Part 2.

Linear Algebra

Chapter 3: Determinants and Diagonalization

Main subjects

1. Cofactor Expansion

2. Determinants and Matrix Inverses

3. Diagonalization and Eigenvalues

1
 3.1
Cofactor expansion

2
DETERMINANTS OF 𝟏 × 𝟏 AND 𝟐 × 𝟐 MATRICES
∎ Determinant of (1 × 1)-matrices:

det 𝑎 = 𝑎.

∎ Determinant of (2 × 2)-matrices:

𝑎 𝑏
det = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑑
We also use the notation

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
∶= det .
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
3
DETERMINANTS OF (𝟑 × 𝟑)-MATRICES

𝑚 𝑛 𝑝
𝑞 𝑟 𝑠
𝑡 𝑢 𝑣

𝑟 𝑠 𝑞 𝑠 𝑞 𝑟
=𝑚 −𝑛 +𝑝
𝑢 𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑢

= 𝑚 𝑟𝑣 − 𝑠𝑢 − 𝑛 𝑞𝑣 − 𝑠𝑡 + 𝑝(𝑞𝑢 − 𝑟𝑡)

4
EXAMPLE

2 −5 2
1 0 −4
3 2 1

0 −4 1 −4 1 0
= +2 −(−5) +2
2 1 3 1 3 2

= 2 × 8 + 5 × 13 + 2 × 2 = 85.

5
COFACTORS
Let 𝐴 be a square matrix.
1. 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 is the matrix obtained from 𝐴 by deleting row 𝒊 and column 𝒋.

4 2 1 4
Example. 𝐴= 1 −3 5 0
0 6 8 1
3 7 −5 9

−3 5 0 4 2 4 2 1 4
𝐴1,1 = 6 8 1 𝐴2,3 = 0 6 1 𝐴3,1 = −3 5 0
7 −5 9 3 7 9 7 −5 9

2. The (𝒊, 𝒋)-cofactor of 𝑨 is

𝒊+𝒋
𝒄𝒊,𝒋 𝑨 = −𝟏 det(𝑨𝒊,𝒋 ).
6
DETERMINANT OF AN 𝒏 × 𝒏 -MATRIX

Definition. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix of size 𝑛 × 𝑛. The determinant of 𝑨 is defined by

det 𝐴 = 𝑎1,1 𝑐1,1 + 𝑎1,2 𝑐1,2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1,𝑛 𝑐1,𝑛

= 𝑎1,1 −1 1+1 det 𝐴1,1 + 𝑎1,2 −1 1+2 det 𝐴1,2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1,𝑛 det 𝐴1,𝑛 .

* This formula is called the cofactor expansion along row 1.

7
EXAMPLE

2 −5 2
Example. Calculate the determinant: 1 0 −4
3 2 1

= 𝑎1,1 𝑐1,1 + 𝑎1,2 𝑐1,2 + 𝑎1,3 𝑐1,3

1+1 0 −4 1+2 1 −4 1+3 1 0

= 2 −1 + −5 −1 + 2 −1
2 1 3 1 3 2

0 −4 1 −4 1 0 (this is exactly the one given in page 5)

=2 − (−5) +2
2 1 3 1 3 2
= 85.

8
EQUIVALENT FORMULAS OF DETERMINANT

Using the cofactor expansion along column 1:

det 𝐴 = 𝑎1,1 𝑐1,1 + 𝑎2,1 𝑐2,1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛,1 𝑐𝑛,1 (2)

Example. Calculate the below determinant using the cofactor expansion along column 1:
2 −5 2
1 0 −4
3 2 1

9
EQUIVALENT FORMULAS OF DETERMINANT (cont)

Theorem. The determinant of 𝐴 can be computed by using the cofactor

expansion along any row or column.

∎ Along row 𝑖:

det 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖,1 𝑐𝑖,1 + 𝑎𝑖,2 𝑐𝑖,2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖,𝑛 𝑐𝑖,𝑛 .

∎ Along column 𝑗:

det 𝐴 = 𝑎1,𝑗 𝑐1,1 + 𝑎2,𝑗 𝑐2,𝑗 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛,𝑗 𝑐𝑛,𝑗 .

10
EXAMPLE
Find determinant for each of the following matrices:

0 2 −1 5 
1 2 5  0 6 4 3
A = 0 7 0  B= 
  0 7 −1 0 
1 2 5   
0 1 8 2

1 2 −1 5  1 2 −1 5 
0  0 6 4 3
6 4 3
C=  C'=  
0 0 −1 0  0 0 0 2
   
0 0 0 2 0 0 −1 0 
11
Exercise. Calculate the determinant of the below matrix using the cofactor expansion

12
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT
1. If the matrix 𝐴 has a zero row then det 𝐴 = 0.

4 2 1 4
Example. 𝐴 = 1 −3 5 0 det 𝐴 = 0.
0 0 0 0
3 7 −5 9

2. If the matrix 𝐴 has a zero column then det 𝐴 = 0.

3 0 1 4
Example. 𝐴 = 1 0 5 0 det 𝐴 = 0.
8 0 7 −7
3 0 5 −9
13
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT (cont)

3. If 𝐴 is a triangumar matrix then

det 𝐴 = product of the entries of the main diagonal.

4 2 1 4
Example. 𝐴 = 0 −3 5 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 0 9

det 𝐴 = 4 × −3 × 2 × 9 = −216.

14
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT (cont)

4. If 𝐵 is obtained from 𝐴 by interchanging two rows (or columns) then

det 𝐵 = −det(𝐴).

4 2 1 4 4 2 1 4
Row2 ↔ Row3
Example. 𝐴 = 7 −3 5 0 𝐵 = −2 0 2 6
−2 0 2 6 → 7 −3 5 0
3 5 1 9 3 5 1 9

We have det 𝐴 + det 𝐵 = 0.

15
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT (cont)

5. If 𝐵 is obtained from 𝐴 by multiplying one row (or column) by 𝒌 then

det 𝐵 = 𝑘det(𝐴).

4 2 1 4 4 6 1 4
3 × Col2
𝐴 = 7 −3 5 0 𝐵= 7 −9 5 0
Example.
−2 0 2 6 → −2 0 2 6
3 5 1 9 3 15 1 9

We have det 𝐵 = 3det 𝐴 .

* Col = Column

16
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT (cont)

6. If 𝐵 is obtained from 𝐴 by adding a multiple of one row to another row then

det 𝐵 = det(𝐴).

7. If 𝐵 is obtained from 𝐴 by adding a multiple of one column to another

column then det 𝐵 = det(𝐴).

4 2 1 4 4 2 1 0
Col4 − 2 × Col2

𝐴 = 7 −3 5 0 𝐵 = 7 −3 5 6
Example.
−2 0 2 6 → −2 0 2 6
3 5 1 9 3 5 1 −1

We have det 𝐵 = det 𝐴 .

17
BASIC PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT (cont)

8. If 𝐴 has two rows (or column) that are the same then

det 𝐴 = 0.

4 2 1 4
Example. 𝐴 = 7 −3 5 0 .
−2 0 2 6
4 2 1 4

We have det 𝐴 = 0.

18
EXAMPLE
1 1 2 5 Row4 −2 ×Row1
1 1 2 5
Row1 ↔ Row4
0 2 −1 3 0 2 −1 3
→ 0 5 1 1 → 0 5 1 1
2 3 1 1 0 1 −3 −9

Row2 ↔ Row4
1 1 2 5 Row3 − 5 × Row2 1 1 2 5 1
× Row3
0 1 −3 −9 0 1 −3 −9 16

→ 0 5 1 1 → 0 0 16 46 →
Row4 − 2 ×Row2
0 2 −1 3 0 0 5 21

1 1 2 5 1 1 2 5
Row4 −5 × Row3
0 1 −3 −9 0 1 −3 −9
0 0 1 23/8 → 0 0 1 23/8
0 0 5 21 0 0 0 53/8

19
A THEOREM

Theorem.

(1) det 𝐴 = det(𝐴𝑇 ).

(2) det 𝐴𝐵 = det(𝐴)det 𝐵 .

More generally, det 𝐴1 𝐴2 ⋯ 𝐴𝑚 = det(𝐴1 )det 𝐴2 ⋯ det 𝐴𝑚 .

(3) det 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑛 det(𝐴) where 𝐴 is 𝑛 × 𝑛 and 𝑘 ∈ ℝ.

(4) det 𝐴 det 𝐴−1 = 1 (when 𝐴 is invertible).

20
DETERMINANT WITH BLOCKS

Example. Calculate the determinant of the following matrix

𝐴 𝑋
𝑴= =
0 𝐵

Solution. det 𝑀 = det(𝐴)det 𝐵

2 1 1
1 2
= × −1 0 2
−1 3
3 0 1

= 5 × −1 × −7 = 35.
21
DETERMINANT WITH BLOCKS (cont)

Theorem. Suppose that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are square matrices. One has

𝐴 𝑋
1. det = det(𝐴)det(𝐵).
0 𝐵

𝐴 0
2. det = det(𝐴)det(𝐵).
𝑌 𝐵

22
 𝐴 𝑋
𝑴= =
0 𝐵

Solution. det 𝑀 = det(𝐴)det 𝐵

1 −1 2
3 −1
= 0 1 0 ×
1 1
1 1 5

= 1 × 3 × 4 = 12.

23
 3.2
Determinant and matrix inverses

24
ADJUGATE MATRIX OF (𝟐 × 𝟐)-MATRICES

𝑎 𝑏
Recall: if 𝐴 = then the adjugate matrix of 𝐴 is
𝑐 𝑑
𝑑 −𝑏
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = ,
−𝑐 𝑎
and if det 𝐴 ≠ 0 then

−1 1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 =
det(𝐴) 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

25
ADJUGATE MATRIX OF (𝟑 × 𝟑)-MATRICES
𝑎1,1 𝑎1,2 𝑎1,3
𝐴 = 𝑎2,1 𝑎2,2 𝑎2,3
𝑎3,1 𝑎3,2 𝑎3,3
𝑖+𝑗
Recall: The (𝒊, 𝒋)-cofactor of 𝐴 is 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 = −1 det(𝐴𝑖,𝑗 ) where 𝐴𝑖,𝑗 is obtained from 𝐴
by deleting row 𝑖 and column 𝑗.

Definition. The adjugate matrix of 𝐴 is

𝑐1,1 𝑐1,2 𝑐1,3 𝑇 𝑇

det(𝐴1,1 ) −det(𝐴1,2 ) det(𝐴1,3 )
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝑐2,1 𝑐2,2 𝑐2,3 = −det(𝐴2,1 ) det(𝐴2,2 ) −det(𝐴2,3 )
𝑐3,1 𝑐3,2 𝑐3,3 det(𝐴3,1 ) −det(𝐴3,2 ) det(𝐴3,3 )

26
EXAMPLE 2 −5 2
𝐴= 1 0 −4 .
3 2 1
1. Find det(𝐴). 2. Find 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴). 3. Calculate 𝐴 × 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴).

Solution. 1. det 𝐴 = 85.

2. The cofactor matrix of 𝐴 is

det(𝐴1,1 ) −det(𝐴1,2 ) det(𝐴1,3 )

−det(𝐴2,1 ) det(𝐴2,2 ) −det(𝐴2,3 )
det(𝐴3,1 ) −det(𝐴3,2 ) det(𝐴3,3 )

8 −13 2
= 9 −4 −19 .
20 10 5
27
The adjugate matrix of 𝐴 is

𝑇
8 −13 2 8 9 20
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 9 −4 −19 = −13 −4 10 .
20 10 5 2 −19 5

3. 𝐴 × 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴

2 −5 2 8 9 20 85 0 0
= 1 0 −4 × −13 −4 10 = 0 85 0
3 2 1 2 −19 5 0 0 85

1 0 0
= 85 × 0 1 0 = det 𝐴 × 𝐼.
0 0 1
28
ADJUGATE MATRIX OF (𝒏 × 𝒏)-MATRICES

Definition. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix of size 𝑛 × 𝑛. The adjugate matrix of 𝐴 is

𝑐1,1 𝑐1,2 ⋯ 𝑐1,𝑛 𝑇

𝑐2,1 𝑐2,2 ⋯ 𝑐2,𝑛
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ .
⋮
𝑐𝑛,1 𝑐𝑛,2 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛,𝑛

29
A THEOREM

Theorem. Let 𝐴 be any square matrix. Then one has

1. 𝐴 × 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = det(𝐴) × 𝐼 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 × 𝐴.

2. 𝐴 is invertible ⇔ det 𝐴 ≠ 0.

3. When det 𝐴 ≠ 0, the inverse of 𝐴 is given by

−1 1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 .
det(𝐴)

30
EXAMPLE 1 5 2
𝐴= 0 2 −1 .
1 3 4
1. Find det(𝐴). 2. Find 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴). 3. Find 𝐴−1 .

Solution. 1. det 𝐴 = 1 × 11 − 0 + 1 × −9 = 2.

2. The cofactor matrix of 𝐴 is

det(𝐴1,1 ) −det(𝐴1,2 ) det(𝐴1,3 )

−det(𝐴2,1 ) det(𝐴2,2 ) −det(𝐴2,3 )
det(𝐴3,1 ) −det(𝐴3,2 ) det(𝐴3,3 )

11 −1 −2
= −14 2 2 .
−9 1 2
31
The adjugate matrix of 𝐴 is

𝑇
11 −1 −2 11 −14 −9
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = −14 2 2 = −1 2 1 .
−9 1 2 −2 2 2
3. The inverse of 𝐴 is
1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
det(𝐴)

11/2 −7 −9/2
= −1/2 1 1/2 .
−1 1 1

32
EXERCISE

33
CRAMER’S RULE – AN EXAMPLE

Solve the system using Cramer’s rule

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 0
ቐ 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 3
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 = −1

Solution. The system can be rewritten as 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 where

1 2 3 𝑥1 0
𝐴= 0 2 −1 , 𝑋 = 𝑥2 and 𝐵 = 3 .
1 2 4 𝑥3 −1

34
 1 2 3 0
𝐴 = 0 2 −1 , 𝐵 = 3 .
1 2 4 −1

Step 1. det 𝐴 = 2.
Step 2. Write down the matrices obtained by replacing each column of 𝐴 by 𝐵.
0 2 3 1 0 3 1 2 0
𝐴1 = 3 2 −1 , 𝐴2 = 0 3 −1 and 𝐴3 = 0 2 3 .
−1 2 4 1 −1 4 1 2 −1

Step 3. Compute: det 𝐴1 = 2, det 𝐴2 = 2 and det 𝐴3 = −2.

det(𝐴1 ) det(𝐴2 ) det(𝐴3 )

Step 4. Solution: 𝑥1 = = 1, 𝑥2 = = 1 and 𝑥3 = = −1.
det 𝐴 det 𝐴 det 𝐴
35
CRAMER’S RULE

Theorem. Let 𝐴 be an invertible matrix of size 𝑛 × 𝑛. The solution to

the system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 of 𝑛 equations and 𝑛 variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 is

det(𝐴1 ) det(𝐴2 ) det(𝐴𝑛 )

𝑥1 = , 𝑥2 = , ⋯ , 𝑥n = .
det 𝐴 det 𝐴 det 𝐴

36
REVIEW: INVERTIBLE MATRIX THEOREM
Let 𝐴 be a square matrix of size 𝑛 × 𝑛. The following conditions are equivalent.

1. 𝐴 is invertible.

2. The system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵 has a unique solution for every column 𝐵.

3. The homogeneous system 𝐴𝑋 = 0 has a unique solution (𝑋 = 0).

4. The reduced row-echelon form of 𝐴 is 𝐼𝑛 .

5. There exists a matrix 𝐶 of size 𝑛 × 𝑛 such that 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐼𝑛 .

6. There exists a matrix 𝐶 of size 𝑛 × 𝑛 such that 𝐶𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛 .

7. Rank 𝐴 = 𝑛.

8. det 𝐴 ≠ 0 .
37
EXERCISES
Determine whether the following statements are true or false.

a. If 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) exists then 𝐴 is invertible.

b. If 𝐴 is invertible and 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐴−1 , then det 𝐴 = 1.

c. If det 𝐴 ≠ 0 and 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶, then 𝐵 = 𝐶.

38
d. If 𝐴𝑇 = −𝐴 then det 𝐴 = 1.

e. If 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 0 then 𝐴 = 0.

f. If 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 0 then det 𝐴 = 0.

g. If 𝐴 is invertible, then 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 is invertible as well.

h. If det 𝐴 = 1 then 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 −1 = 𝐴.

i. det 𝐴𝑇 𝐴 > 0 for any square matrix 𝐴.

39
EXERCISE

Let 𝐴 be a (3 × 3)-matrix such that det 𝐴 = 5. Find det 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 .

40
EXERCISES

3.2.1, 3.2.9, 3.2.10, 3.2.14, 3.2.17.

41
 3.3
Diagonalization and Eigenvalues

42
CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL

Definition. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix. The characteristic polynomial of 𝑨 is

𝑐𝐴 𝑥 = det(𝑥𝐼 − 𝐴).
2 1
Example. Consider 𝐴 = .
3 4
𝑥 0 2 1 𝑥−2 −1
We have 𝑥𝐼 − 𝐴 = − = .
0 𝑥 3 4 −3 𝑥−4
So the characteristic polynomial of 𝐴 is

𝑥−2 −1
𝑐𝐴 𝑥 = det
−3 𝑥−4
= 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 4 − 3 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5.
43
EIGENVALUES
Definition. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix. The eigenvalues of 𝑨 are the solutions of
the equation
𝑐𝐴 𝑥 = 0.

2 1
Example. Consider 𝐴 = .
3 4
We have found 𝑐𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5.
Solving the equation
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 0
⇔ 𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥 = 5,
we deduce that the eigenvalues of 𝐴 are 1 and 5.
44
EIGENVECTORS

Definition. Let 𝐴 be a square matrix and 𝜆 an eigenvalue of 𝐴. The 𝝀-eigenvectors

of 𝑨 are the nontrivial solutions of the system

𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 = 0 (1)

45
EIGENVECTORS – AN EXAMPLE

2 1
Example. Consider 𝐴 = .
3 4
We have found that 𝐴 has two eigenvalues 𝜆1 = 1 and 𝜆2 = 5.
To find 𝜆1 -eigenvectors, we need to solve 𝜆1 𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 = 0 (1)

1 0 2 1 −1 −1
We have 𝜆1 𝐼 − 𝐴 = 1 × − = .
0 1 3 4 −3 −3

𝑥 −𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
Putting 𝑋 = 𝑦 , then (1) is equivalent to ቊ
−3𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0.

−𝑡 −1 −1
We find 𝑋 = =𝑡 . So all the 𝜆1 -eigenvectors are 𝑡 for 𝑡 ∈ ℝ\{0}.
𝑡 1 1

46
To find 𝜆2 -eigenvectors, we need to solve 𝜆2 𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 = 0 (2)

1 0 2 1 3 −1
We have 𝜆2 𝐼 − 𝐴 = 5 × − = .
0 1 3 4 −3 1

3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
So (2) is equivalent to ቊ
−3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0.

𝑠 1 1
We find 𝑋 = = 𝑠 . So all the 𝜆2 -eigenvectors are 𝑠 for 𝑠 ∈ ℝ\{0}.
3𝑠 3 3

−1 1
We deduce that all the eigenvectors of 𝐴 are 𝑡 and 𝑠 for 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ ℝ\{0}.
1 3

47
AN OBSERVATION
−1 1 2 1
Note: and are called the basic eigenvectors of 𝐴 = .
1 3 3 4

−1 1
Consider 𝑃 = . Let us compute 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃.
1 3

−3/4 1/4
𝑃−1 = .
1/4 1/4

−3/4 1/4 2 1 −1 1
𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 = × ×
1/4 1/4 3 4 1 3

−3/4 1/4 −1 1 1 0 𝜆1 0
= × = = .
5/4 5/4 1 3 0 5 0 𝜆2

48
DIAGONALIZATION
Definition. A diagonal matrix is a square matrix of the form

= 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , ⋯ , 𝜆𝑛 )

Definition. A square matrix 𝐴 is said to be diagonalizable if there is an invertible 𝑃

such that
𝑷−𝟏 𝑨𝑷 is a diagonal matrix.

The matrix 𝑃 is then called the diagonalizing matrix of 𝐴.

49
AN APPLICATION ∎ Note: for every 𝑘 ≥ 1 one has

(𝑷−𝟏 𝑨𝑷)𝒌 = 𝑷−𝟏 𝑨𝒌 𝑷 .

2 1
Problem. Consider 𝐴 = . Find 𝐴2022 .
3 4
1 0 −1 1
Solution. We have seen that 𝑃−1 × 𝐴 × 𝑃 = where 𝑃 = .
0 5 1 3
2022
1 0
This implies that 𝑃−1 ×𝐴×𝑃 2022
=
0 5
1 0
𝑃−1 × 𝐴2022 × 𝑃 =
0 52022
1 0
⟹ 𝐴2022 = 𝑃 × × 𝑃 −1
0 52022
−1
−1 1 1 0 −1 1
= × × .
1 3 0 52022 1 3
50
DIAGONALIZATION THEOREM

Theorem. 1. 𝐴 is diagonalizable if and only if for every eigenvalue 𝜆 of 𝐴:

the multiplicity of 𝝀 = the number of basic 𝝀-eigenvectors.

2. When 𝐴 is diagonalizable, the diagonalizing matrix 𝑃 of 𝐴 is given by

𝑃 = 𝑋1 𝑋2 | ⋯ | 𝑋𝑛 ]

where 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , ⋯ , 𝑋𝑛 are all the basic eigenvectors. And moreover,

𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔(𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , ⋯ , 𝜆𝑛 )

where 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , ⋯ , 𝜆𝑛 are the corresponding eigenvalues.

51
EXAMPLE

For a matrix that is not diagonalizable, see Example 3.3.10 (page 179).

52