Module 13.1 Theory of Flight

PART 66 CAT B2
MODULE 13 AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

THEORY OF FLIGHT (DCAM 13.1)
MODULE 13.1 : THEORY OF FLIGHT

(PART 66 CATEGORY B2)
WARNING
This document is intended for the purposes of training only. The information contained herein is as accurate as
possible at the time of issue, and is subject to ongoing amendments where necessary according to any
regulatory journals and documents. Where the information contained in this document is in variation with other
official journals and/or documents, the latter must be taken as the overriding document. The contents herein
shall not be reproduced in any form without the expressed permission from the ETD.
For Training Purposes Only

PART 66 CAT B2
13.1 THEORY OF FLIGHT (DCAM Ref. 13.1.1) .............................................................................................................................................. 5

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Primary Group ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Secondary Group .......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Auxiliary Group ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
METHODS OF CONTROL ............................................................................................................................................................ 11
Roll Control - Ailerons ............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Flight Spoilers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Pitch Control - Elevators.......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Stabilators ............................................................................................................................................................................... 21
13.1.1.4.5 Variable Incidence Stabilisers ............................................................................................................................................... 22
13.1.1.4.6 Canards ................................................................................................................................................................................ 23
13.1.1.4.7 Yaw Control - Rudder ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
DUAL PURPOSE CONTROLS ...................................................................................................................................................... 25
Elevons ................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Ruddervators ........................................................................................................................................................................ 27
HIGH LIFT DEVICES ..................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Slats ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Types of Slats ......................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Flaps ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Types of Trailing Edge Flaps ................................................................................................................................................... 39
Use of Flap for Takeoff ............................................................................................................................................................ 41
13.1.1.6.7 Leading Edge Flap .................................................................................................................................................................. 46
13.1.1.6.8 Flaperons .................................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
DRAG INDUCING DEVICES ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Flight Spoilers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Air Brakes................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
Lift Dumper (Ground Spoilers) ................................................................................................................................................ 51
For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Page i
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.7.4 Reverse Thrust of Engines or Pitch of Propellers.................................................................................................................... 53
Effects of Wing Fences .............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Effects of Notched or Saw Tooth Leading Edges ....................................................................................................................... 55
BOUNDARY LAYER .................................................................................................................................................................... 57
BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL ................................................................................................................................................. 59
Vortex Generators ................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Leading Edge Spoilers (Stall Strips) ...................................................................................................................................... 60
TABS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Balance Tabs ........................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Anti-Balance Tab ................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Servo Tabs ............................................................................................................................................................................ 63
Spring Tabs ........................................................................................................................................................................ 65
Trim Tabs ........................................................................................................................................................................... 67
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 69
Trimming Control ................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Effect of Controllable Trim Tabs ............................................................................................................................................ 70
Flutter .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Mass Balance .............................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Aerodynamic Balance .................................................................................................................................................................. 79
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 79
13.1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT ..................................................................................................................................................................... 83
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Types of High Speed Flight ..................................................................................................................................................... 83
Speed of Sound ...................................................................................................................................................................... 85
Subsonic Flight ........................................................................................................................................................................ 85
Supersonic Flight..................................................................................................................................................................... 89
MACH NUMBER ............................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Terms ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
BUFFET ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
SHOCK WAVES ............................................................................................................................................................................ 95
Incipient Shock Wave .............................................................................................................................................................. 96
Oblique Shock Wave ............................................................................................................................................................... 98

Page ii
PART 66 CAT B2
: Area Rule .................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
HEAT BARRIER .......................................................................................................................................................................... 103
RAISING THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER................................................................................................................................. 106
Decreasing Thickness/Chord Ratio ....................................................................................................................................... 107
Sweep Back .......................................................................................................................................................................... 109
High Speed Aircraft Engine Intakes....................................................................................................................................... 114
13.1.3 ROTARY WING AERODYNAMICS ............................................................................................................................................... 115
Rotary-wing Aircraft ..................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Aerodynamic Forces .................................................................................................................................................................... 115
Hovering Flight ............................................................................................................................................................................. 115
Vertical Flight ............................................................................................................................................................................... 117
Forward Flight .............................................................................................................................................................................. 118
Sideward Flight ............................................................................................................................................................................ 119
Rearward Flight ........................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Auxiliary Rotor ............................................................................................................................................................................. 121
Ground Effect............................................................................................................................................................................... 123
Autorotation ............................................................................................................................................................................... 124
Principles of Rotary--wing Flight Control .................................................................................................................................... 125
Special Effects of the Rotor ....................................................................................................................................................... 126
Flight Control of Rotary--wing Aircraft ........................................................................................................................................ 130

Page iii
PART 66 CAT B2
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Page iv
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1 THEORY OF FLIGHT (DCAM Ref. 13.1.1)
13.1.1 INTRODUCTION
In (Theory of Flight) it is seen that an aircraft is designed to fly with a certain amount of stability, so that if it is disturbed from its trimmed position it will,
without the intervention of the pilot (human or automatic), return from its own accord to its original state. If, however, the pilot wishes to manoeuvre the
aircraft he will have to overcome the stabilising forces and the inertia of the aircraft before it will move in the direction and at the rate which he requires.
Movement of the aircraft will occur around any one of the three axes of the aircraft, namely, the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes, and the pilot will be
able to control the aircraft in pitch, roll and yaw respectively.
In a conventional subsonic aircraft the pilot exercises control by using the Primary Control Surfaces which are shown in Figure 1
a. The elevators which are located at the trailing edges of the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser and give control pitch.
b. The ailerons which are located at the trailing edges of the mainplanes near the wing tips and give control in roll.
c. The rudder which are located at the trailing edge of the edge of the fin or vertical stabiliser and gives control in yaw.
13.1.1.2 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
The flight control surfaces are hinged or movable airfoils designed to change the attitude of the aircraft during flight. These surfaces may be divided into
three groups, usually referred to as the primary group, secondary group and auxiliary group.

Page 5
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 1: Primary Control Surfaces

Page 6
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.2.1 Primary Group

Refer Figure 2
The primary group includes the ailerons, elevators, and rubber. These surfaces are used for moving the aircraft about its three axis.
Large aircraft normally employs two types of ailerons - all speed ailerons which are used throughout the flight and low speed ailerons which are only used
at low speed. These ailerons are normally assisted by roll spoilers (flight spoilers) which are used for large roll movement. The tail is fitted with the rudder
for the yaw axis and a trimmable horizontal stabilizer for the pitch axis.
Figure 2: Primary Control Surfaces

Page 7
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.2.2 Secondary Group

Refer Figure 3
Included in the secondary group are controllable tabs (fitted to manually-controlled aircraft). Tabs are small airfoils recessed into the trailing edges of the
primary control surfaces.
Figure 3: Tabs

Page 8
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.2.3 Auxiliary Group

Refer Figure 4
Included in the auxiliary group of flight control surfaces are the wing flaps, spoilers, speed brakes and slats. Sometimes this group is being classified under
secondary group.
Wing flaps are used to give the aircraft extra lift and are hinged to either the trailing edge or the leading edge of the wing. Wing flaps on older type aircraft
were hinged to the trailing edge of the wing inboard of the ailerons. Some of the later type aircraft have flaps hinged to both the trailing edge and the
leading edge of the wings. Their purpose is to reduce the landing speed, thereby shortening the length of the landing run and to permit landing in small or
obstructed areas. In addition, the wing flaps are used during take-off to shorten the take-off run.
Spoilers or speed brakes are for the purpose of decreasing wing lift; however, their specific design, functions and use vary with different aircraft. On some
aircraft the spoilers are long narrow surfaces hinged at their leading edge to the upper surface of the wings. In the retracted position, the spoiler is flush
with the wing skin. In the raised position, wing lift is greatly reduced by destroying the smooth flow of air over the wing surface.
Slats are movable control surfaces attached to the leading edges of the wings. When the slat is closed, it forms the leading edge of the wing. When in the
open position (extended forward), a slot is created between the slat and the wing leading edge. At low airspeeds this increases the lift and improves
handling characteristics, allowing the aircraft to be controlled at airspeeds below the otherwise normal landing speed.

Page 9
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 4: Auxiliary Control Surfaces

Page 10
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The principle of operation of all primary flying controls is the same in each case and is shown diagrammatically:
Refer Figure 5
In (a), the control surface is in its neutral (or 'streamed') position, its chord line being a continuation of the aerofoils' chord line. The airflow is the same on
each side of the aerofoil and control surface and the resultant aerodynamic force is nil.
In (b), the surface is shown deflected from its neutral position. The effective camber of the aerofoil is increased and an aerodynamic force is produced by
the surface. The force rotates the aircraft around the relevant axis.
In (c), the opposite deflection to (b) has been made and the force produced acts in the opposite direction to the previous one.
13.1.1.4 METHODS OF CONTROL

In a manually controlled aircraft, the forces required to move the control surfaces are provided by a pilot, either human or automatic, while in power
operated or power assisted systems the motivating forces are produced either wholly or partly from a source of power, usually a hydraulic system. Both
manual and powered controls are covered in this section but for reasons of simplicity, the sub-section on powered controls is dealt with at a later stage than
that on manual controls.

Page 11
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 5 Flying Control Surfaces (Principle of Operation)

Page 12
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.1 Roll Control - Ailerons

Refer Figure 6
These control surfaces are located at the trailing edges of the main planes usually towards the wing tips, giving maximum leverage around the longitudinal
axis. There exist two methods by which they are operated.
i) By moving the control-column in the cockpit laterally.

ii) By rotating a hand wheel or 'spectacles' mounted on top of the control column.
Moving the control column to the left, or rotating the spectacles anti-clockwise will raise the left aileron and lower the right aileron. A reverse selection will
lower the left aileron and raise the right aileron.
NOTE: The up going aileron - always moves up to meet the Control Column or Spectacles. Refer Figure 6
Figure 6: The Ailerons

Page 13
PART 66 CAT B2
Ailerons are linked together by control cables so that when aileron is down, the opposite aileron is up. The function of the lowered aileron is to increase the
lift by increasing the wing camber. At the same time, the down aileron also creates some additional drag since it is in the area of high pressure below the
wing. The up aileron, on the opposite end of the wing, decreases lift on that end of the wing. The increased lift on the wing whose aileron is down, raises
this wing. This causes the aircraft to roll about its longitudinal axis. Refer Figure 7
Figure 7: Lateral Control

Page 14
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.2 Flight Spoilers

Refer Figure 8
These are hydraulically operated panels located spanwise usually on the top airfoil surface, so that when operated they take up a position at right angles to
the airflow. The spoilers may be differentially or symmetrically operated. The differentially operated spoilers are triggered by aileron selection. The up
going aileron causes the spoiler on that side to be raised an amount depending upon the degree of aileron deflection. The down going aileron does not
influence the spoiler on that side.
This action results in a reduction of lift on the down going wing thus increasing the effect of the aileron.

Page 15
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 8: Flight and Ground Spoilers

Page 16
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.3 Pitch Control - Elevators

Refer Figure 9, 10
These control surfaces, as previously mentioned, control the aircraft in pitch by producing either an upwards or downwards force when deflected
from their neutral positions.
As the elevators produce a rotation of the aircraft around the lateral axis, they are invariably placed as far as practicable from that axis, at the trailing edges
of the tailplane so that the forces they produce will have as great a leverage as possible.
The elevators are connected to a control column in the cockpit as shown by a control system in such a manner that a rearward movement of the column
will cause the trailing edges of the elevator to move upwards. In flight, this would produce a downwards force on the tailplane which would rotate the
aircraft around the lateral axis; and the nose of the aircraft would rise. Similarly if the control column is pushed forward, the trailing edges of the elevator
would move down, an upwards force would be generated on the tailplane and the nose of the aircraft would drop.
This means that the pilot has instinctive control of the aircraft in pitch, in that the direction in which he moves the control column is followed by a
sympathetic movement of the aircraft. This fulfils the design requirement quoted in which ensures that the pilot need not have to consciously think of which
way he should move the control column in order to produce a certain response by the aircraft. The advantages of this arrangement in an emergency need
no elaboration.
Bungee This is an artificial feel unit, incorporating springs to prevent the pilot from overstressing the aircraft. Refer Figure11

Page 17
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 9: Elevator Control System

Page 18
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 10: Longitudinal Control

Page 19
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 11: Elevator Bungee

Page 20
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.4 Stabilators
Refer Figure 12
A special type of elevator that combines the functions of the elevator and the horizontal stabiliser is called a stabilator. A stabilator is an all-moving tail that
works by changing the angle of attack of the control surface and thereby changing the amount of downward lift that is generated by the tail.
There will be no fixed horizontal stabiliser when this type of control airfoil is installed on an airplane. The stabilator is an airfoil that responds to the
normal elevator control and serves as an elevator as well as a stabiliser.
Figure 12: Stabilator

Page 21
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.5 Variable Incidence Stabilisers

Refer Figure 13
To increase the effectiveness of the controls in the pitching plane, a variable incidence or all moving tailplane is fitted. Both types of tailplane alter the
pressure distribution over the main airfoil surface and will ensure longitudinal trim can be maintained. The movement of the tailplane to give the required
alteration to the attitude of the aircraft will be considerably less than that required using trailing edge controls.
MOUNTED ON PIVOT
Figure 13: Variable Incidence Stabilizers

Page 22
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.6 Canards
Refer Figure 14
A canard is a horizontal stabilizing surface located ahead of the main wing that makes the airplane inherently stall-proof. The centre of gravity is located
ahead of the main wing, and the angle incidence of the canard is greater than that of the main wing, so it will stall first. See figure 14 A. when the canard
stalls, the nose drops and the smooth airflow over the canard is restored, and its lift is increased to bring the airplane back to straight and level flight.
Some canard have moveable surface on their trailing edge for pitch control and other pivot the entire surface for control.
Figure 14: Canard

Page 23
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.4.7 Yaw Control - Rudder

Refer Figure 15
This control surface is conventional in operation and is located at the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer or fin. Movement is obtained from a
pivoted rudder bar operated by the pilot’s feet. If the left pedal is moved forward, the rudder moves to the left and in flight the rear of the
aircraft moves to the right. This of course means that the aircraft turns to the left.
Figure 15: Rudder Control System

Page 24
PART 66 CAT B2
When a turn is executed using ailerons and rudder, the aircraft should remain in the turn without altering height or skidding into or out of the turn. The
forces acting on the aircraft must balance as shown, otherwise the turn will not be correctly executed.
Other points of interest with regard to an aircraft in a turn are:
a) Lift (vertical to the wings) must increase.
b) As lift must increase, the angle of attack or speed, or both, must also increase.
c) On some light aircraft, the increase in speed of the wing on the outride of the turn will produce enough lift to bank the aircraft correctly without need
to apply a large aileron selection.
d) The aircraft will probably tend to lose height in a turn unless corrected by application of elevator.
13.1.1.5 DUAL PURPOSE CONTROLS
13.1.1.5.1 Elevons
Refer Figure 16
Design of some aircraft where impossible to mount conventional aileron, elevator and rudder control surfaces in their normal position; example delta wing
aircraft. It has no separate tailplane, and the elevators have to be mounted on the wing trailing edges. This presents a space problem because the wings
already house the ailerons and flaps. The solution in this case is to use one set of control surfaces to perform the function both of elevators and ailerons.
The surfaces are moved in the same direction to serve as elevators and in opposite directions to act as ailerons. These control surfaces are known
as elevons.

Page 25
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 16: Elevons

Page 26
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.5.2 Ruddervators
Refer Figure 17
Ruddervators are used on aircraft with a V-tail and the surfaces serve both as rudders and as elevators. A V-tail has a slight drag reduction due to the
reduction of interference drag, since there is one less intersection than on a conventional tail.
With a ruddervator, when a pilot wants to increase the angle of attack, the pilot pulls back the control wheel and both ruddervators move upward and
inwards. When the wheel is pushed forward, the ruddervators move downward and outward.
If a pilot wants to turn an airplane with ruddervators and the right rudder is applied, the right ruddervator moves downward and outward while the left
ruddervator moves upward and inward. These movements are in response to the movement of the rudder pedals and provide the forces necessary to
rotate the aircraft about vertical axis.

Page 27
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 17: Ruddervators

Page 28
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Refer Figure 18
These devices may be used independently, or in conjunction with each other. They are designed to modify an airfoil section so that, under set conditions,
they will increase the lift characteristics, the drag characteristics, the stalling angle or possibly, a combination of these factors.

Page 29
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 18: High Lift Devices

Page 30
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.1 Slats
Refer Figure 19
A slat is a movable auxiliary airfoil attached to the leading edge of the wing, which, when closed, falls within the original contour of the wing and which,
when opened forms a slot. The slat due to its large camber, at high angles of attack, generates a high lift coefficient, which modifies the low pressure
envelopes over the whole airfoil by reducing the sharply peaked curve to one with a more gradual pressure gradient.
This flatter and more even distribution of pressure, in turn, prevents the boundary layer from separating quite so quickly as would have been the case had it
have negotiated the steep pressure gradient which formerly existed behind the previous suction peak. The slot too, because of its venturi effect, assists in
boundary layer control because the airflow exchanges its pressure energy for kinetic energy in its passage through the slot. This increase in energy,
when added to the kinetic energy already possessed by the boundary layer, will allow the boundary layer to penetrate still further the adverse pressure
gradient.

Page 31
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 19: Effect of a Slot on Wing Performance

Page 32
PART 66 CAT B2
0 0
A slat will increase the maximum lift coefficient of an airfoil by as much as 60 per cent. The stalling angle may be increased from 15 to 22 or more. This
is because the breakdown of the steady streamline airflow which suddenly becomes turbulent during 'stall' is being kept smooth, following the contour of
the surface of the airfoil. Lift is therefore maintained at a much greater angle. It is, in effect a form of boundary layer control. Refer Figure 20. The extra lift
enables the aircraft to obtain a lower landing or stalling speed.
Figure 20: Effect of a Slot on Stalling Speed

Page 33
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.2 Types of Slats
1. Fixed Slat (Refer Figure 21) - This is a highly cambered airfoil, suitably fixed to the leading edge of each mainplane and adjusted to leave a
space, known as a Slot, between it and the wing.
Figure 21: Fixed Slat

Page 34
PART 66 CAT B2
2. Automatic Slat Refer Figure 22 - With this type, the slat is hinged and sometimes spring-loaded on its supporting arms, so that it can either
move to its operational position or to its closed position, flush with the leading edge, where it gives least Drag. The low pressure peak near the
leading edge, generated at high angles of attack and the Lift produced by the slat itself, lifts the slat upwards and forward, thus creating the slot between
the two surfaces.
Figure 22: Automatic Slat

Page 35
PART 66 CAT B2
3. Build-In Slots (Slotted Wing) Refer Figure 23 - These are merely a variation in the above in as much that suitably shaped slots are built into the
wing, aft of the leading-edge; thus acting as the slat. The effect is as for the normal type.
Figure 23: Built-In-Slots (Slotted Wing)

Page 36
PART 66 CAT B2
4. Movable Slats Refer Figure 24 - This type of slat is moved backwards and forwards by a control mechanism, and so can be closed for high
speed flight and opened for low speeds.
Figure 24: Movable Slat

Page 37
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.3 Flaps
A wing flap is a hinged, pivoted or sliding airfoil, usually mounted at the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to increase lift, drag or both when deflected
0
and is used principally for landing although some large aircraft use partial flap deflection for take off. When the flaps are placed at 30 , there is a
substantial increase in lift and very little increase in drag.
Flaps provide the following advantages:-
a. The higher the lift coefficient obtained from the use of flaps permits a lower landing speed.
b. When air brakes are used, flaps permit a shorter run on the ground in stopping the aircraft.
c. The use of flaps makes it possible to have a steeper angle without increasing the speed, thus permitting the aircraft to clear obstacles in landing.

Page 38
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.4 Types of Trailing Edge Flaps

Refer Figure 25
Refer Figure 26
1. Plain Flap - This device is hinged to the trailing edge of the wing and is the simplest method of changing the camber of an airfoil. In the retracted
position, the flap streamlines and adds to the area of the wing surface. Refer Figure 25(A)
2. Split Flap - This is a flat surface hinged to, or set into, the lower side of the trailing edge of the wing. The shape of the upper surface of the wing is
unchanged when the split is lowered. This type of device creates more drag than the plain flap because of its turbulent wake. Refer Figure 25(B)
3. Slotted Flap - This type of device moves aft and down when extended. A slot is formed between the wing and flap permitting a smooth flow of air
between the two components. Refer Figure 25(C)
4. Fowler Flap - This mechanism moves backward on rollers in a track and then is rotated downward to provide high lift capability. When down, this
device increases lift and wing area. Refer Figure 26
(A
(B
(C
Figure 25 :( A) Plain Flap, (B) Slotted Flap, (C) Split Flap

Page 39
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 26: The Fowler Flap & Fowler Flap (Double Slotted)

Page 40
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.5 Use of Flap for Takeoff
If the recommended flap angle is used at takeoff, the increased lift coefficient, available when the flaps are lowered, will shorten the takeoff run. This is
because the angle chosen will give the best Lift/Drag Ratio than can be obtained with the flaps in any position other than fully up. If the amount of flap, at
takeoff, be increased, although the Lift is increased, the high Drag slows the rate of acceleration so that the takeoff run, whilst it is perhaps shorter than
with no flap, is not the shortest possible. Refer Figure 27

Page 41
PART 66 CAT B2
Section angle of attack Section drag coefficient
Figure 27: Effects of Flap Deflection

Page 42
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 28 shows that the maximum lift coefficient can be increased with the usage of flap and leading edge slot instead of using flap only.
Figure 28: Effect of Adding Leading Edge Slot

Page 43
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 29 shows the effect of using flap, slat, suction and blowing upon the lift coefficient as the angle of attack increases.
Figure 29: Generalised Effect of Flap, Slat, Suction and Blowing Upon Lift of Basic Win

Page 44
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 30 shows the percentage different in maximum lift coefficient for various types of slot and flap devices.
Figure 30: Effects of Various Slot and Flap Devices

Page 45
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.6.7 Leading Edge Flap

Refer Figure 31
Leading edge flaps serve the same function as trailing edge flaps, that is, to increase lift and drag. Two main forms of this flap exist and these are shown
namely the Droop Leading Edge and the true Leading Edge Flap. Both systems operate by increasing the effective camber of the airfoil and are normally
used in conjunction with trailing edge flaps. Automatic selection of droop leading edge or leading edge flaps is usual if trailing edge flaps are selected
beyond certain degree.
Figure 31: Types of Leading Edge Flaps

Page 46
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.7 DRAG INDUCING DEVICES
Due in part to improved airfoil and engine design, aircraft can now fly at high altitudes and faster speeds than in the past. Therefore it became necessary to
devise methods whereby aircraft could descend rapidly without overstressing the aircraft and once landed the braking could be reduced to a minimum.
To achieve these requirements the following devices are fitted to aircraft:-

1. Flight Spoilers
2. Air Brakes or Speed Brakes
3. Lift Dumper or Ground Spoilers
4. Reverse Thrust or Pitch of Engines or Propellers
13.1.1.7.1 Flight Spoilers

Refer Figure 32
These are hydraulically operated panels located spanwise usually on the top airfoil surface, so that when operated they take up a position at right angles to
the airflow. The spoilers may be differentially or symmetrically operated. The differentially operated spoilers are triggered by aileron selection. The up
going aileron causes the spoiler on that side to be raised an amount depending upon the degree of aileron deflection. The down going aileron does not
influence the spoiler on that side.
This action results in a reduction of lift on the down going wing thus increasing the effect of the aileron.

Page 47
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 32: Flight and Ground Spoilers

Page 48
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.7.2 Air Brakes

Refer Figure 33
There are two main types, one fitted on the wings and these are often called spoilers. They reduce lift and slow the aircraft down.
Symmetrical operation of the spoilers is by a separate lever which enables the pilot to select the angle of operation. The angle is limited by aircraft forward
speed. Operation at excess speeds is prevented by means of a blow back safety system which enables the dynamic pressure created by the extended
spoiler to overcome the hydraulic jack and close the spoiler.
The other type is mounted on the fuselage and is operated by a lever labelled either DIVE BRAKE, SPEED BRAKE OR AIR BRAKE. This later type
upsets the streamlining thus causing high drag.

Page 49
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 33: Air Brakes

Page 50
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.7.3 Lift Dumper (Ground Spoilers)

Refer Figure 32 & 34
These are hydraulically operated panels on the top airfoil surface which can be part of the Spoilers or separate. They are used only when the aircraft
has landed and power to the engines has been reduced. They are selected by a Speed Brake lever with micro switches on the undercarriage and throttles
to prevent extension until landing has been achieved. Once the micro switches have been made, the panels can extend, destroying all lift and thus
transferring the aircraft's weight on to the wheels, so that maximum braking can be achieved.
The system can be operated manually or automatically. In the automatic mode it is linked with the flight/ground sensor (switch) and the reverse thrust
lever. The automatic mode is referred to as the auto speed brake system.

Page 51
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 34: Speed Brake Control

Page 52
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.7.4 Reverse Thrust of Engines or Pitch of Propellers

Refer Figure 35
This is a means of transferring the power output of the engines to cause a reduction in forward velocity. Micro switches on the undercarriage and throttle
levers prevent a selection of the system until a landing has been achieved. In the previous sections, the effect of lift and drag were considered in
connection with an airfoil. In this section, it is intended to discuss their effect upon an aircraft, together with two further forces; thrust and weight.

Page 53
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 35: Thrust- Reverser

Page 54
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.8 Effects of Wing Fences

Refer Figure 36
Wing fences are vanes running chordwise across the top surface of the wing. They are designed to check any spanwise flow of air along the
wing, for this in turn is likely to cause a breakaway of the flow near the wing tips and so lead to 'tip stalling'.
13.1.1.9 Effects of Notched or Saw Tooth Leading Edges

Refer Figure 36
On delta shaped or other heavily swept wings, there is a tendency of the tip vortex to move towards the apex of the wing, and so cause a breakaway
of the flow over the rear part of the centre portion of the wing. This breakaway means that the centre of pressure moves forward, resulting in a rather
violent pitch up of the nose. This pitch up has been a marked feature of certain types of aircraft when flying in the transonic range. This effect may be
reduced by using a notch or saw tooth leading edge.

Page 55
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 36: Wing Features on High Speed Aircraft

Page 56
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.10 BOUNDARY LAYER

Refer Figure 36A
It can be easily understood that a rough surface will cause more friction with the air flowing over it than will a smooth surface.
Although it has been mentioned that air flows over the skin of the aircraft, investigation has shown that air never flows over a surface. However smooth the
surface may be, the particles of air which are actually in contact with the surface remain stationary relative to the surface. The next layer of air slides over
the stationary layer at a small velocity, the next layer slides over that one at a slightly higher velocity and so on, until eventually the air is moving to the full
velocity at the outside.
This region in which the velocity changes from zero at the surface of the body to the full velocity at the outside is called the Boundary Layer. Its
thickness maybe only of the order of one-hundredth of an inch or so.

Page 57
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 36A: Boundary Layer Flow

Page 58
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.10 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
13.1.1.10.1 Vortex Generators

Refer Figure 37
These are small plates or wedges projecting an inch or so from the top surface of the wing i.e. three or four times the thickness of the boundary
layer. The purpose is to put new life into a sluggish boundary layer. They do this by shedding small lively vortices which act as scavengers, making the
boundary layer turbulent and causing it to mix with an acquire extra energy from the surrounding faster air, thus helping it to go farther along the surface
before being slowed up and separating from the surface.
Figure 37: Vortex Generators

Page 59
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.10.2 Leading Edge Spoilers (Stall Strips)

Refer Figure 37A
A design feature on some aircraft consists of the fitting of "Spoilers" to the leading-edges of the inboard sections of the wing. These have the effect of
inducing the stall to occur over the inboard section before the tip, thus removing the possibility of a suddenly dropped wing tip.
13.1.1.11 TABS
Refer Figure 3
The tab is a small flap usually built into the trailing edge of a control surface. When deflected, the tab alters the pressure distribution on the control surface
and in the vicinity of the tab. Since it is located some distance from the hinge line, it is very effective for changing the control surface hinge moments. The
tab is used for a number of purposes. It is used as a trim tab, balance tab, servo tab, spring tab.
Figure 37A: Stall strips (Leading Edge Spoilers)

Page 60
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.11.1 Balance Tabs

Refer Figure 38
The purpose of Balance tabs is to assist the Pilot to move the control surface.
The tab is hinged to the main control surface trailing edge. It is usually connected by an adjustable rod to a fixed part of the main aerofoil, and so arranged
that it tends to maintain the tab at the same relative angle to the main aerofoil, when the control surface is moved.
Figure 38: Balance Tab (camber of control surface altered, assisting pilot to move control surface.)

Page 61
PART 66 CAT B2
The tab moves relative to and in an opposite direction to the main control surface.
On occasion the linkage may be adjusted by the pilot through the trim controls when the tabs become of dual purpose - both trim and balance. Refer
Figure 39
Figure 39: Combined Balance and Trim Tab

Page 62
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.11.2 Anti-Balance Tab
Occasionally on all moving tailplanes, an anti-balance tab is used to reduce the amount of aerodynamic balance and make the control heavier to move.
The tab moves in the same direction as the tailplane resisting the movement.
13.1.1.11.3 Servo Tabs

Refer Figure 40
The Servo tab like all other tabs is positioned at the trailing edge of the control surface and it acts as a form of power control, thus reducing the effort
required by the pilot. The tab and not the Control surface is connected directly to the Pilots Control Wheel and pedals.
It will be seen that the control rod in the main aerofoil operates a swinging link in the control surface. A connecting rod from the swinging link operates the
Tab.
Movement of the pilots control moves the Tab up or down depending on pilot selection. When the tab has been moved up as shown, an aerodynamic force
is created on the tab, which will move the control surface down until the Aerodynamic loads on the Control Surface balance those on the tab. A movement
of the Tab down will of course cause the Control surface to move up.

Page 63
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 40: Servo Tab

Page 64
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.11.4 Spring Tabs

Refer Figure 41
At high speeds the Control surfaces become increasingly difficult to move due to aerodynamic loads on the surface. The Spring Tab helps to overcome
this problem.
It will be seen that the pilots controls are connected to a form of spring box in such a manner that movement of the pilots control in either direction will tend
to compress one of the Springs. The shaft protruding from the spring box is connected to the Tab. Therefore if a spring is compressed the tab will move in
a direction which will by means of the aerodynamic loads on the tab help the pilot to move the control surface.
The Springs will only be compressed if the Control surface is held. In flight - aerodynamic loads on the control surface resist movement and therefore the
Tab is moved. It will be appreciated that the higher the speed of the Aircraft the greater will be the Aerodynamic loads and therefore the greater the
compression of the spring and tab movement. This means that the pilot will have increasing help with increased speed.

Page 65
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 41: Spring Tab

Page 66
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.11.5 Trim Tabs

Refer Figure 42
This tab is used for the correction of flying faults.

The necessity to trim an aircraft can be due to movement of the C of G, side winds or possible unequal usage of fuel in the wing tanks and in some cases
loss of an engine power.
Trimming means the reduction to zero of the mean control forces needed to maintain straight flight at a given speed, without the aid of the automatic pilot.
Controllable in flight trim tabs, may be operated Electrically or Mechanically. In the case of Mechanical operation chains, cables and push pull rods are
used to connect a hand control in the cockpit to an actuating jack at the tab position. The electrically operated trim tab utilises an electrical actuator.

Page 67
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 42: Aileron Trim

Page 68
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.12 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The aerodynamic force acting on a tab produces a turning moment sufficient to keep the control surface in such a position that the pilot does not need to
exert any force on the appropriate control in the cockpit.
13.1.1.12.1 Trimming Control
The controls of these are usually in the form of a wheel or crank lever in the cockpit, and they are normally connected to elevators and often to the rudder
and the ailerons. The principle of trim control operations is as follows.
Consider a situation, after the elevators have been raised to hold the aircraft in a new attitude, the trim tab must be adjusted downward so that the
elevators are held in the new attitude without the continued application of a force by the pilot.
The correct sequence of actions is to select the required aircraft attitude by the use of primary flying controls, and then to adjust the appropriate trimmer
until no pressure is needed on the control column or rudder pedals.

Page 69
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.12.2 Effect of Controllable Trim Tabs
Elevators
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FLYING FAULT TRIM EFFECT TAB CONTROL AIRCRAFT
SELECTIONS SURFACE
Nose down Backward Down Up Nose up
Nose up Forward Up Down Nose down
Ailerons
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FLYING SELECTION TAB TAB PORT STBD AIRCRAFT
FAULT (PORT) (STBD) CONTROL CONTROL
SURFACE SURFACE
Left Wing To Stbd Up Down Down Up Left Wing Up
Low
Right Wing To Port Down Up Up Down Right Wing
Low Up
Rudder
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
FLYING FAULT SELECTIONS TAB CONTROL AIRCRAFT
SURFACE
Yaw to Stbd To Port Stbd Port Yaw to Port
Yaw to Port To Stbd Port Stbd Yaw to Stbd

Page 70
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.13 Flutter
Refer Figure 43
It has already been explained that for an aircraft to remain in steady flight, the force acting upon it must be in a state of balance. A similar requirement
applies to the flying controls, in that without some form of balance, they will tend to oscillate about their pivot points. When the amplitude of these
oscillations continues to get larger, this is then known as flutter.
For example, it can be seen from Figure 43 that the pivot point of the control surface is well forward of its centre of gravity, therefore a condition of static
unbalance exists.

Page 71
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 43: Development of Flutter

Page 72
PART 66 CAT B2
The consequence of this during flight can be seen by taking as an example, the effect that this unbalance has with respect to the ailerons. An aircraft wing
cannot be made completely rigid and during flight it will flex as a result of changing air loads as shown in Figure 44 .
If a wing drops in flight, the tendency of the aileron will be to move up due to inertia acting through the C of G. The further the C of G is behind the hinge
line the greater will be this tendency to move up. If the aileron moves up it will impose a down load on the wing which will flex until the stiffness of the
structure halts the motion.
Elasticity of the wing will now cause it to spring upwards with the resulting opposite effect on the aileron which will give an upwards load to the wing. These
alternating loads will progressively increase and lead to failure Similar effects can be caused by the Elevator and Rudder. Flutter
may be reduced by stiffening the structure and by mass balancing the control surface.

Page 73
PART 66 CAT B2
1 2
3 4
Figure 44: Flutter

Page 74
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.14 Mass Balance

Refer Figure 45
The effect of this upward and downward movement of the outboard wing sections will cause the ailerons to float up and down, i.e. as the wing flexes
upwards, the aileron tends to lag behind. This out of balance condition can cause the control surface to flutter during flight and create difficulties for the
pilot in controlling the aircraft.
To reduce this effect, it is normal in light aircraft to add weights inside or along the leading edge of the particular control surface to bring its centre of gravity
forward of the hinge line and thereby achieve a state of balance to the control itself.
(Figure 45)

Page 75
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 45: Mass Balance/ Balance Weight

Page 76
PART 66 CAT B2
Another method is to mount a weight further ahead of the leading edge as shown in Figure 46. The length of the resulting arm so produced, means that
the balance weight can be smaller and lighter, yet produces the same effect. Either method will assist in reducing the moments of inertia, lessen the
stresses on the aircraft structure, and make control easier for the pilot.

Page 77
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 46: Balance Weight

Page 78
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.1.15 Aerodynamic Balance
13.1.1.15.1 Introduction
On small aircraft the stick forces, that is, the forces which the pilot applies to the controls in the cockpit are small enough to permit him to control the aircraft
without having to exert himself excessively with the risk of becoming fatigued during a long flight. On medium sized or large aircraft, the stick forces
produced by the large control surfaces could be so great that pilot fatigue would soon occur.
To assist the pilot, aircraft designers have incorporated aerodynamic balance. This consists of using the energy in the air moving over the control surface
to help the pilot move the surface. There are various ways of achieving this and they are:
a) Inset Hinges
b) Horn Balance
c) Westland Irving
a) Inset Hinges
Refer Figure 47
One of the commonest methods of obtaining aerodynamic assistance is by insetting the hinge of the control surface. The diagram below illustrates a
control surface with an Inset Hinge.
It will be seen that there is a large area of the surface forward of the hinge line so that when the surface is deflected downwards from neutral, the area
forward of the hinge line meets the airflow in such a manner that the forces produced on it by the airflow assist the pilot in moving the control.

Page 79
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 47: Insert Hinges

Page 80
PART 66 CAT B2
b) Horn Balance
Refer Figure 48
In this case, instead of the area forward of the hinge line being spread evenly over the length of the control surface, a projection or horn at one or both ends
of the surface extends forward of the hinge line. It is often utilised even where the control surface has inset hinges.
The horn is sometimes shielded and its introduction into the airflow is gradual, giving a graduated balancing effect.
Figure 48: Horn Tip

Page 81
PART 66 CAT B2
c) Westland Irving Type Control

Refer Figure 49
The Westland Irving control surface has a rubberised fabric seal between the control surface L/E and the main aerofoil This method of construction gives a
more effective area forward of the hinge line, and thus cuts out pressure losses through the shroud gap. To provide adjustment for aerodynamic balance,
adjustable louvers may also be fitted forward of the hinge line in the beak of the control surface to which the seal is attached. This permits pressure forward
of the hinge to bleed away, and therefore reducing the effective balancing force.
Figure 49: Balance Panels (Westland Irving)

Page 82
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2 HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
13.1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The theory of low speed aerodynamics is based largely on the assumption that air is incompressible; for at low speed there is very little change in the
density of the air, as it flows past the aircraft. However, at speeds at or near that of sound, this assumption cannot be maintained. The airflow behaves
differently at such speeds.
(Refer Figure 50 )
At low subsonic speeds a certain type of flow pattern is established, at high subsonic (below speed of sound) and at supersonic speeds (above the speed
of sound), an entirely different flow pattern exists. In pure subsonic and supersonic flight, the airflow around a wing can be controlled and its behaviour
predicted with considerable accuracy. However in transonic flight (speed in between subsonic and supersonic) where a mixture of subsonic and
supersonic flow exists, marked problems of control and stability arise and these necessitate special design features to reduce the effects of
'compressibility'.
13.1.2.1.1 Types of High Speed Flight
a. Subsonic Flow. The term Subsonic Flow is used when the free-stream Mach number is such that the Local Mach numbers are less than Mach 1 at
all points. (Mach numbers below 0.75).
b. Transonic Flow. In transonic flow, the free-stream Mach number is high enough to produce some local Mach numbers greater than Mach 1. (Mach
numbers from 0.75 to 1.2).
c. Supersonic Flow. In supersonic flow, the free-stream Mach number is such that at all points, the local Mach numbers are greater than Mach 1.0, and
free stream flow is 1.0M or more. (Mach numbers from 1.2 to 5.0).
d. Hypersonic Flow. In Hypersonic flow, the free-stream speed is greater than Mach 5.0 (eg, Rockets). (Mach numbers above 5.0).

Page 83
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 50: Comparison Of Compressible And Incompressible Airflow

Page 84
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.1.2 Speed of Sound

When a body moves through the air at speeds well below that at which sound travels in air a 'message' is sent ahead of the body to say that it is coming
and the air molecules ahead of the object alter their path to maintain uniform flow.
The 'message' is really due to wave motion in the air, set up by the areas of increased and decreased pressures around a body. Refer Figure 53
These pressures are communicated in all directions to the surrounding air by means of pressure waves. These waves are similar to sound waves and they
travel at the speed of sound, which is about 760 mph (662 knots) at sea level, at a temperature of 15 deg. Celcius and barometric pressure of 1013.24
millibars (ISA). However, a change in the temperature of the atmosphere changes the density without appreciably affecting the pressure; hence the speed
of sound changes with a change in temperature.
So if a body travels through the air at the speed of sound, there will be no time for the 'message' as given by the pressure wave, to get ahead and the air
will pile up against the body with a shock.
13.1.2.1.3 Subsonic Flight
At speed above 300 mph, the fact that air is compressible becomes a factor - the lift coefficient increases slightly with increasing speed, while the drag
coefficient is relatively unaffected. This increase in the lift coefficient continues until the speed of the aircraft is such that the local speed across the upper
portion of the wing reaches Mach 1 (M Crit.) At the critical Mach Number a disturbance, referred to as a shock wave, take place in the airflow over
the wing. When this occurs, there is a great reduction in lift and a still greater increase in drag.
Transonic Flight
During transonic flight, a shock wave forms on both the top and bottom surfaces of the wing. The magnitude and location of these shock waves are
constantly changing and at the time there appears to be no theory to predict these changes accurately. The forces and turbulence that accompany
transonic flight may cause the pilot to lose control, especially if the aircraft is not designed to operate under transonic conditions. When the speed
becomes supersonic, the shock waves move back and become attached to the trailing edge of the wing. When this takes place, control conditions become
predictable and orderly again.

Page 85
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 51: Typical Subsonic Flow Pattern

Page 86
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 52: Subsonic Airflow

Page 87
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 53: Sound Waves

Page 88
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.1.4 Supersonic Flight
When a wing is moving at a speed greater than the speed of sound, there can be no warning of pressure changes because the wing is travelling faster than
the pressure changes can travel. Thus, the sudden arrival of the aircraft finds the air stationary and the movement necessary to allow the aircraft to pass
takes place violently, forming another shock wave. This shock wave forms ahead of the leading edge of the wing and as speed increases, it moves
closer to the leading edge. If the leading edge is sharp, the shock wave becomes attached.
The nature of supersonic flight can be illustrated by the passage of a boat through water. If the boat is moving slowly, a bow wave will move ahead of the
prow. When the speed of the boat is increased sufficiently, the water does not have time to form the bow wave ahead of the prow and the prow cuts
directly into still water.

Page 89
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.2 MACH NUMBER
As the speed of sound is dependent upon the temperature, it will vary with altitude and also at sea level in different parts of the world. Therefore it
becomes necessary to compare the true sound existing at that time (i.e. altitude and/or latitude) to ensure that a particular aircraft never goes into a flight
range beyond its safety limit.
This comparison is expressed as a number and is indicated visually to the pilot by a MACH METER fitted to the instrument panel.
TRUE AIR SPEED OF AIRCRAFT V

---------------------------------------------- = --- = MACH No. (M)
LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND a
For a given speed, the Mach Number will increase on going to altitude due to the decrease in temperature.
If an aircraft was travelling at 500 mph., in the first instance its Mach Number would be :-
500
760  0.657M
In the second set of conditions, its Mach Number would be:-
500
660  0.757M
Although the aircraft's speed remained constant, its Mach number increased. Speed of sound increases as temperature increases.

Page 90
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.2.1 Terms
a. Free Stream Mach Number - The free stream Mach number is the airflow at a point unaffected by the presence of the aircraft.
b. Local Mach Number - The Local Mach number is the speed of the airflow at some specified portion of the aircraft. It may be greater or less than
the free-stream Mach number for a given True Airspeed (TAS). Wing leading edges and jet engine intakes are particularly of
interest in this point.
c. Critical Mach Number - The Critical Mach number of an aircraft is the Mach number at which the aircraft is travelling when the local airflow
over the wing reaches M = 1.0 (Critical Mach No. is written as M Crit ). Refer Figure 54
d. Mach Cone - If an aircraft is moving at the speed of sound, the sound waves produced cannot move ahead of the aircraft. A complete 'cone' will
be formed around the aircraft. This is known as Mach Cone. Refer Figure 55
e. Mach Angle - In the following figure, the angle between AD and DE is the Mach Angle. Mach angle decreases with increase in speed.
Objects within the cone are affected by the passage of the body, those outside remain unaffected.
(Refer Figure 55)
f. Mach Line - The following figure, the tangent DE is known as a Mach Line. It clearly represents the angle at which small wavelets are formed. The
velocity of the airflow can be calculated by measuring the angle ADE.

Page 91
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 54: Critical Mach Number

Page 92
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 55: Mach Cone

Page 93
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.3 BUFFET
Refer Figure 56
This will occur during a shock stall and although buffet is an ideal indication of the approach of a high incidence stall, it is an unwanted commodity on high
speed aircraft. Mounting the tailplane clear of the turbulent wake and the use of mass balanced and/or irreversible controls helps to reduce the
effect of 'buffeting'.
Whenever a shock stall occurs, there will be a considerable increase in drag, 'buffeting' due to turbulent wake striking the tailplane, loss of lift due to
turbulent wake striking the tailplane, loss of lift due to the reduced effective lift area caused by shock stalling and due to the pressure distribution changes,
an alteration to the C of P position.
Figure 56: T - Tail

Page 94
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.4 SHOCK WAVES

Refer Figure 57
There are two types of shock waves formed on aircraft during transonic and supersonic flight. They are incipient shock wave and an oblique shock
wave.
Figure 57: Shock Wave Formation as it would appear if a single Point in Space were sending out Sound Waves as it travelled Through the Air

Page 95
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.4.1 Incipient Shock Wave

The incipient shock wave is formed at about three-quarters of the speed of sound ( i.e. at M = 0.8 ). When the airflow over the airfoil reaches M = 1.0
(usually at the point of greatest camber) the incipient shock wave is usually at right angles to the airfoil. The incipient shock wave is formed by areas of the
airfoil emitting pressure waves, which are travelling at the speed of sound.
When the airflow reaches M = 1.0 over the airfoil, the pressure waves cannot move ahead of the aircraft, therefore there is a build-up of pressure waves
and an incipient shock wave is formed.
Figure 58: Pressure Waves At Subsonic Speed

Page 96
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 59: Incipient Shock Wave

Page 97
PART 66 CAT B2
NOTES

Page 98
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.4.2 Oblique Shock Wave

Refer Figure 60
Between the formation of the incipient wave (at M = 0.75 or 0.8 ) and the time the wing as a whole is moving through the air at the speed of sound (M =
1.0), the shock wave tends to move backwards. In doing so, it becomes stronger and extends farther out from the surface and there is even more violent
turbulence behind it at a speed just above that of sound, another wave appears in the form of a bow wave, some distance ahead of the leading edge; and
the original wave which is now at the trailing edge, tends to become curved and shaped rather like a fish tail. These shock waves are known as Oblique
Shock Wave. As the speed further increased, bow waves attach to the leading edge and the angle formed between both waves and the surface becomes
more acute. At each wave, there is a sudden increase of pressure, density and temperature and a decrease in velocity.

Page 99
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 60: Transonic Flow Pattern

Page 100
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.5: Area Rule

Refer Figure 61
A concept known as 'the area rule' is used to achieve the minimum wave drag. This rule is only useful over a fixed band of speed in the transonic
range and its usefulness decreases on either side of this band. Broadly the area rule states that for minimum drag, the variation of the aircraft's total cross
sectional area, along its length, should be approximately that of an ideally shaped object having minimum wave drag. This means the area of cross
section should increase gradually to a maximum halfway back and then decreases gradually. Because of the wings, area ruling means the fuselage
needs to be waisted. It is possible so to shape the fuselage cross sections of an aircraft that the bulge in cross section area caused by the wing and tail are
faired more smoothly into a profile giving lower wave drag. Area ruling is shown dotted in the following figure. The waisted fuselage generates expansion
and compression that cancel the effects of the wing compression and expansion.

Page 101
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 61: Area Rule

Page 102
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.6 HEAT BARRIER

When an aircraft moves through the air, it gets hot some parts more than others, some owing to skin friction, some owing to the heat created by
pressure. That is all the heat barrier is. When does an aircraft first experience the heat barrier? When it first flies. Like many other things, it isn't
serious at low speeds. It has been said that aeroplanes made of wax melt at 300 to 400 mph, those made of aluminium at 1,600 to 1,800 mph
and those of stainless steel at 2,300 to 2,400 mph. Aircrafts are made of wax ( wind tunnel models have been ) but some are made of
aluminium alloy and some of stainless steel and more are likely to be in the future and of other metals and alloys, just because of this very
problem. Nor can we afford to design anywhere near the melting point. Metals are weakened long before that and what about passenger and
crew comfort? This human consideration is a most important part of the heat problem. The following figure shows how the temperature rises
with the Mach number. Ref. Fig. 62
Figure 62: How The Surface Temperature Rises With The Mach Number.

Page 103
PART 66 CAT B2
Graph showing approximate effect of

temperature on ultimate tensile strength
Figure 63 Effect of Temperature on Tensile Ultimate Strength

Page 104
PART 66 CAT B2
Many devices have been tried and no doubt many more will be tried, in an effort to counteract this heating problem. Those devices may be
classified into the following classes:
a. those insulating the structure from the heat

b. those using materials which can stand the high temperatures without serious loss of strength
c. those encouraging radiation from the surfaces and so reducing the temperatures
d. those circulating a cooling fluid below the surface; and
e. refrigeration by any of the normal means.
As regards materials for the aircraft structure, light alloys are suitable for Mach numbers up to M =2.2, or even higher for short periods. Between
1
M =2 and M =4, titanium may be the answer, but above M =3 or 3 2 stainless steel is probably better, ( being more readily available and more
easily worked ).
It must be remembered that it is not only the structure of the aircraft that must be protected, but also the crew, equipment and fuel. It is no use,
for instance, to use materials which will stand the high temperatures unless there is also refrigeration to keep the interior of the aircraft cool.
Such, then, is the heat barrier. It is already a limiting factor in the speed of certain aircraft and it provides a very formidable problem as regard to
the re-entry into the atmosphere of satellites and even long range missiles.

Page 105
PART 66 CAT B2
NOTES

Page 106
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.7 RAISING THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
When an aircraft is designed to fly faster than at subsonic speeds, the critical mach number of a particular aircraft will depend largely on the local
increase in the velocity of the airflow over the airfoils. If this rate of increase of velocity can be reduced then the Mcrit can be raised.
There are two ways of raising the critical mach number; by :-
a. decreasing the thickness/chord ratio of the wings

b. increasing the sweep back of the wings.
13.1.2.7.1 Decreasing Thickness/Chord Ratio

Refer Figure 64
By decreasing the T/C ratio of an airfoil (making airfoil thinner), we are able to increase the Mcrit. It takes higher speeds for the airflow over
the airfoil to reach Mach 1.0 on a thin airfoil than on a thick one. Diagram illustrates the fact that by lowering the T/C ratio of a straight wing, the
Mcrit is raised.

Page 107
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 64: Effect of Decreasing T/C ratio on Critical Mach Numbe

Page 108
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.7.2 Sweep Back

Refer Figure 65
Sweep back is the rearward angle that the leading edge of the wing makes with a line parallel to the lateral axis. When an aircraft is laterally
disturbed it will sideslip. In a sideslip, the down going wing will have an effective increase in span and an effective decrease in chord.
Therefore the aspect ratio is increased on that wing, increasing its lift. The opposite takes place on the upgoing wing and the aircraft will return
to a level condition of flight.
Consider a straight wing aircraft flying at a speed just below Mcrit. Any increase in speed will cause the airflow at the point of maximum
thickness to go sonic with a rise in the Cd due to the formation of shock wave.
0
over the chord 'x', which is the effective chord. The actual chord which is denoted by 'y' and is at 90 to the leading edge.
The free-stream air moving over chord 'x' can be split up into two components; one passing over chord 'y' which will affect the pressure
distribution of the wing and therefore the shock stall characteristics and the component parallel to the span which is caused by friction, but does
not affect the pressure distribution of the wing.
0 0
If this wing was swept back to an angle of 45 (see diagram), the airflow passing over the wing section is at 45 to the leading edge and moving

Page 109
PART 66 CAT B2
Y
X
Figure 65: Raising the Critical Mach. Number

Page 110
PART 66 CAT B2
It can be seen from the diagram that :- Refer Figure 66 & 67
a. Free-stream velocity is passing over a chord 'x' which is of low T/C ratio, therefore the local increase in velocity is very gradual.
0
b. The airflow component at 90 to the leading edge which affects the pressure distribution is flowing over the actual chord 'y' but this being a
component of free-stream air, the airflow velocity over the wing at this position is less than that at chord 'x'.
c. The component flowing spanwise towards the tip, although of the same magnitude as 'y' does not affect the pressure distribution and
shock stall.
It can be seen that if the free stream velocity is at a sonic speed, the airflow at right angles to the leading edge, being only a component of free
stream velocity, is of a subsonic nature and free from shock stall characteristics. If free stream velocity is increased, the component 'y' will
reach Mach 1.0 and shock stall will occur with an alteration in the Cd, but it will do so at a higher free stream velocity than that of a comparable
unswept wing.

Page 111
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 66: Raising the Critical Mach Number

Page 112
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 67: Swept Back Wing and Mach Number

Page 113
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.2.7.3 High Speed Aircraft Engine Intakes
Supersonic Engine Intakes
The air flow in to a turbine engine must be subsonic for maximum effectiveness. This holds true for aircraft that fly at supersonic speeds. One way to
slow engine intake airflow is to create shock waves in front of the inlet. At low supersonic speed, the engine inlet is designed to create a single
normal shock wave at its entry point. However, at higher speeds it is necessary to have a diffuser in the inlet that form an oblique shock wave and
slows the air before it enters the main inlet duct where a normal shock wave is formed. (Figure 68)
Figure 68: Supersonic Engine Inlets

Page 114
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3 ROTARY WING AERODYNAMICS
13.1.3.1 Rotary-wing Aircraft
Rotary-wing aircraft are more commonly referred to as ’helicopters’. A helicopter is an aircraft which derives both lift and propulsive power from horizontally
revolving engine--driven blades or rotors, and which is capable of ascending and descending vertically. According to the definition of ’aircraft’ it can be
concluded that a helicopter is a heavier--than--air machine, which gains movement by horizontally revolving airfoil blades, with the ability to ascend and
descend vertically.
13.1.3.2 Aerodynamic Forces
Let us begin by looking at the aerodynamic forces which act on a helicopter during its different attitudes of flight. During any kind of horizontal or vertical
flight, there are always the 4 well--known forces acting on the helicopter: lift, thrust, weight and drag. As defined before lift is the force required to support
the weight of the helicopter and thrust is the force required to overcome the drag on the fuselage and other helicopter
components.
13.1.3.3 Hovering Flight
Refer to Figure 69.
When a helicopter is in a hovering flight condition (and assuming that there is no wind) the plane described by the path of the tips of the rotor blades is
parallel to the ground. Lift and thrust act straight up, weight and drag act straight down. The total (resultant) of lift and thrust must equal that of weight and
drag in order enable the hovering flight.

Page 115
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 69: Helicopter in the Hover

Page 116
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.4 Vertical Flight
Refer to Figure 70.
If a helicopter is in vertical flight in a no--wind condition, the lift and thrust forces both act vertically upwards. Weight and drag both act into the opposite
direction, i.e. vertically down. When lift and thrust are less than weight and drag, the helicopter descends vertically; if lift and thrust are greater than weight
and drag the helicopter climbs vertically.
Figure 70: Helicopter in Vertical Flight

Page 117
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.5 Forward Flight
Refer to Figure 71.
For forward flight, the tip--path plane is tilted forwards, thus tilting the total of lift and thrust forwards from the vertical. This resultant force can be split into 2
components, the lift acting vertically upwards and the thrust acting horizontally into the direction of flight. Again there are the weight, the downward acting
force, and the drag, the force acting rearwards. During straight and level, unaccelerated forward flight, the lift
equals the weight and the thrust equals the drag. If the lift exceeds the weight, the helicopter climbs; if the lift is less than the weight, the helicopter
descends. If the thrust exceeds the drag, the helicopter speeds up; if the thrust is less than the drag, it slows down.
Figure 71: Helicopter in Forward Flight

Page 118
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.6 Sideward Flight
Refer to Figure 72.
With sideward flight, the tip--path plane is tilted sidewards into the desired flight direction thus tilting the total lift--and--thrust vector sidewards. During
sideward flight, the vertical (or: lift) component is straight up, the weight is straight down, while the horizontal (or: thrust) component now acts sidewards
with the drag acting into the opposite direction.
Figure 72: Helicopter in Sideward Flight

Page 119
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.7 Rearward Flight
Refer to Figure 73.
If rearward flight is required, the tip--path plane is tilted rearwards thereby tilting the lift--and--thrust vector rearwards. Now the thrust component is
rearwards and the drag is forwards, the exact opposite to forward flight, although lift and weight act into the same directions as during forward flight. The lift
component is still straight up and the weight straight down.
Figure 73: Helicopter in Rearward Flight

Page 120
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.8 Auxiliary Rotor
As soon as the main rotor blades of a helicopter start to turn, a force known as ’torque’ acts upon the helicopter. Newton’s third law of motion states: ’To
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’. I.e. as soon as the main rotor of the helicopter turns into one direction, the fuselage tries to turn into
the opposite direction. This tendency of the fuselage to rotate is what is called the torque. The torque effect affecting the fuselage is a direct result of the
engine power turning the main rotor. A change of power on the rotor head will result a change in the torque as well. The greater the power on the rotor
head, the greater the torque on the helicopter fuselage.
Refer to Figure 74.
To overcome the tendency of the fuselage to rotate into a direction opposite to the rotating main rotor blade, an auxiliary rotor is fitted at the end of the tail
boom. This auxiliary rotor, usually referred to as ’tail rotor’, produces thrust into the direction opposite to the torque effect developed by the main rotor.

Page 121
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 74: The Auxiliary (Tail) Rotor

Page 122
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.9 Ground Effect
Ground effect is the term for the ’cushion’ of denser air which supports the helicopter when hovering close to the ground. It is formed by the movement of
the rotor blades which displace air downwards through faster than it can escape from underneath the helicopter. This results in a ’cushion’ of denser air
being built up between the ground and the helicopter.
Refer to Figure 75.
The ground effect is effective up to an altitude of approx. half the rotor diameter. As soon as a speed over ground of approx. 3 to 5 knots is reached the
helicopter leaves this ’ground air cushion’.
Figure 75: The Ground Effect

Page 123
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.10 Autorotation
’Autorotation’ is the effect applied in flight when the main rotor is driven only by the relative wind action and no engine power is supplied. It is an emergency
landing technique in the case of an engine failure. The helicopter transmission gear is designed in such a way that the main rotor system is automatically
disengaged from the engine as soon as the latter is stopped. This enables the main rotor to continue turning freely. When the engine power is supplied to
the main rotor, the air flows downwards through the rotor. When the engine is stopped the helicopter starts moving downwards due to its weight, i.e. it is in
autorotation. In this situation the airflow is directed upwards through the rotor, and this enables the rotor to continue turning. The autorotative region (or:
driving region) which causes the rotor to continue turning when the engine has been cut off, is the part of the rotor--blade plane between approx. 25 % to
70 % of the radius out from the centre (i.e. from the rotor head). Aerodynamic forces along this portion of the blades tend to speed up the blade rotation.
During vertical autorotation, the central 25 % of the rotor--blade plane tend to slow down the blade rotation due to drag because it operates above its stall
angle. Therefore this section of the blades is referred to as the ’stall region’. The outer 30 % of the rotor blades is referred to as the ’propeller region’ (or:
driven region). There a small drag force can be observed which tends to slow down the tip section of the blades. During forward flight, these regions move
towards the left of the rotor plane as shown in Figure 76.
Figure 76: Autorotation

Page 124
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.11 Principles of Rotary--wing Flight Control
The main differences between fixed and rotary--wing aircraft can be summarized as follows:
 The fixed--wing aircraft derives its lift from fixed lifting surfaces (wing) whereby the rotary--wing aircraft derives its lift from a rotating
surface (rotor/rotor plane).
 The fixed--wing aircraft generally requires separate surfaces for stability and control, the rotary--wing aircraft meets stability requirements
by making use of its main and auxiliary rotors.
 Fixed--wing aircraft are controllable to a greater extent under power--off flight conditions -- rotary--wing aircraft are controllable
only to a limited extent under power off conditions.
The common points between fixed and rotary--wing aircraft are:
 in flight both types are acted upon by the same 4 forces

-- lift
-- thrust
-- weight
-- drug
 both types have the same 3 axes of control:
-- longitudinal
-- lateral
-- vertical.
This implies that rotary--wing aircraft may also be put to pitching, rolling and yawing motions.

Page 125
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.12 Special Effects of the Rotor

Figure 77
Rotary--wing aircraft are subject to a certain force called ’rotor torque’. The rotor rotates in a particular direction. The natural reaction of the
fuselage is to start rotating into the opposite direction. This torque effect is related to the rotor’s speed and the power applied to the rotor.
Any increase in engine power will also increase the torque effect. Rotor torque is normally compensated by an auxiliary rotor (or: tail rotor) driven by the
engine at a higher speed than the main rotor. The tail rotor is also designed to provide differential lateral thrust for directional control. The thrust of the tail
rotor counteracts the main rotor torque by the correct amount under all conditions.
Figure 77: Precession and Torque Effect

Page 126
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 78
There are other methods of counteracting the main rotor torque. These are:
 use of a vane in the main rotor slipstream
 by differential tilt of rotor thrusts (only possible if the helicopter has intermesting rotors)
 by differential torque between 2 rotors (only possible if the helicopter has co--axial rotors).
Another special effect of the rotor during rotation is its property of gyroscopic precession. This means that it will resist any force which
tends to change its plane of rotation. This factor is taken into consideration in the design of the control system.
Figure 78: Methods of Counter-Acting Rotor Torque

Page 127
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 79
A third special effect of the rotor is the asymmetric distribution of lift under certain flight conditions. Forward flight or hovering against the
wind affect lift distribution. The advancing blade gains lift as the retreating blade loses lift. If not corrected this would create a rolling moment and a lateral
instability. The asymmetric lift takes effect at the point where both blades are at right angles to the line of flight. Rotor hubs are designed to permit vertical
and horizontal movement of the blade roots. The vertical freedom of movement allows the advancing blade to lower its pitch and the retracting blade to
increase its pitch.
Figure 79: Speeds of Blade Sections

Page 128
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 80
This leads to a ’blade flapping’ effect which reaches maximum when the blades are parallel to the line of flight. Blade flapping creates an
unbalanced condition with accompanying vibration. To prevent this vibration the blades are allowed horizontal movement on ’drag hinges’.
This again creates an unbalanced condition as the centre of gravity moves away from the mast centre line. This also creates heavy vibration, which is
corrected by hydraulic dampers. The dampers also maintain the geometric relation of the blades
Figure 80: Blade Flapping

Page 129
PART 66 CAT B2
13.1.3.13 Flight Control of Rotary--wing Aircraft

Figure 81
Basically the helicopter has to be controlled about the 3 main axes longitudinal, lateral, and vertical. The helicopter has 3 main flight control devices in the
cockpit.
These are:
 cyclic pitch control
 collective pitch control
V pedals for directional control.
Figure 81: Primary Flight Controls and Their Functions

Page 130
PART 66 CAT B2
Figure 82
The cyclic pitch control is connected by a mechanical linkage to the rotor head. It changes the pitch of each individual main rotor blade
during a cycle of rotations in any segment of the disc (rotor plane). The collective pitch control can increase or decrease the pitch of all rotor blades
together. This increases or decreases the vertical lift.
Since an increase of lift normally requires increased engine power, the grip of the collective pitch lever is used to control the engine (throttle
function).
The pedals are similar to the rudder pedals of fixed--wing aircraft. They are mechanically connected to the pitch--changing mechanisms of the
anti--torque tail rotor. Pushing the left or right pedal increases thrust into the desired directions. Keeping the pedals in the neutral position
keeps the tail rotor at an angle and at a rotational speed sufficient to counteract engine torque at normal revolutions.
Figure 82: Axes of Flight Controls and Devices

Page 131
PART 66 CAT B2
Summary
The use of flight controls of rotary--wing aircraft can be explained as follows:
 Yawing movements are obtained by pushing the appropriate pedal to change the tail rotor thrust as required.
 Rolling movements are obtained by moving the cyclic pitch control to the left or right. This tilts the rotor disc to the right or left, by changing the pitch of
each rotor blade during one cycle of rotation.
 Pitching movements are obtained by moving the cycle pitch control fore or aft. For instance, as the cyclic stick is moved forwards
the angle of attack is decreased as the rotor blades pass at the right side of the helicopter. The angle of attack is increased as the blades pass at the left
side.
Gyroscopic precession causes maximum downward deflection of the blades in the forward position, and maximum upward deflection of the
blade in the aft position. This causes the rotor head to tilt forward in the same direction as the cycle stick is displaced. ln short, tilting the
rotor head in any particular direction will make the helicopter change its attitude accordingly.

Page 132
PART 66 CAT B2
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

Page 133

Module 13.1 Theory of Flight

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Module 13.1 Theory of Flight

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 13.1 Theory of Flight

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PART 66 CAT B2

MODULE 13 AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS

MODULE 13.1 : THEORY OF FLIGHT

For Training Purposes Only

13.1 THEORY OF FLIGHT (DCAM Ref. 13.1.1) .............................................................................................................................................. 5

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1 THEORY OF FLIGHT (DCAM Ref. 13.1.1)

13.1.1.2 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 1: Primary Control Surfaces

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.2.1 Primary Group

Figure 2: Primary Control Surfaces

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.2.2 Secondary Group

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.2.3 Auxiliary Group

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 4: Auxiliary Control Surfaces

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.3 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

13.1.1.4 METHODS OF CONTROL

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 5 Flying Control Surfaces (Principle of Operation)

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.4.1 Roll Control - Ailerons

i) By moving the control-column in the cockpit laterally.

Figure 6: The Ailerons

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 7: Lateral Control

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.4.2 Flight Spoilers

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 8: Flight and Ground Spoilers

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.4.3 Pitch Control - Elevators

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 9: Elevator Control System

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 10: Longitudinal Control

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 11: Elevator Bungee

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 12: Stabilator

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.4.5 Variable Incidence Stabilisers

Figure 13: Variable Incidence Stabilizers

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

Figure 14: Canard

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

13.1.1.4.7 Yaw Control - Rudder

Figure 15: Rudder Control System

For Training Purposes Only Issue 1 Revision 0 Jan 2011

a) Lift (vertical to the wings) must increase.