GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 REVIEWER / CPE4 STEP 1: CALCULATE THE MASS OF EACH ELEMENT AND THE TOTAL

MASS OF THE COMPOUND.

mass Na = 2 x 22.99 g = 45.98 g

PERCENT COMPOSITION & CHEMICAL FORMULAS
mass C = 1 x 12.01 g = 12.01 g
According to the law of definite proportion, also called the law
of constant composition, the elements in a compound are present in mass O = 3 x 16.00 g = 48.00 g
a definite proportion by mass. Therefore, said composition of the
total mass = 105.99 g
elements determines the identity of the compound.
STEP 2: CALCULATE THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS.
The composition of the compound is commonly expressed as
the percent by mass of the elements and is calculated as follows: % Na = 45.98 g/105.99 g x 100% = 43.38 %

%element = mass element/total mass compound x 100% % C = 12.01 g/105.99 g x 100% = 11.33 %

Historically, the formulae of compounds were deduced by % O = 48.00 g/105.99 g x 100% = 45.29 %
chemically determining their percentage composition. Conversely, the
*Check your answers by adding them up ( i.e., the sum is 100 or close
percentage composition of a compound can also be determined from
to 100).
its chemical formula.
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
If the percent composition of a compound can be obtained
Washing soda, Na2CO3, is used in the manufacturing of glass,
using its chemical formula, the formula of the compound can also be
pulp and paper. What is its percentage composition?
derived from its percent composition by mass.
Given: Na2CO3

Find: %Na; %C; %O

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 1

 EMPIRICAL FORMULA
Review of Concept:
The formula that specifies the smallest whole-number ration
of atoms of the elements in a compound is known as the simplest
formula or empirical formula.
In most cases, the EF accurately describes the formula of an
ionic compound but, for covalent compounds, it only gives the ratio
of the elements present in the substance.
STEP 1: ASSUME THAT THE SAMPLE IS 100 G SO THAT THE GIVEN
PERCENTAGE OF EACH ELEMENT IS THE MASS IN GRAMS OF THE
ELEMENT.
Pb = 70.19 g; C = 8.14 g; O = 21.67 g
STEP 2: CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF EACH EACH
ELEMENT USING THE FORMULA:
mole element = mass element / molar mass element
mole Pb = 70.19 g/207.19 g/mol = 0.339 mol

mol C = 8.14 g / 12.01 g/mol = 0.678 mol

MATHEMATICAL APPROACH:
mole O = 21. 67 g/16.00 g/mole = 1.35 mol
Sample Problem 1:
STEP 3: GET THE RATIO OF THE ELEMENTS BY DIVIDING THE
What is the Empirical formula of a compound containing CALCULATED MOLES BY THE SMALLEST QUANTITY.
70.19% lead, 8.14% carbon and 21.67% oxygen?
Pb = 0.339 mol/0.339 mol = 1
Given: % lead = 70.19%
C = 0.678 mol/0.339 mol = 2
% carbon = 8.14%
O = 1.35 mol/ 0.339 mol = 4
% oxygen = 21.67%
The empirical formula is PbC2O4
Find: Empirical formula

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 2

 MOLECULAR FORMULA
REVIEW OF CONCEPT:
The formula that specifies both the relative and the actual
number of atoms in a molecule is the molecular formula.
STEP 2: GET THE VALUE OF N, WHERE N IS THE MULTIPLIER OF THE
SUBSCRIPTS OF THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA:
n = molecular mass/empirical formula
n = 181 amu / 30.03 amu = 6

Sample Problem: STEP 3: DERIVE THE MOLECULAR FORMULA USING,

If the empirical formula of the compound is CH2O and its molecular formula = empirical formula x molecular formula
molecular mass is 181 amu, what is its molecular formula?
= (CH2O)6
Given: Empirical formula = CH2O
= C6H12O6
Molecular mass CH2O = 181 amu
Therefore, the molecular formula is C6H12O6.
Find: Molecular Formula
WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
STEP 1: GET THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA MASS
All chemical reactions involve changing substances. In a chemical
(EMPIRICAL FORMULA: CH2O)
reaction, one or more reactants change into one or more products.
mass C = 1 x 12.01 amu = 12.01 amu However, it is hard to imagine how this process could be represented
systematically.
mass H = 2 x 1.01 amu = 2.02 amu
Take for example the rusting of iron. How can we describe
mass O = 1 x 16.00 amu = 16.00 amu
this occurrence?
total = 30.03 amu
We can say, “Iron reacts with oxygen to produce iron(III) oxide (rust).”

It is quicker to identify the reactants and product by means of a word

equation.

Iron + oxygen → iron (III) oxide

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 3

In symbols: SYMBOLS USED IN EQUATIONS

Symbols used in chemical equations show

 the states of the reactants.

CHEMICAL EQUATION
 the states of the products.
Chemists use a chemical equation—a quick, shorthand notation—to  the reaction conditions.
convey as much information as possible about what happens in a
chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is also described by a balanced equation in which
each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of each
How do we describe what happens in a chemical reaction? element and mass is conserved.

Chemical Equation – describes a chemical change; a representation of

a chemical reaction; the formulas of the reactants (on the left) are
connected by an arrow with the formulas of the products (on the
right).

PARTS OF AN EQUATION

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 4

To write a balanced chemical equation, first write the skeleton
equation. Then use coefficients to balance the equation so that it
obeys the law of conservation of mass.
NOTE: In every balanced equation, each side of the equation has the
same number of atoms of each element.
STOICHIOMETRY
STOICHIOMETRY – is the study of the quantitative relationships or
ratios between two or more substances undergoing a physical change
or chemical change (chemical reaction). The word derives from the
Greek words: stoicheion (meaning "element") and metron (meaning
"to measure").

AVOGADRO'S LAW (AMADEO AVOGADRO) – states that, "equal

volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the
same number of molecules".

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER – 6.022 x 1023

MOLE – refers to Avogadro’s number of representative particles of

any substance.

REPRESENTATIVE PARTICLE REPRESENTATIVE PARTICLE

(IN MOLE)

Atom 6.022x1023

Molecule 6.022x1023

Ion 6.022x1023

Formula Unit 6.022x1023

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 5

EXAMPLE:
How many atoms of sodium are in 0.25 molecules sodium?
Given: 0.25 moles
Required: atoms of sodium
Solution:
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES (KMT) is used to describe
the behavior of gases. More specifically, it is used to explain
macroscopic properties of a gas, such as pressure and temperature, in
terms of its microscopic components, such as atoms.
This theory is based on several assumptions which explain
the measured properties of gases in terms of the behavior of
individual gas molecules. The assumptions of the KMT are:
1. Gases are made up of particles with no defined volume but with a
defined mass. In other words their volume is miniscule compared
to the distance between themselves and other molecules.
M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1]
2. Gas particles undergo no intermolecular attractions or repulsions.
This assumption implies that the particles possess no potential
energy and thus their total energy is simply equal to their kinetic
energies.
3. Gas particles are in continuous, random motion.
4. Collisions between gas particles are completely elastic. In other
words, there is no net loss or gain of kinetic energy when
particles collide.
5. The average kinetic energy is the same for all gases at a given
temperature, regardless of the identity of the gas. Furthermore,
this kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of
the gas.
These assumptions give more general description of more
obvious properties of gases. The KMT can be used to explain or
predict the experimental trends that were used to generate the gas
laws which will be discussed in our next lesson.
THE GAS LAWS
The gas laws we use today to describe the behavior of gases in terms
of their measurable properties are the results of many experiments
and studies conducted by early scientists. Among them were Robert
Boyle, Jacques Alexandre, Cesar Charles, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac,
Amadeo Avogadro, and John Dalton.
6
 When these 17th century scientists began studying the
physical properties of gases, they noticed simple relationships
where:
between some of the measurable properties of gases such as
pressure (P), amount of gas (n) and volume (V) . The gas laws deal  P1 is the initial pressure exerted by the gas
with how gases behave with respect to these variables.  V1 is the initial volume occupied by the gas
BOYLE’S LAW  P2 is the final pressure exerted by the gas
 V2 is the final volume occupied by the gas
In the mid 1600's, Robert Boyle studied the relationship
between the pressure p and the volume V of a confined gas held at a SAMPLE PROBLEM:
constant temperature. He observed that the product of the pressure A fixed amount of a gas occupies a volume of 1L and exerts a
and volume are observed to be nearly constant. The product of pressure of 400 kPa on the walls of its container. What would be the
pressure and volume is exactly a constant for an ideal gas. pressure exerted by the gas if it is completely transferred into a new
p * V = constant container having a volume of 3 liters (assuming the temperature and
quantity of gas remains constant)?
In his investigation, Boyle showed that the volume of air
trapped by a liquid in the closed short limb of a J-shaped tube
decreased in exact proportion to the pressure produced by the liquid
in the long part of the tube.

Boyle’s Law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle-Mariotte

Law) states that the absolute pressure and volume of a given mass of
confined gas are inversely proportional, provided the temperature
remains unchanged within a closed system. This can be stated
mathematically as follows:

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 7

 CHARLES’ LAW SAMPLE PROBLEM

Everybody gets to enjoy the smell and taste of freshly-baked A 600 mL sample of nitrogen is heated from 27 °C to 77 °C at constant
bread especially in the morning. As simple as serving this on our pressure. What is the final volume?
breakfast table, we can actually relate it with one of the variables that
serves as a highlight of Gas Laws which is about temperatures. A
bread is light and fluffy as a result of the action of yeast on sugar. The
yeast converts the sugar to carbon dioxide, which at high
temperatures causes the dough to expand. The end-result is an
enjoyable treat, especially when covered with melted butter. It's
more fun to eat with facts, am I right?

French physicist Jacques Charles (1746 - 1823) studied the

effect of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure. If
a fixed quantity of gas is held at a constant pressure and heated or
cooled, its volume will change. According to Charles’ law, the volume
of a gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature. This is shown by the following equation:

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 8

There are several examples of situations in which Charles' Law is at
play:

If you take a basketball outside on a cold day, the ball shrinks a bit
as the the temperature is decreased. This is also the case with any where:
inflated object and explains why it's a good idea to check your car's
 P1 is the initial pressure
tire pressure when the temperature drops.
 T1 is the initial temperature
If you over-inflate a pool float on a hot day, it can swell in the  P2 is the final pressure
sun and burst.  T2 is the final temperature

GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW SAMPLE PROBLEM:

Inside a pressure cooker the food that you want to cook sits in The pressure of a gas in a cylinder when it is heated to a temperature
water. As the temperature of the liquid water is increased, water of 250K is 1.5 atm. What was the initial temperature of the gas if its
vapor is produced. This vapor cannot escape the pressure cooker – initial pressure was 1 atm.
meaning the volume is not changing. The pressure of the water vapor
keeps rising until the temperature of the water and the water vapor
exceed the normal boiling point of water (100 °C). At this higher
temperature food can be cooked much faster. Tough meat also
comes out much more tender after being cooked in a pressure
cooker.

This simple explanation of how food is cooked faster using a

pressure cooker actually gives us an idea of how Gay-Lussac's law
works. Gay-Lussac's law is also known as the pressure law. French
chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac formulated it around 1808. This law
implies that the ratio of the initial pressure and temperature is equal
to the ratio of the final pressure and temperature for a gas of a fixed
mass kept at a constant volume. This formula can be expressed as
follows:

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 9

 AVOGADRO’S LAW
We have learned about Avogadro's hypothesis: equal volumes
of any gas at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules. It follows that the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles of gas present in the sample.
Avogadro's Law states that the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles (or number of particles) of gas
when the temperature and pressure are held constant. The
mathematical expression of Avogadro's Law is:
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
One mole of helium gas fills up an empty balloon to a volume of 1.5
liters. What would be the volume of the balloon if an additional 2.5
moles of helium gas is added? (Assume that the temperature and the
pressure are kept constant)
M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1]
COMBINED RELATIONSHIP
The combined gas law combines the three gas laws: Boyle's
Law, Charles' Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law. It states that the ratio of the
product of pressure and volume and the absolute temperature of a
gas is equal to a constant. When Avogadro's law is added to the
combined gas law, the ideal gas law results. Unlike the named gas
laws, the combined gas law doesn't have an official discoverer. It is
simply a combination of the other gas laws that works when
everything except temperature, pressure, and volume are held
constant.
COMBINED GAS LAW
The pressure - volume - temperature relationship gives us an
insight on how gases and volatile liquids should be stored. Tanks
containing flammable gases like oxygen and hydrogen should be
stored in cool places to prevent the build-up of pressure inside the
container. We should also avoid placing spray cans which contain
volatile substances near a flame or throwing them into a flame to
prevent them from exploding. Observing these precautionary
measures will help avoid accidents.
10
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The initial volume of the gas is 5L and final volume is 3L Calculate the
final pressure of the gas, given that the initial temperature is 273 K,
the final temperature is 200 K, and initial pressure is 25 kPa.
APPLICATIONS
The combined gas law has practical applications when dealing
with gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures. Like other gas
laws based on ideal behavior, it becomes less accurate at high
temperatures and pressures. The law is used in thermodynamics and
fluid mechanics. For example, it can be used to calculate pressure,
volume, or temperature for the gas in clouds to forecast weather.
M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1]
THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Many chemists had dreamed of having an equation that
describes relation of a gas molecule to its environment such as
pressure or temperature. However, they had encountered many
difficulties because of the fact that there always are other affecting
factors such as intermolecular forces. Despite this fact, chemists came
up with a simple gas equation to study gas behavior while putting a
blind eye to minor factors.
When dealing with gas, a famous equation was used to relate
all of the factors needed in order to solve a gas problem. This
equation is known as the Ideal Gas Equation. As we have always
known, anything ideal does not exist. In this issue, two well-known
assumptions should have been made beforehand:
1. the particles have no forces acting among them, and
2. these particles do not take up any space, meaning their atomic
volume is completely ignored.
To describe it in mathematically, consider the following equation:
11
SAMPLE PROBLEM: mass. They do not have volume. When compared to the total volume
of the gas the volume occupied by the gas is negligible. It does not
A sample of argon gas at STP occupies 56.2 liters. Determine the
condense and does not have triple point.
number of moles of argon and the mass of argon in the sample.
REAL GAS

A real gas is defined as a gas that does not obey gas laws at
all standard pressure and temperature conditions. When the gas
becomes massive and voluminous it deviates from its ideal behavior.
Real gases have velocity, volume and mass. When they are cooled to
their boiling point, they liquefy. When compared to the total volume
of the gas the volume occupied by the gas is not negligible.

IDEAL VS REAL GAS

In gases, the molecules are free to move anywhere in the

container. Two types of gases exist. Real gas and Ideal gas. As the
particle size of an ideal gas is extremely small and the mass is almost
zero and no volume Ideal gas is also considered as a point mass. The
molecules of real gas occupy space though they are small particles
and also has volume.

IDEAL GAS

An ideal gas is defined as a gas that obeys gas laws at all

condition of pressure and temperature. Ideal gases have velocity and

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 12

 GAS STOICHIOMETRY

We cannot count molecules so instead we weigh them.

However, it is extremely inconvenient to weigh gases. So, when
adding gases to a reaction how do we measure the amount of gas?
We use the Ideal Gas Law.

Gas stoichiometry is dealing with gaseous substances where

we have given volume data or we are asked to determine the volume
of some component in a chemical reaction. There are three types of
Gas Stoichiometry problems:

1. Mole-Volume (or Volume-Mole)

2. Mass-volume (or volume-mass)
3. Volume-Volume

MOLE-VOLUME STOICHIOMETRY

You are given the moles of one component and needed to

find the volume of another gaseous component. The temperature
and pressure must be stated in a problem such as this. The following
steps are applied:

1. Convert moles of given to moles of needed using the coefficients of

the balanced chemical equation.

2. Convert moles of needed to volume of needed using the Ideal Gas

Law Equation.

M.T.M.B [GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1] 13