transforms into a new element by emission of ionizing radiation. Later the details of the types of such decays
as well as the types of radiation will be covered. In many ways, nuclear decay is similar to fission. The
product elements are lighter than the reactant elements. However, unlike fission nuclear decay involves one
element transforming into another rather than breaking up into two nuclei. Some nuclear decay involves the
emission of a He-4 nucleus. Typically this is considered emission of a "particle" versus the nucleus breaking
up into smaller pieces. Nuclear decay almost always involves large energy release in the form of radiation. An
example is the electron capture reaction below that issued in the treatment of prostate cancer since the decay
results in the emission of high energy gamma rays
46Pd
103
+ -1e0  45Rh103 + 

a) Alpha radioactivity.
Alha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a
helium nucleus. Because of its very large mass (more than 7000 times the mass of the beta particle) and
its charge, it heavy ionizes material and has a very short range.
b) Beta radioactivity.
Beta particles are high-energy, high-speed electrons or positrons emitted by certain types of radioactive
nuclei such as potassium-40. The beta particles have greater range of penetration than alpha particles,
but still much less than gamma rays.The beta particles emitted are a form of ionizing radiation also
known as beta rays. The production of beta particles is termed beta decay.
c) Gamma radioactivity.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of an very high frequency and are therefore high energy
photons. They are produced by the decay of nuclei as they transition from a high energy state to a lower
state known as gamma decay. Most of nuclear reactions are accompanied by gamma emission.
d) Neutron emission.
Neutron emission is a type of radioactive decay of nuclei containing excess neutrons (especially fission
products), in which a neutron is simply ejected from the nucleus. This type of radiation plays key role in
nuclear reactor control, because these neutrons are delayed neutrons.

4. Transmutation
Transmutation is essentially the reverse of nuclear decay. It is a non-spontaneous process where by one
element is converted to another by the bombarding it with high energy radiation (or neutrons). This is
generally an artificial process that allows the creation of radioactive isotopes. For example, the Pd-103 that is
uses in the treatment of prostate cancer is made in laboratory is made by bombarding Pd-102 with high energy
neutrons.

46Pd
102
 46Pd103
+ 0n1
Transmutation involves increasing the mass of nuclei.

5. Transfer
Transfer is the exchange of nucleons between projectile and target nucleus, stripping is transfer from the
projectile to the target, and pickup from the target to the projectile. You also have charge exchange reactions,
where nucleons flow in both directions but the mass number is conserved, like (p,n) or ( 3He,t), which are
important. These are the traditional terms, when mostly reactions with light projectiles were studied. But for
reactions in inverse kinematics, nowadays often used for radioactive nuclei, like d(13N,p)14N, there is not
much sense in the terms stripping or pickup.

a) Stripping
A stripping reaction is a nuclear reaction in which part of the incident nucleus combines with the target
nucleus, and the remainder proceeds with most of its original momentum in almost its original
direction. Deuteron stripping reactions have been extensively used to study nuclear reactions and structure,
this occurs where the incident nucleus is a deuteron and only a proton emerges from the target nucleus. A
simple one-step stripping reaction can be represented as
A+a →B+b
A + (b+x)a → (A+x)b+b
where A represents the target core, b represents the projectile core, and x is the transferred mass which
may represent any number of particles.

2
 b) Pick-up
Pickup is the transfer of nucleons from the target to the projectile
For example A+x(a,a+x)A

6. Scattering
The irregular dispersal of free neutrons by matter, can refer to either the naturally occurring physical
process itself or to the man-made experimental techniques that use the natural process for investigating
materials. The natural/physical phenomenon is of elemental importance in nuclear engineering and the nuclear
sciences.
a) Elastic scattering: Occurs, when no energy is transferred between the target nucleus and the incident
particle.
208Pb (n, n) 208Pb
b) Inelastic scattering: Occurs, when energy is transferred. The difference of kinetic energies is saved
in excited nuclide.
40Ca (α, α’) 40mCa
c) Capture reactions: Both charged and neutral particles can be captured by nuclei. This is
accompanied by the emission of  - rays. Neutron capture reaction produces radioactive nuclides
(induced radioactivity).
238U (n, ) 239U
d) Transfer Reactions: The absorption of a particle accompanied by the emission of one or more
particles is called the transfer reaction.
4He (α, p) 7Li

7. Nuclear spallation
Nuclear spallation is one of the processes by which a particle accelerator may be used to produce a beam
of neutrons. A particle beam consisting of protons at around 1 GeV are shot into a target consisting
of mercury, tantalum, lead or another heavy metal. The target nucleii are excited and upon deexcitation, 20 to
30 neutrons are expelled per nucleus. Although this is a far more expensive way of producing neutron beams
than by a chain reaction of nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor, it has the advantage that the beam can be
pulsed with relative ease. Furthermore the energetic cost of one spallation neutron is six times lower than that
of a neutron gained via nuclear fission. In contrast to nuclear fission, the spallation neutrons cannot trigger
further spallation or fission processes to produce further neutrons. Therefore, there is no chain-reaction, which
makes the process non-critical.

(i) Alpha induced reactions

In these reactions an α particle (2He4) is absorbed by the target nucleus which then emits a proton or a
neutron. Depending on the particle emitted they may be written as (α,p) or (α,n) reactions. Eg of (α,p) type.
27
13 Al + 2 He4 14Si
30
+ lH l
19
9F + 2 He4 10 Ne 22 + l H l
(α,n) type
9 4 12
4 Be + 2 He 6C + 0 n1
13 Al 27 + 2 He4 15 P 30 + 0 n l
3
(ii) Proton induced reactions: Fast moving protons are found to give at least 4 types of reaction
(i.e) (p,n) (p,d) (p, α) and (p,γ)
(p,n) type.
5 B 11 + lH
l
6C
11
+ o nl
(p,d) type.
9 l
4 Be + lH 4 Be 8 + l H 2
(p,α) type.
14
7N + l H1 6 C 11 + 2 He4
(p, γ) type
13 Al
27
+ l H1 14 Si 28 + γ

(iii) Deutron induced reactions:

Deutrons are most effectively used positively charged particles for bombardment of nucleus.
Transmutation by deutrons leads to emission of proton, neutrons and α – particles.
(d,p) type.
1 H2 + 1 H2 1 H 3 + 1H l
(d,n) type.
6 C 12 + 1 H2 7 N 13 + o n l
(d. α) type
8 O 16 + 1 H2 7 N 14 + 2 He 4

(iv) Neutron induced reactions:

In these reactions the neutron is captured by target nucleus which then emits proton, neutrons, α –
particle, β - particle, and positron or γ radiations.
(n,p) type.
12 Mg 24 + o n1 11 Na 24 + l H 1
(n,2n) type.
29 Cu 63 + o n1 29 Cu 62 + o n 1 + o n 1
(n, α) type.
5 B 10 + o n1 3 Li 7 + 2 He 4
(n,γ) type.
18 Ar 40 + o n1 18 Ar 41 + γ
(V) Gamma induced reactions; In these reactions γ – radiation is absorbed by the target nuclei and protons,
neutrons are emitted.
(γ,p) type
13 Al 27 + γ 11 Na 24 + 2 1 H l + On
l

(γ,n) type
13 Al 27 + γ 31 Al 26 + On
l

13 P 31 + γ 15 P 30 + On
l

It is quite clear that from same target and projectile different products may be formed depending upon
the energy associated with the projectile. However if the incident particle energies are large enough so that
more than one nucleon can be released from their binding from the nucleus, a spallation of nucleus takes
place.

4
Following facts are taken into account while expressing nuclear reactions;
(i) Nuclear reactions are written like a chemical equation. Reactants are written on the left hand side and
products on the right hand side with an arrow in between.
(ii) Mass number and atomic number of elements involved are also written. Mass number is written as
superscript and atomic number as sub-script on the symbol of the elements. For Ex 7N 14 stands for an atom of
nitrogen with mass number 14 and atomic number 7.
(iii) Mass number and atomic number are conserved. As in case of chemical reaction, the total number of
atoms of various elements is balanced on the two sides, similarly here the total mass number and atomic
number are balanced on the two sides.

Nuclear Fission
Definition: Splitting of a nucleus into nearly two equal parts with release of energy is called nuclear
fission.
Explanation: It is a type of disintegration. For example when uranium -235 is bombarded with
slow moving neutrons, first a neutron is captured by the uranium nucleus. Then the whole nucleus splits into
two nuclei, one of barium and other of krypton. In this process 3 extra neutrons are released. Such a process is
known as nuclear fission. Some of the liberated neutrons attack other uranium nuclei and thus cause a chain
reaction, while the others get annihilated and are converted into energy.
92U
235
+ 0n1→ 56U*236 → 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1+ Energy

Importance of nuclear fission:-

In fission reactions there is a loss of mass. This is converted into energy. The energy produced in
nuclear fission is extremely large as compared to conventional sources. For example, when U235 undergoes
fission reaction on bombardment with slow moving neutrons, about 0.2 units of mass per gram atom of
uranium-235, is annihilated. It amounts 0.2 x [ 3x 10 10]2 ergs according to Einsteins equations [E=mc2] This
equal to six million horse power hours.
The large amount of energy liberated in nuclear fission can be utilized in two important ways:
i) Preparation of the super explosive or atom bomb (Destructive purpose)
ii) Super power plant (Constructive purpose)
The atom bomb works on fast neutron chain. It is accomplished bringing together two pieces of fissionable
materials (U235 or Pu 239) into intimate contact. When these two pieces are kept separated they are stable. But
when they are put together by a mere mechanical operation, they explode violently.

Controlled Fission Reaction:-

Atom bomb explosion is due to an uncontrolled chain reaction. If this chain reaction is put under control, after
some time, a steady state is established. When such a steady state is established the number of neutrons
produced and the number of neutrons consumed becomes nearly equal. The energy produced attains a
constant level. Such a reaction is known as controlled fission reaction.
Controlled fission reactions are brought about in nuclear reactors. In nuclear reactions the fissionable material
(also called nuclear fuels) like U235 or Pu239 is staked with heavy water or graphite called moderators. The
neutrons produced in the fission pass through the moderators and they lose some of their energies. So they
start moving slowly. Thus fission reactions are controlled.
Applications:-
It is used for preparing radioisotopes or generating electricity.

Characteristics of Nuclear Fission reaction

1. A heavy nucleus (U235 or Pu239), when bombarded by slow moving neutrons, split into two or more
nuclei.
2. Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
3. Huge amount of energy is produced as a result of nuclear fission.
4. All the fission fragments are radioactive, giving off β and radiations.
5. The atomic weights of fission products range from about 70 to 160.
6. The nuclear chain reactions can be controlled and maintained steadily by absorbing a desired number
of neutrons. This process is used in nuclear reactor.
7. All the fission reactions are self-propagating chain-reactions because fission products contain
neutrons (secondary neutrons) which further cause fission in other nuclei.

5
 8. Every secondary neutron, released in the fission process, does not strike a nucleus, some escape into
air and hence a chain reaction cannot be maintained.
9. The number of neutrons, resulting from a single fission, is known as the multiplication factor. When
the multiplication factor is less than 1, a chain reaction does not take place.
10. The control of chain reaction is necessary in order to maintain a steady reaction. This is carried out by
absorbing a desired number of neutron by employing materials like percentage of Cd, B or steel.
11. In a nuclear reactor, the multifactor is one. This is achieved by proper arrangement of fissionable
materials.

Product distribution
Each fission of a parent atom produces a different set of fission product atoms. However, while an
individual fission is not predictable, the fission products are statistically predictable. The amount of any
particular isotope produced per fission is called its yield, typically expressed as percent per parent fission;
therefore, yields total to just over 200% (because of ternary fissions), not 100%.

While fission products include every element from zinc through the lanthanides, the majority of the
fission products occur in two peaks. One peak occurs at about (expressed by atomic number)
strontium to ruthenium while the other peak is at about tellurium to neodymium. The yield is somewhat
dependent on the parent atom and also on the energy of the initiating neutron.

In general the higher the energy of the state that undergoes nuclear fission, the more likely that the
two fission products have similar mass. Hence as the neutron energy increases and/or the energy of
the fissile atom increases, the valley between the two peaks becomes more shallow. For instance, the curve of
yield against mass for Pu-239 has a more shallow valley than that observed for U-235 when the neutrons
are thermal neutrons. The curves for the fission of the later actinides tend to make even more shallow valleys.
In extreme cases such as 259Fm, only one peak is seen.

The above figure shows a typical fission product distribution from the fission of uranium. Note that in
the calculations used to make this graph, the activation of fission products was ignored and the fission was
assumed to occur in a single moment rather than a length of time. In this bar chart results are shown for
different cooling times — time after fission. Because of the stability of nuclei with even numbers of protons
and/or neutrons, the curve of yield against element is not a smooth curve but tends to alternate. Note that the
curve against mass number is smooth.

Fertile material
Fertile material is a material that, although not itself fissionable by thermal neutrons, can be converted
into a fissile material by neutron absorption and subsequent nuclei conversions In nuclear engineering, fertile
material (nuclide) is material that can be converted to fissile material by neutron transmutation and subsequent
nuclear decay. The process of the transmutation of fertile materials to fissile materials is referred to as fuel
breeding. There are two basic fertile materials: 238U and 232Th

Fissile Material
In nuclear engineering, fissile material (nuclide) is material that is capable of undergoing fission
reaction after absorbing thermal (slow or low energy) neutron. These materials are used to fuel thermal
nuclear reactors, because they are capable of sustaining a nuclear fission chain reaction.
For heavy nuclides with atomic number of higher than 90, most of fissile isotopes meet the fissile rule.
Typical fissile materials: 235U, 233U, 239Pu, 241Pu.
6
Fissile materials from fertile materials
A fast-neutron reactor , meaning one with little or no neutron moderator and hence utilizing fast
neutrons, can be configured as a breeder reactor, producing more fissile material than it consumes, using
fertile material in a blanket around the core, or contained in special fuel rods. Since plutonium-238, plutonium
240 and plutonium242 are fertile, accumulation of these and other non fissile isotopes is less of a problem
than in thermal reactors, which cannot burn them efficiently. Breeder reactors using thermal-spectrum
neutrons are only practical if the thorium fuel cycle is used, as uranium233 fissions far more reliably with
thermal neutrons than plutonium-239.

List of fissile materials

Fissile nuclides in nuclear fuels include:
 Uranium-235 which occurs in natural uranium and enriched uranium.
 Plutonium-239 b683red from uranium-238 by neutron capture.
 Plutonium-241 bred from plutonium-240 by neutron capture.
 The 240Pu comes from 239Pu by the same process.
 Uranium-233 bred from thorium-232 by neutron capture.
 Plutonium-239 Plutonium-241
 Uranium-233 Uranium-235

Atom Bomb
An Atom Bomb is a nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear
reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or from a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear
bomb). Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter.

The U-235 nucleus can split in many ways, provided the atomic numbers add up to 92 and the atomic
masses add to 236 (uranium plus the extra neutron). The following equation shows one possible split, namely
into strontium-95 (95Sr), xenon-139 (139Xe), and two neutrons (n), plus energy:

92U
235
+ 0n1  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3n1 + 180 MeV

The immediate energy release per atom is about 180 million electron volts (MeV); i.e., 74 TJ/kg. Only 7% of
this is gamma radiation and kinetic energy of fission neutrons. The remaining 93% is kinetic energy (or
energy of motion) of the charged fission fragments, flying away from each other mutually repelled by the
positive charge of their protons (38 for strontium, 54 for xenon). This initial kinetic energy is 67 TJ/kg,
imparting an initial speed of about 12,000 kilometers per second. The charged fragments' high electric charge
causes many inelastic collisions with nearby atoms, and these fragments remain trapped inside the bomb's
uranium pit and tamper until their motion is converted into heat. This takes about a millionth of a second (a
microsecond), by which time the core and tamper of the bomb have expanded to plasma several meters in
diameter with a temperature of tens of millions of degrees Celsius.

The Energy from a Nuclear Weapon

One of the fundamental differences between a nuclear and a conventional explosion is that nuclear
explosions can be many thousands (or millions) of times more powerful than the largest conventional
detonations. Both types of weapons rely on the destructive force of the blast or shock wave. However, the
temperatures reached in a nuclear explosion are very much higher than in a conventional explosion, and a
large proportion of the energy in a nuclear explosion is emitted in the form of light and heat, generally
referred to as thermal energy. This energy is capable of causing skin burns and of starting fires at considerable
distances. Nuclear explosions are also accompanied by various forms of radiation, lasting a few seconds to
remaining dangerous over an extended period of time.
 Approximately 85 percent of the energy of a nuclear weapon produces air blast (and shock), thermal
energy (heat).
 The remaining 15 percent of the energy is released as various type of nuclear radiation.
 Of this, 5 percent constitutes the initial nuclear radiation, defined as that produced within a minute or
so of the explosion, are mostly gamma rays and neutrons.
 The final 10 percent of the total fission energy represents that of the residual (or delayed) nuclear
radiation, which is emitted over a period of time. This is largely due to the radioactivity of the fission
products present in the weapon residues, or debris, and fallout after the explosion.

7
The "yield" of a nuclear weapon is a measure of the amount of explosive energy it can produce. The yield is
given in terms of the quantity of TNT that would generate the same amount of energy when it explodes. Thus,
a 1 kiloton nuclear weapon is one which produces the same amount of energy in an explosion as does 1
kiloton (1,000 tons) of TNT. Similarly, a 1 megaton weapon would have the energy equivalent of 1 million
tons of TNT. One megaton is equivalent to 4.18 x 1015 joules.
In evaluating the destructive power of a weapons system, it is customary to use the concept of equivalent
megatons (EMT). Equivalent megatonnage is defined as the actual megatonnage raised to the two-thirds
power:
EMT = Y2/3 where Y is in megatons.
This relation arises from the fact that the destructive power of a bomb does not vary linearly with the yield.
The volume the weapon's energy spreads into varies as the cube of the distance, but the destroyed area varies
at the square of the distance.

Thus 1 bomb with a yield of 1 megaton would destroy 80 square miles. While 8 bombs, each with a yield of
125 kilotons, would destroy 160 square miles. This relationship is one reason for the development of delivery
systems that could carry multiple warheads (MIRVs).

Gun-type assembly weapon

Little Boy, the Hiroshima bomb, used 64 kg of uranium with an average enrichment of around 80%, or 51 kg
of U-235, just about the bare-metal critical mass. (See Little Boy article for a detailed drawing.) When
assembled inside its tamper/reflector of tungsten carbide, the 64 kg was more than twice critical mass. Before
the detonation, the uranium-235 was formed into two sub-critical pieces, one of which was later fired down a
gun barrel to join the other, starting the nuclear explosion.

Implosion-type weapon
The Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, nearly identical plutonium fission through implosion designs were
used. The Fat Man device specifically used 6.2 kg, about 350 ml in volume, of Pu-239, which is only 41% of
bare-sphere critical mass. Surrounded by a U-238 reflector/tamper, the Fat Man's pit was brought close to
critical mass by the neutron-reflecting properties of the U-238. During detonation, criticality was achieved by
implosion. The plutonium pit was squeezed to increase its density by simultaneous detonation, as with the
"Trinity" test detonation three weeks earlier, of the conventional explosives placed uniformly around the pit.
The explosives were detonated by multiple exploding-bridge wire detonators. It is estimated that only about
20% of the plutonium underwent fission; the rest, about 5 kg, was scattered.

8
Nuclear Fusion:-
Definition: It is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei into a stable and heavier nuclide
with release of energy is called nuclear fusion.
Explanation: We may consider the formation of helium nucleus. It is formed by the combination of
two hydrogen atoms (i.e. 2 protons and 2 electrons) and two neutrons. In this case also an enormous amount
of energy is released by the formation of a heavier nucleus from those of lighter elements on account of loss
of mass.
Importance of nuclear fusion:
Nuclear fusion can take place by allowing highly accelerated protons and deuterons, etc., to fall on
nuclei of lighter elements. Such process occur at reasonable rates only at very high temperatures of the order
of a million degree centigrade which exist only in the interior of stars. Therefore, such processes are called
thermo-nuclear reaction. Once a fusion reaction is initiated, the energy released is sufficient to maintain the
temperature and to keep the process going.
The energy of the sun is supposed to arise from the following thermo-nuclear reactions.
1
1H + 1H1 → 1H2 + 1e0 + Energy
2
1H + 1H1 → 1He3 + Energy
3
2He + 2He3 → 2He4 +21H1 + Energy
In the above reaction 26.7 MeV of energy is released. This is tremendous quantity.
Hydrogen bomb: The thermo nuclear reactions among nuclei of hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and
tritium, can serve as possible sources of energy on earth as these can occur more rapidly, provided the
temperature is very high. Such an energy obtained from thermonuclear reaction is called thermonuclear
energy. These reactions may be represented as.
2
1D + 1D2 → 2 He 3 + 0 n 1 + Energy = 3.2 MeV
2
1D + 1D2 → 1 T 3 + 1 H 1 + Energy = 4.0 MeV
2
1D + 1T3 → 2 He 4 + 0 n 1 + Energy = 17.6MeV
These fusion processes are responsible for the release of a tremendous amount of energy in the form
popularly known as a hydrogen bomb. But the above nuclear reactions can take place only at very high
temperatures. Therefore, an external sources of energy to provide an atmosphere with required high
temperatures is necessary. In the preparation of a hydrogen bomb, a suitable quantity of deuterium or tritium
or a mixture of both, is combined with an atom bomb. The atom bomb provides an atmosphere of required
high temperature. A hydrogen bomb is far more powerful than an atom bomb.
Comparison of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion:
Similarities: Both release very large amount of energy.
Differences:
1. Fission involves the breaking up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. Fusion involves
combining of two lighter nuclei into one heavy nucleus.
2. The links of the fission process are neutrons. The links of a fusion process are protons
3. Fission proceed with thermal neutrons where thermal means room temperature. Fusion proceeds
with thermal particles where thermal means millions of Degrees in Kelvin scale.

9
STELLAR ENERGY
The solar energy is due to fusion of light nuclei. The fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus
corresponds to 26.7 MeV per helium nucleus formed. Sun radiates about 3.8 X 1020 MJ of energy per second
and in the process loses mass at the rate of 4.2 X 106 tonnes per second. This mass loss is about 10 -5 % per
million years of the present mass of the sun (about 2x 1027 tonnes).

The most important thermonuclear reaction taking place in sun and stars is
4 1H  42He + energy. For such a reaction following two mechanisms have been proposed
1

(i) Proton - Proton Chain

(a) [ 1 1 H + 1 1 H  2 1 H + p + + v ; E =1.42 MeV ] x2

(b) [ 1 1 H + 2 1 H  3 2 He +  ; E = 5.4 MeV] x 2

(c) 3 He + 3 He  4 He + 2 1 H; E= 12.8 MeV

2 2 2 1
Of these reaction (a) is slowest and has a mean life of 7-15 x 108 years.
(ii) Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle
The carbon-nitrogen cycle was first proposed by Bethe in 1939. It can be represented as under
(a) 126C + 11H 13
N +
7

(b) 137N 13
6 C + p++v
(c) 136C + 1
1H 14
7 N +
1
(d) 147N + 1 H 15
8 O +
15 15 +
(e) 8O 7 N + p+ v
15 1 12 4
(f) 7N + 1H 6 C + 2He
If these reaction (d) is slowest having a mean life of 3.2 x 108 years.
Since most of the solar matter (>90%) consists of hydrogen and helium the proton-proton chain is
more likely but in stars the carbon-nitrogen cycle may be more possible.

Introduction
Radiation Chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of radio
isotopes, elements and substances the laws of their physico-chemical behaviour, the chemisty of nuclear
transformation and the associated physico-chemical processes.

Tracer Technique
Tracer technique is particularly useful in tracing the element through the process under investigation
and for continuous study of the process without any alteration or disturbances in the system. In this technique,
it is necessary to synthesize material to be traced and this material is tagged with a radioactive isotope of an
element of the molecule. The tagged compound is now introduced in to the system under examination and the
experiment is carried out as usual. Enriched stable isotopes may be used as tracers. The most important stable
isotopes which are widely used for tracer studies are those of oxygen, hydrogen, Carbon & Sulphur.

Applications of Tracer Technique

The applications of tracer technique though practically limitless, can conveniently be divided into the
following groups.
1) Analytical Chemistry
2) In medicine
3) In agriculture

10
 4) In Industry
5) In Biological fields
6) In electro Chemistry
7) In colloid Chemistry
8) In Inorganic Preparations
9) In Phenomena at bounding Surface
10) In Physics, geology and physiology
11) In miscellaneous fields.

1. In Analytical Chemistry
a) Determination of solubility of a sparingly soluble salt
The tracer tech was first used by G. Heyesy and F. Peneth (1913) to determine the solubility of a
sparingly soluble salts such as lead chromate.
When a radioactive isotope of lead is added to a solution of ordinary lead, and lead is precipitated as
either the sulphate or chromate, determination of the radio activity of the filtrate gives the concentration of
lead still dissolved.
b) Surface area of the adsorbent
From the activity of the metal adsorbed, it is possible to estimate the extent of adsorption, the number
of adsorbed molecules and the area covered by these.
c) Tracer technique. has established the fact that chemical equilibrium is nothing but a balancing of opposite
chemical reactions.
d) In studying the analytical reaction of a little known element
By using this tracer techniuqe. the element actinium can be studied.
e) In elucidating the mechanism of chem.. reaction
1) A small quantity of Radioactive (CO2 containing radioactive oxygen is mixed with ordinary CO2
and the photosynthesis reaction is carried out. It has been found that O2 gas evolved along with Sugar is non
radio active. Therefore O2 comes from water and not from CO2.

2) When S is heated in the presence of labelled sulphite ion, the thiosulphate ion is produced according to the
following reaction.

f) Exchange reactions
Another important application of tracer is in exchange reactions. When a compound contains H group
or COOH is placed in heavy water, deuterium exchanges itself for hyd-hydrogon atoms.
Tracers have also been used to study adsorption and coprecipitation, ageing of precipitates efficiency
of extractions, precipitations & filtrations. In addition, two very important methods, namely Isotopic dilution
analysis and Neutron activation analysis are very useful in analytical chemistry.

2. Chemical Investigation
Some typical applications of isotopes elucidating (a) Reaction mechanics, (b) Structure
determinations and (c) Isotope exchange reactions are described here.

(a) Reaction Mechanics:

(i) Esterifcations : It could never be shown experimentally whether the water eliminated in an esterification
reaction is formed for the OH of the alcohol and H of the acid or it is the other way, corresponding to the
upper or the lower bracketing.

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 By using CH3, 18OH, it was found that the 18O goes into the ester showing thereby that it is the alcohol
which contributes H and the acid the CH, corresponding to the lower bracketing in equation. This
demonstration, that the cleavages are C-OH bond in the acid and H-O bond in alcohol, could never have been
possible except by the method of isotopic labelling as otherwise all O atoms are alike, as are the H atoms.

(2) Hydrolysis : In the reverse process of hydrodysis of an ester a similar technique of using water enriched
in 18O for causing the hydrolysis showed that the 18O is found in the acid i.e the OH of the water goes to the
acid and the H of water to the alcohol confirming the previous mechanism of bond ruptures. Usually the
labelled atom is shown with an asterisk.

(3) Decomposition of H2O2 by PbO2 : The net reaction here is

The earlier idea was that each of the reactants provides an atom of oxygen to yield the moleculary
oxygen in equation. However, when 18O- labeled H2O2 was used the resulting oxygen had all the 18O, none
remaining with the water. This shows conclusively that the molecular oxygen formed comes wholly from the
H2O2 as shown below

(4) Oxidation of CO by air in the presence of catalyst MnO2 :

The earlier idea of this reaction was

Labelling MnO2 with 18O showed that the resulting CO2 had none of the enrichment in 18O which
remained wholly with the catalyst, suggesting that the oxidation is directly between the reactions, the catalyst
remaining undissociated thus

(5) Mechanism of the Friedel – Craft’s reaction:

Anhydrous aluminium chloride is a useful reagent for bringing about a large number of reactions
known as the Friedel-Craft’s reactions. Consider the reaction

Theoretically the following three alternative mechanisms are possible for the role of the catalyst. It
was only using AlCl3 labelled with 36Cl that the true mechanism was revealed.

(b) Structure Determination

(i) Phosphorus pentachloride : To know whether all the five chlorine atoms in PCl5 occupy structurally
equivalent positions or not, the substance, is synthesized using PCl3 and Cl2 labelled with its radioisotope 36Cl.

Subsequently, the product is hydrolysed when the following reaction takes place.

Experimentally it was found that all the radioactivity remained with the HCl and none with POCl3. It
is obvious that two Cl atoms in PCl5 occupy positions different from the rest of the three Cl atoms. This agrees
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with the trigonal bipyramidal structure accepted for PCl5, with three Cl atoms in the equatorial plane and two
along the vertices. Futher, the equatorial P-Cl distance is known to be shorter than the apical P-Cl distance

(2) Thiosulphate ion: Two structures for the thiosulphate ion can be envisaged.

The problem is to know which of the structures (a) (or) (b) is correct. This has been solved by
Synthesizing sodium thiosulpate by boiling a solution

3. Physico-Chemical Research
Radioisotopes are used in the determination of (a) the solubility of a sparingly soluble substance, (b)
the surface area of a powder or precipitate and (c) rates of diffusion, including Self-diffusion and surface
migration, are described here. Radioisotopes are also widely used in studies of Solvent extraction,
precipitation, homogenization and other chemical operations.
(a) The solubility of a Sparingly soluble substance:
If the solubilities S1 and S2 be determined at two temperatures T1 and T2, one obtains the enthalpy of
solution. ∆H from the relation

131
Where R is the gas constant. The solubilities of AgI labelled with I of BaSO4 labelled with 35S,
MgNH4PO4. 6H2O labelled with 32P etc. can be determined.

(b) Surface Area of a powder of precipitate

Information regarding the surface area on powder or a precipitate is of great importance in surface
chemistry, in the study of the process of absorption and catalysis. Isotopic labelling provides a convenient
method for computing surface area of powder of sodium sulphite with Sulphur labelled with 35S

The product is decomposed subsequently by adding to it a solution of Silver nitrate in the presence of
nitric acid. An examination of the final products, Silver sulphide and sodium sulphate, showed the activity is
exclusively on the former.

The points to a non-equivalent structure for the two sulphur atoms in the thio sulphate ion.

(c) Isotope Exchange Reactions

When two substances, molecules or ions or a preticiptate, having an atom or ion in common, come
together in a uniform solution (homogenous system) or along a surface (heterogeneous system), a constant
exchange of the common atom or ion between the two substances takes place all the times, though the system
may be in chemical equilibrium all the time, some egs. Being

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 Such exchanges cannot be detected nor can their rates be measured as the system before and after
exchange is chemically distinguishable. However, if one of the species, say I- in (1) or (4) be labelled with
131
I, the exchange rate can be followed by separating the two samples from time to time.

Isotope dilution analysis (IDA)

The technique first developed by G. Hevesy and R. Hobie in 1930s for analysing rocks. Isotope
dilution analysis is a useful technique in analytical chemistry. This is a technique that is suitable where a
compound can be isolated in a pure state, but only in poor yield. The technique consists in adding a known
amount of the pure compound containing an active isotope to the unknown and thoroughly mixed with it.
Now sample of pure compound is isolated from the mixture and its activity is measured with the help of an
electroscope. The amount of the substance in the original material is then calculated.
This method consists in adding to the sample say xg(unknown) of the species, yg of a radio isotope of
initial specific activity Si. After a thorough mixing a small amount of the species is isolated from the mixture
and its final specific activity Sf is determined. From this, the unknown amount x is calculated on the principle
of the conservation of total activity.
Amount Specific activity
Initial x g compounds 0
y g labelled compounds added Si
Final (x+y) g of mixture Sf
Hence (x+y) sf = y si
(x = y (Si – Sf) / Sf)

Inverse Isotope Dilution Analysis (IIDA)

The IIDA is used to determine the amount of a radioactive substance x initially present of specific
activity Si. One adds yg of the nonradioactive isotope compound of the same substance. After thorough
mixing, a small amount of the isotope mixture is isolated and its final specific activity Sf is determined. The
total activity being conserved.
Amount Specific activity
Initial x g of active compound Si
y g of inactive compound 0
Final (x+y) g of mixture Sf
Hence (x+y) Sf = x Si
x = y Sf / (Si – Sf)
Applications
1) Isotopic dilution analysis is used to determine the amount of glycine in a mixture with other amino acids.
2) Volume of blood can be assessed.
1 ml of blood sample is taken from the donor. Labelled with 24Na in the form of NaCl and re-injected.
After sufficient time, the sample from the recipient is examined for radio activity. From the activity it is
possible to calculate the volume of blood in the recipient.
3) This method is used in the determination of unknown amount of aureomycin in a given
fermentation broth in the manufacture of antibiotics.
Reverse Isotopic Dilution Analysis (RIDA)
This method can be used to determine the amount of a radioactive constituent by adding a known
amount of the inactive compound and then proceeding in the usual manner. Similarly this method may be
varied into isotopic derivative method, which employs a radioactive reagent of known specific activity to form
an active derivative with the inactive substance that is to be determined.
Radio – Carbon dating
Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere due to interaction of cosmic rays with N2 present in
the atmosphere.

The radio carbon so formed decays according to the following reaction.

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 In 1950 W.F. Libby proposed a method which is based on, the decay rate of naturally occurring
isotope 14C for determining the age of organic matter. This method can be applied to objects having an age of
few hundred years upto 50,000 years.
The C-14 is incorporated into the CO2 of the air. A living plant, absorbing CO2 has the same 14C / C12
ratio, as do plant eating animals or human beings.
The intake of radioactive C-14 stops when a plant or animal dies. Consequently the radio active decay
of carbon C-14 occurs according the reaction.

Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

Amount of particular element in a sample can be determined using this technique. The element is
transformed by (n,r) reaction into its radioactive isotope and from the activity of the product, the amount of
the target element is computed. Since the amounts of radioactive isotopes of half-lives, between hours and
years, can be determined with precision of the order of 10-12 g, the technique is well suited and extremely
efficient for a large number of elements. The analysis of trace elements in minerals and ores, in soils and
special preparations has been possible by neutron activation. Another great advantage of this technique is that
it is non-destructive, i.e. the sample remains unchanged at the end of the analysis. It is well adapted for the
analysis of rare and precious samples as jewels precious stones, ancient coins and other archaelogical
specimens, as pottery sherds, etc. Elements which permit neutron activation analysis include Na, P, Ca, Sc,
Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Ge, As, Se, Ag, In, W, Ir, Pt, Au and many others. Some of the rare earth elements as
Sm, Eu, Gd, Dy, Ho, Yb having high neutron capture cross sections are well –adapted for neutron activation
analysis.
The principle of neutron activation analysis:
Suppose the problem is to determine the amount of a given element X in a particular sample. Let xg
of the sample containing N atoms of the element (Considered to be mono-isotopic in the first instant), be
placed in a uniform flux of thermal neutrons for a sufficiently long period of time t seconds to produce
measurable activity, say At

Where φ is the neutron flux (i.e number of neutrons cm2S-1, σ the neutron capture cross section in cm2
for the given targent nuclide, to be obtained from tables and λ is the decay constant in S -1 of the radioactive
product. At is the activity of the product if measured immediately at the end of the irradiation (time t). The
activity one actually measures after an interval ‘t’ after irradiation is given by

From eqn. (2), the weight of Wg of the element present in the xg of the sample is known from

The above treatment needs only a small modification in case the target element is not monoisotopic,
but consists of two or more stable isotopes. If the proportion of the particular isotope in the target element
whose (n, γ) radioactive product is being measured.is f parts per 100 f the element the resulting N in eqn (1)
and (2) and hence W in eqn (3) must be multiplied by 100/f, to obtain the total amount of the element X in xg
of the target sample.
In actual practice, the use of the complicated eqn (3) is avoided, by irradiating, simultaneously and
under identical conditions two samples, one standard containing a known amount of the element Wo and the
other the unknown W. If the resulting activities are Ato (known) At (unknown)

Alternatively, a series of known samples containing W1, W2, …… Wn of the element and the linear
plot of W versus At the content of unknown is determined.

Applications
(1) Chromium content of a ruby :
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 The 50Cr in natural chromium becomes by (n , γ) reaction the 27.7 day 51Cr. By irradiating with slow
neutrons under identical conditions a chromium bearing ruby with a series of Al 2O3 + Cr2O3 mixtures of
varying, but known Cr- content, it was found that the rubies have 01. to 0.4 Y Cr.
(2) Manganese content of tea leaves:
The monoisotope 55Mn becomes by (n , γ) reaction 2.58 h 56Mn. Neutron irradiation of a known
weight of dry tea leaves, or better its calcined ash, along with a series of sample of known Mn content reveal
that tea leaves contain around 13% of Mn.
(3) Archaelogical specimens :
Neutron activation analysis has helped in determining the precise composition of some ancient coins
non-destructively and the results have thrown light on their histrorical and geographic origin.
(4) Arsenic in hair : slow arsenic poisoning :
The monoisotope 75As becomes by (n , γ) reaction 26.3 h 76As.
Any arsenic entering the human body is known to accumulate in the roots of hair and move along the
length of the hair as it grows, the normal rate of growth of hair in most people being 0.35 mm per day. The
hair is neutron activated cut into short segments and the distribution of 76As all along the hair length scanned
and the pattern compared with the distribution of As in the hair of a normal person.
(5) Pre – and Post – 1850 paintings:
An interesting and valuable application of neutron activation analysis is that it permits distinguishing
between paintings of pre – 1850 era from forged and fake substitutes of a later date.

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