4 Happy Hormones (DOSE):
1. Dopamine (rewarding chemical)
Lesson 1: Overview of the BIOPHYPSY
BIOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Biology
- a branch of science that deals with living
organisms and their vital processes
➔ study of living things
Physiology
- study of the mechanisms of the body
➔ cultivating and releasing hormones, thus the
adrenal glands release happy hormones
Psychology
- study of human behavior, emotions, etc.
Biology and Psychology merged together and formed a
new branch called biological psychology.
Biological Psychology
- the branch of psychology that studies the
biological foundations of behavior, emotions,
and mental processes" (Pickett, 2000)
- involve other body systems, like the circulatory
and endocrine system, unlike the neuroscience
that only focuses on nervous sys.
➔ Biological processes influence our behavior
➔ Ex. When in an exciting or scary situation,
we release Adrenaline; thus the term;
Adrenaline Rush
➔ When we release adrenaline, our body
(physiology) has an increased heart rate.
➔ From that, our behavior displays either
excitement (jumps of joy) or anxiety
(restlessness)
➔ Biological processes and behavior have a
reciprocating relationship. It means that
behavior also influences the biological
process in the body. The effect of body
mechanisms in our behavior.
Neuroscience
- an offspring of biological psychology
- the scientific study of the nervous system, its
functions and disorders.
- more focused on the anatomy and physiology of
the nervous system or the brain
2. Oxytocin (love hormone)
3. Serotonin (mood stabilizer)
4. Endorphins (pain killer)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Main Points to Remember in studying
Biological Psychology:
1. Perception transpires in your brain.
- we make interpretations in our brain using the
five senses
- your sense organ may perceive the objects in
your surroundings but your brain processes the
perceptions from the external world
- despite not currently experiencing it, you get to
know a perception and how it affects because of
your memory about it and the interpretation of
your senses (pag hahampasin ka at iilag)
- your senses are only receivers but the brain is
the processor and storage of the received info
- Ex. Rubber Hand Experiment
2. Mental and brain activities are inseparable.
- Rene Descartes: “I think, therefore I am.”
Meaning: I think, therefore I exist.
- mind over matter: a Dualist (dualism)
- however, for Modern Neuroscience & Biological
Psychologist, it is the opposite: mental and brain
activities cannot be separated
- Monism
● a philosophical perspective which
believes that the mind is viewed as the
product of the activity in the brain &
nervous system
● both are parts of one physical system
● mind: product of the brain
- Mental activities are product of brain activities
- Ex. When you hit your head so hard that it
causes brain damage, amnesia follows.
3. Be cautious about what is an explanation and
what is not.
- beware of the interpretations that you make
- ex. ADHD symptoms do not immediately reflect
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 that you have the disorder itself
- let’s not be assuming
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4 Biological Explanation of Behavior
1. Physiological Explanation
- relates a behavior to the activity of the brain
and other organs.
- ex. Amygdala (part of the brain that processes
fear and threat stimuli; threat-detector). When
no absence, omission, or damage, fear can be
experienced; otherwise, one cannot have sense
of fear or detect threat
- it deals with the machinery of the body
to their relation with wolves. Female dogs initiate
or teach the male dogs to mate.
4. Functional Explanation
- describes why a structure or behavior evolved
as it did.
- Ex. Only male birds sing during reproductive
season because that attracts female birds or
scare away other male birds.
- Within a small, isolated population, a gene can
spread by accident through a process called
genetic drift.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Career Opportunities (Specializations)

2. Ontogenetic Explanation A. Research Fields

- describes how a structure or behavior develops,
including the influences of:
a. genes,
b. nutrition,
c. experiences, and
d. their interactions.
- hormones explain human and nonhuman
behavior
- humans: unique from one another in many ways
- Ex. A mother dog eats the placenta of their baby
despite not being taught by its owner. This is
because of their maternal instinct—from the
release of oxytocin as an increasing agent.
However, the father dog has no paternal instinct.
- Research positions ordinarily require a PhD.
- Researchers are employed by universities,
hospitals, pharmaceutical firms, and research
institutes.
1. Neuroscientist
● Studies the anatomy, biochemistry, or
physiology of the nervous system. (This
broad term includes any of the next five,
as well as other specialties not listed)
2. Behavioral neuroscientist
● (almost synonym psychobiologist,
biopsychologist, or physiological
psychologist)
● Investigates how functioning of the brain
and other organs influences behavior.

- Oxytocin: love hormone; women have higher 3. Cognitive neuroscientist

levels of this than men. ● Uses brain research, such as scans of
brain anatomy or activity, to analyze and
explore people's knowledge, thinking,
Oxytocin for women Oxytocin for men
and problem solving
For caring and maternal For libido and sexual
instincts. drive. 4. Neuropsychologist
● Conducts behavioral tests to determine
3. Evolutionary explanation the abilities and disabilities of people
- reconstructs the evolutionary history of a with various kinds of brain damage, and
structure or behavior. changes in their condition over time.
● Most neuropsychologists have a mixture
- call attention to behavioral similarities among of psychological and medical training;
related species. they work in hospitals and clinics.

- Ex. Huskies vs. Golden Retrievers. Both are 5. Psychophysiologist

dogs but huskies baby talks & howls at night due ● Measures heart rate, breathing rate,
brain waves, and other body processes

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 and how they vary from one person to
another or one situation to another.
6. Neurochemist
● Investigates the chemical reactions in
the brain.
7. Comparative psychologist
● (almost synonym ethologist, animal
behaviorist)
● Compares the behaviors of different
species and tries to redate them to
their ways of life
8. Evolutionary psychologist
● (almost synonym: sociobiologist)
● Relates behaviors, especially social
behaviors, including those of humans,
to the function they have served and,
therefore, the presumed selective
pressures that caused them to evolve.
B. Practitioner Fields of Psychology
- Require a PhD, PsyD, or master's degree.
- In most cases, their work is not directly related
to neuroscience.
- However, practitioners often need to understand
it enough to communicate with a client's
physician.
1. Clinical psychologist
● Employed by hospital, clinic, private
practice, or college; helps people with
emotional problems.
2. Counseling psychologist
● Employed by hospital, clinic, private
practice, or college.
● Helps people make educational,
vocational, and other decisions.
3. School psychologist
● Most are employed by a school system.
● Identifies educational needs of
schoolchildren, devises a plan to
meet the needs, and then helps
teachers implement it.
C. Medical Fields
- Require an MD plus about four years of
additional specialized study and practice.
- Physicians are employed by hospitals, clinics,
medical schools, and in private practice.
- Some conduct research in addition to seeing
patients.
1. Neurologist
● Treats people with brain damage or
diseases of the brain.
2. Neurosurgeon
● Performs brain surgery.
3. Psychiatrist
● Helps people with emotional distress
or troublesome behaviors, sometimes
using drugs or other medical
procedures.
D. Allied Medical Field
- Ordinarily require a master's degree or more.
- Practitioners are employed by hospitals, clinics,
private practice, and medical schools.
1. Physical therapist
● Provides exercise and other treatments
to help people with muscle or nerve
problems, pain or anything else that
impairs movement.
2. Occupational therapist
● Helps people improve their ability to
perform functions of daily life, for
example, after a stroke.
3. Social worker
● Helps people deal with personal and
family problems.
● The activities of a social worker overlap
those of a clinical psychologist.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 reasons why they study nonhumans:
1. The underlying mechanisms of behavior are
similar across species and sometimes easier
to study in a nonhuman species.
● Human bodies are too complex so they
studied from the smallest.
2. We are interested in animals for their own sake.
● Humans are simply curious
● Study their ways of living
3. What we learn about animals sheds light on
human evolution.
● Ex. Chimpanzees’ evolution to humans.
● Compare species
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 4. Legal or ethical restrictions prevent certain kinds b. Replacement
of research on humans. - using substitutes like computers
● In some makeup brands, they test their
products to animals to ensure safety. c. Refinement
- modifying procedures to reduce pain
Jesse Gelsinger
- Had a rare genetic condition in the liver 2. Abolitionists
(metabolic disorder) that has a low - animals have the same rights as humans
survival chance but managed to live - killing animals is murder
longer. - firm stand about not eating animals, sell fur or
- He had altruistic behavior to participate make profit out of them, and cage them
in gene therapy to help scientists. _____________________________________________
- He was injected by a gene corrector
which unfortunately, eventually caused
Lesson 2: Neurons and Glia
his death.
- Prior to his death, a conducted research
about gene therapy was unsuccessful Nerve Cells and Impulses
for the monkeys resulting in their death.
- Researchers also had internal conflict. Neurons
- receive information and transmit it to other cells
Animal Subjects Guidelines and the brain.
- Provisions for the protection of animal - receive, transmit, & conduct messages (RTC)
subjects according to American
Psychological Association (2008): a. Cerebral Cortex: 16 B neurons
b. Cerebellum: 69 B neurons
1. Necessity c. Spinal Cord: 1 B neurons
- Clear scientific purpose d. Rest of the Brain: Less than 1 B
- The researchers should follow their
goals such as increasing knowledge and 2 kinds of cells in NS
behavior or improving the health and 1. Neurons (nerve cells)
welfare of animals. Animal protection 2. Glia (supporting cells/neuroglia)

2. Basic care and housing of the animal Glia - derived from glue (binds neurons)
- Provide them food and shelter as
research subjects. Nerve Impulses - “messages”
- 650 dollars is a good amount.
Anatomy of Neurons
3. Experimental procedures should cause as
little pain and distress as possible.
- Avoid causing harm or lessen the
number of animals used

Degree of Oppositions

1. Minimalists
- tolerate certain types of animal research under
certain conditions.
- No intention of harming or killing
- Little pain only

Three R's of Animal Research

a. Reduction
- reduce use number of animals used

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 86 Billion - number of neurons in body
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Cell Membrane
- in and out of information
- outer-limiting membrane (guard)
Types of Glia

2. Cell Body Type Location Functions

- the soma
Astrocyte CNS - Structural & nutritional
- contains: support for neurons
● nucleus - Isolation of the synapse
● ribosomes - protein synthesis - Debris cleanup
● mitochondria - ATP (cell powerhouse) - Blood-brain barrier
- Participation in chemical
signaling
3. Dendrites
- carries upcoming messages towards the central Oligodendrocyte CNS Myelination of axons
body
- receiver towards the central body Schwann cell PNS Myelination of axons

Microglia CNS Debris cleanup

Two Neuron fibers: Axon & Dendrites

4. Axon Hillock 1. Astrocytes

- bridge between axon and cell body
5. Axon
- conducts messages away from the cell body
6. Myelin (sheath)
- whitish, fatty material with waxy appearance
- provide structural matrix for the neurons
- form connections with the blood supply of the
brain.
- contribute to the blood-brain barrier.
- surround and isolate the area of the synapse.

7. Nodes of Ranvier
- gaps between axons

8. Buttons
- also known as axon terminal

9. Synapses
- gaps between neurons

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 - largest glial cells
- star-shaped (from its prefix: astro)
- form “connections w/ blood supply” of the brain
- !! holds neurons into place !!
- contribute to the blood-brain barrier
- surround & isolate the area of the synapse
- helpful in transmitting nutrients into neurons
- prevents toxins from entering blood supply
- HOWEVER, they digest damages and causes
scar tissue; thus, it results in the axon &
dendrites growth absence so astrocytes are not
helpful when they are damaged

2. Oligodendrocyte.
- provide the myelin covering that insulates some
axons in the CNS (brain & spinal cord).
- may myelinate axons from an average of 15
different neurons.
- contribute to the structural stability of the brain
and spinal cord

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THE BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

The Blood-Brain Barrier

- A mechanism that impedes substances from
many toxic blood into the brain.

- Delays or prevents chemicals from entering the

brain

- Brain: severely disturbed by certain kinds of

3. Schwann Cells.
chemicals but fortunate enough to survive
- supply the myelin for the peripheral nerves
exiting the brain and spinal cord.
Endothelial cells
- provides a single myelin segment on one
- forms the walls of the capillaries.
peripheral axon.
- takes large numbers of Schwann cells to
● Outside the brain: separated by small
myelinate a peripheral nerve.
gaps
- supply myelin but in PNS (cranial and spinal
● Inside the brain: joined tightly
nerves)
- cells that are joined tightly to form brain
capillaries

- viruses and bacteria are blocked from

entering the brain

4. Microglia. - keeps out (blocks):

- Tiny, mobile glial cells that migrate to areas of a. Harmful chemicals (advantage)
damage and digest debris. b. Useful chemicals (disadvantage)
- “Nurse” monitors the health of nearby neurons
- Debris: dead cells and bacteria But due to mechanisms, some molecules can still enter.

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a. Special Mechanism is required for Useful chemicals B1, thiamine
to cross the blood-brain barrier: - the body needs this to use glucose
1. All fuels
2. Amino acids Thiamine deficiency
- leads to death of neurons
b. No special mechanism is required for: - some body has having hard time processing
glucose
1. Small, uncharged molecules
● Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Korsakoff's syndrome
- marked by severe memory impairment
2. Molecules that dissolve in the fats of the - result of chronic alcoholism
membrane
● Vitamin A and D In other words:
● Psychiatric Drugs 1. Neurons rely on glucose
● Illegal Drugs 2. Glucose relies on oxygen to metabolize
3. Glucose relies on thiamine to use oxygen
Passive Transports
- no special mechanism is required Neurons need OTG:
1. Oxygen
Active Transport 2. Thiamine
- a protein-mediated process that expends energy 3. Glucose
to pump chemicals from the blood into the brain. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
- they are large molecules so they need special NERVE IMPULSE
mechs to pass through brain capillaries or
barriers Nerve Impulse
➢ Glucose - the electrical message that is transmitted down
➢ Amino Acids the axon of a neuron.
➢ Purines - regenerated at points along the axon
➢ Choline
➢ A few vitamins a. Nerve cells - neurons
➢ Iron b. Nerve impulse - messages

c. Unknown Mechanism A. The Resting Potential of the Neuron

- insulin and other hormones
- also knowns as Unidentified Transport Polarization
- The electrical gradient that the membrane of a
Pros: Essential to health. neuron maintains
Cons: Nearly all the drugs used for chemotherapy fail to - A difference in the electrical charge inside and
cross the blood-brain barrier. outside of the cell

Synthesis: How brain blood barrier works: ➢ !!! The cell is in a resting potential state !!!
1. Endothelial Cells
2. Passive Transport ➢ A typical level is -70 millivolts (mV), but it varies
3. Active Transport from one neuron to another
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NOURISHMENT IN VERTEBRATE NEURONS

Glucose
- Vertebrate neurons depend almost entirely on it.

Oxygen
- Neurons need a steady supply of this
- 20% of all oxygen consumed by the body is
used by the brain

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 - No processing of information 1. DEPOLARIZATION
● Na+ channels - open
● At rest, the membrane maintains an electrical ● Na+ diffuses into the cell
polarization or a difference in the electrical
charge of two locations RESULT:
● (-) outside :: (+) inside
➢ Inside the cell
- slightly negative mainly
because of negatively
charged proteins
- negative charged ions (anions)

➢ Outside the cell

- slightly positive due to
positively charged proteins
- many positive charge ions
(proteins)
-
➢ Polar: they should be balanced
B. The Action Potential of the Neuron
- Movement of electrical charges within a cell into
a more positive direction
- Sodium channels (pink) are open and the
sodium diffuses (high to low concentration) in to
the cell and potassium are closed

● electrical messages that runs through the cell - Thus:

➢ Outside - negative
● Action potential produces an outcome ➢ Inside - positive

Involves two phases: 2. REPOLARIZATION

● Na+ channels - close
1. Depolarization ● All K+ channels - open
- removing from polarization ● K+ diffuses out of the cell

2. Repolarization RESULT:
- turning the polarization back ● (+) outside :: (-) inside
● back to resting membrane potential
● The resting potential remains stable until the
neuron is stimulated - Movement of cell is into negative direction

Action potentials - Potassium goes in to low concentrated areas;

- When stimulated, these are the messages sent ➢ Open: Potassium
by axons ➢ Closed: Sodium

1. Hyperpolarization - Thus:
- refers to increasing the polarization or ➢ Inside - negative
the difference between the electrical ➢ Outside - positive
charge of two places

2. Depolarization
- refers to decreasing the polarization
towards zero

3. Threshold of Excitation
- refers to a level above which any
stimulation produces a massive
depolarization

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 ● An action potential is a rapid depolarization of ● The sodium-potassium pump later restores the
the neuron original distribution of ions
- The action potential threshold varies
from one neuron to another

● Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold

of excitation triggers a nerve impulse or action
potential

● Propagation in physics - Wave transmission to

medium

Propagation
- in nerve potential, replication of potential down
the length of the axon; action is regenerated
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE MYELIN SHEATH AND
SALTATORY CONDUCTION

Nodes of Ranvier
- The myelin sheath of axons are interrupted by
short unmyelinated sections called this.
- gaps or indentation of myelin sheath

Myelin
- is an insulating material composed of fats and
proteins
● No interval happens in transmission of
messages.
● At each node of Ranvier, the action potential is
regenerated by a chain of positively charged
● 3 decimal seconds is the speed on info
ion pushed along by the previous segment
Threshold of excitation: gathering of energy
● Nerve impulse is regenerated per node of
ranvier to prevent from weakening the
1. Level of polarization which the action potential
action potential
has happened
2. Neuron firing (Depolarization)
3. Resting state (repolarization)

Ex. Goku and Black Panther’s Suit

● After an action potential occurs, sodium

channels are quickly closed

● The neuron is returned to its resting state by the

opening of potassium channels
- Potassium ions flow out due to the
concentration gradient and take with
them their positive charge

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Saltatory conduction 2. Autonomic
- used to describe the “jumping” of the action ● stimulate/regulate the activity of smooth
potential from node to node muscles, heart, and glands
➔ Provides rapid conduction of impulses Two neurons
➔ Conserves energy for the cell - neurons are classified according to the direction
of stimuli
Multiple sclerosis
- disease in which the myelin sheath is destroyed 1. Afferent
and associated with poor muscle coordination ● “sensory neurons”
and sometimes visual impairments ● carries information from sensory
receptors towards CNS
● internal organs and skins

2. Efferent
● “motor neurons”
● away from CNS; towards
muscles/glands

Stages/Cycle:

1. Sensory Receptor (SR)

- reacts to stimuli

_____________________________________________ 2. Sensory Neuron

- connectors of SR and EO
Lesson 3: Synapse and Neurotransmitters
3. Interneuron
a. central element
Synapse b. CNS integration center
- gaps adjacent neurons c. association center
- “functional junction”
- there are many chemical events 4. Motor Neuron
- connectors of SR and EO
Charles Scott Sherrington (1906)
- Neurons communicate by transmitting chemicals 5. Effector Organ (EO)
at junctions. - muscles/glands that are eventually
- Introduced the term Synapse stimulated connectors of SR and EO

Reflexes
- Automatic muscular responses to stimuli
- programmed activity
- (1) rapid, (2) predictable, (3) involuntary reaction
to stimuli

Reflex Arc
- The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle Reflex Arc
response.
- “neural pathway” a. Reflexes are slower than conduction along an
axon
2 kinds of reflexes: - delays because it takes time to diffuse
neurotransmitter from the cell
1. Somatic
● stimulate skeletal muscles b. Several weak stimuli presented at slightly
different times or slightly different locations

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 produces a stronger reflex than a single stimulus neurons to fire action potential
does
- Konti, wala, marami = may reflex

c. As one set of muscles relaxes, another set

becomes excited

● Spatial summation is critical to brain functioning.

● Temporal summation and Spatial summation

ordinarily occur together.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
Properties of Synapses

According to neuron:
● Graded potential
1. Presynaptic Neuron ○ Partial depolarization (excitatory)
- neuron that delivers the synaptic ○ Temporary hyperpolarization (inhibitory)
transmission
- axon terminal/button ● Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
○ Occurs when Na+ ions enter the
2. Postsynaptic Neuron postsynaptic
- neuron that receives the message ○ A graded depolarization
- dendrites
● Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
Type of Summation: ○ This occurs when K+ leaves the cell or
CI- enters the cell after it is stimulated
1. Temporal Summation ○ A temporary hyperpolarization
- Repeated stimuli within a brief time
having a cumulative effect. 1. Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)
- one single cell (neuron) that will decide - EPSPs are not action potentials but contributors
(is sufficient) only
- graded potential that decays over time and
2. Spatial Summation space
- Several synaptic inputs originating from - The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for
separate locations exerting a cumulative temporal and spatial summation.
effect on a postsynaptic neuron. - increases likelihood that the neuron will fire
- Neuron follows the will of the majority of therefore an action potential happens

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2. Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP) ➢ IPSPs decrease the number of action potentials
- Moving it further from the threshold and below the spontaneous firing rate
decreasing the probability of an action potential
- The internęuron sends a message to block
activity of motor neurons
- an active "brake" that suppresses excitation
- decreases likelihood that the neuron will fire
therefore a resting potential happens
- analogous to brake

Neural integration
- Decision-making process of neurons

Spontaneous Firing rate

Normal Excitement Added/ Subtracted Total

10 AP/s EPSP (+5) 15 AP/s

15 AP/s IPSP (-5) 10 AP/s

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THE DISCOVERY OF CHEMICAL
TRANSMISSION AT SYNAPSES
Relationship among EPSP, IPSP, and Action Potentials
Otto Loewi
- Communication across the synapse occurs via
chemical means
↓
Neurotransmitters
- are chemicals that travel across the synapse
and allow communication between neurons

● Sherrington assumed that synapses produce on

and off responses

● Synapses vary enormously in their duration of ↓

effects. Chemical transmission predominates
throughout the nervous system
1. 1 excites 3; thus 3 becomes the excitatory
2. 2 comes, so 1 excites 2 instead
3. 3 thus becomes the inhibitory
4. 2 thus becomes the excitatory

Spontaneous Firing Rate

➢ the periodic production of action potentials
despite synaptic input

➢ EPSPs increase the number of action potentials

above the spontaneous firing rate

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The Sequence of Chemical Events at the Synapse

The moment The neuron synthesizes chemicals that

serve as neurotransmitters.

This is it! Travels down the axon thru AP

Let go. molecules diffuse across the cleft

Don’t leave Attachment to receptors , and alter the

me! activity of the postsynaptic neuron

The Break Up The neurotransmitter molecules separate

from their receptors

Tayo na lang The neurotransmitters are taken back

ulit? into the presynaptic neuron for recycling
or diffuse away

The postsynaptic cell may send reverse

Pero ayoko na. messages to slow the release of further
neurotransmitters by presynaptic cells

Axon terminal
- presynaptic neuron or terminal

Dendrite
- postsynaptic membrane

Exocytosis
- releasing of neurotransmitters

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 b2. Indolamines
● Serotonin
● Melatonin

c. Amino acid neurotransmitters

● Glutamate
● GABA
● 6 others

d. ATP and its byproducts

2. Neuropeptides
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NEUROTRANSMITTERS a. Endorphins
b. Substance P
Neurotransmitters c. Cholecystokinin
● Released on the presynaptic terminal through d. Insulin
the synaptic cleft and binds to receptor molecule e. Vasopressin
on the postsynaptic membrane f. Oxytocin
g. More than 40 others
● Response is either stimulatory or inhibitory
3. Gaseous Neurotransmitters
● Channels
○ Na+ channels: stimulation a. Nitric oxide
○ K+ channels: inhibition b. Carbon monoxide?

● Vesicles Features of Small-Molecule Transmitters and Neuropeptides

○ tiny special packets located in the
presynaptic terminal where Small-molecule Neuropeptides
neurotransmitters are held for release. Transmitters

Synthesis In axon terminal In cell body; requires

● Monoamine oxidase transport
○ a chemical that breaks down excess
levels of some neurotransmitters. Recycling of Yes No
Vesicles

● Exocytosis Activation Moderate action High action potential

○ refers to the excretion of the potential frequency frequency
neurotransmitter from the presynaptic
Deactivation Reuptake or Diffusion away from
terminal into the synaptic cleft. enzymatic the synapse
degradation
Major Categories of Neurotransmitters,
Neuromodulators, and Neurohormones Function Fast Neuromodulation
neurotransmission

1. Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

a. Acetylcholine Characteristics of Selected Neurotransmitters

b. Monoamines Acetylcholine

b1. Catecholamines Locations Functions

● Dopamine
● Norepinephrine - Neuromuscular junction
● Epinephrine - Preganglionic - Movement
autonomic synapses

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- Postganglionic
parasympathetic
synapses
- Basal forebrain
projections to
hippocampus and
amygdala; the septum;
the brainstem
- Autonomic function GABA
- Learning and memory Locations Functions
Widely distributed in the - Inhibition
Central Nervous System - Mood
- Seizure threshold

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Dopamine
Locations Functions
Locations Functions
- Central nervous system
- Substantia nigra and - Movement neuromodulator - Pain modulation
basal ganglia - Autonomic nervous
- Ventral tegmentum - Reinforcement system - Inhibition
projections to - Frequently found in
hippocampus, amygdala, - Planning axons containing
and nucleus accumbens catecholamines
- Ventral tegmentum
projections to
frontal lobe of the cortex Endorphins

Locations Functions
Norepinephrine
- Periaqueductal gray
Locations Functions - Hypothalamus - Pain reduction
- Pituitary gland
- Pons (especially locus - Limbic system - Feelings of well-being
coeruleus, which - Arousal and Vigilance - Basal ganglia
projects widely to spinal - Spinal cord
cord and brain) - Mood - Ventral tegmentum
- Medulla
- Hypothalamus
- Postganglionic Substance P
sympathetic synapses
Locations Functions

Serotonin - Spinal Cord - Pain

Locations Functions
Nitric Oxide (NO)
Projections originate in
the pons, particularly the - Sleep Locations Functions
raphe nucleus, and - Appetite
project widely in the brain - Mood - Central and peripheral - Relaxes smooth muscle
and spinal cord nervous systems cells in blood vessels
- Erection
- Smooth muscle - Possible retrograde
Glutamate signaling

Locations Functions
_____________________________________________
Widely distributed in the - Excitation
Central Nervous System - Long-term memory

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