Fronts1 Merged

IMAGE SOURCE:http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter11/cf_xsect.
html
Front
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.71 Define warm front, cold front.
LO2.72 Know the symbols for warm and
cold fronts and identifies them on a
weather map.
LO2.73 Describe, with the aid of a diagram,
the weather experienced during the
passage of an idealized warm front.
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.74 Describe, with the aid of a diagram,

the weather experienced during the
passage of an idealized cold front.
Importance of the Topic
• The students will be able to
have the knowledge on what
kinds of weather are
associated with warm and cold
front which will be of great help
with their future profession.
Front
As air masses move within the general

circulation, they travel from their source
regions to other areas dominated by air
having different characteristics.
Front
This leads to a zone of separation

between the two air masses, called
frontal zone or front, across which
temperature, humidity, and wind speed
and direction change rapidly.
IMAGE SOURCE: https://slideplayer.com/slide/10625278/
SYMBOLS
IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.earthonlinemedia.com

Cold front
It is the transition zone where a cold air
mass is replacing a warmer air mass.
Cold fronts generally move from
northwest to southeast. The air behind
a cold front is noticeably colder and
drier than the air ahead of it.
Cold front
When a cold front passes through,
temperatures can drop more than 15
degrees within the first hour.
IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

Cold front
Symbolically, a cold front is represented

by a solid line with triangles along the
front pointing towards the warmer air
and in the direction of movement.
Cold front
On colored weather maps, a cold front
is drawn with a solid blue line.

Cold front
In the map of surface temperatures
below, the station east of the front
reported a temperature of 55 degrees
Fahrenheit while a short distance
behind the front, the temperature
decreased to 38 degrees.
Cold front
An abrupt temperature change over a
short distance is a good indicator that a
front is located somewhere in between.

Warm front
It is the transition zone where a warm
air mass is replacing a cold air mass.
Warm fronts generally move from
southwest to northeast and the air
behind a warm front is warmer and
more moist than the air ahead of it.
Warm front
When a warm front passes through, the
air becomes noticeably warmer and
more humid than it was before.

Warm front
Symbolically, a warm front is

represented by a solid line with
semicircles pointing towards the colder
air and in the direction of movement.
Warm front
On colored weather maps, a warm front
is drawn with a solid red line.

Warm front

Occluded front
A developing cyclone typically has a
preceding warm front (the leading edge
of a warm moist air mass) and a faster
moving cold front (the leading edge of a
colder drier air mass wrapping around
the storm).
Occluded front
North of the warm front is a mass of
cooler air that was in place before the
storm even entered the region.

Occluded front
As the storm intensifies, the cold front
rotates around the storm and catches
the warm front. This forms an occluded
front, which is the boundary that
separates the new cold air mass (to the
west) from the older cool air mass
already in place north of the warm
front.
Occluded front
Symbolically, an occluded front is
represented by a solid line with
alternating triangles and circles pointing
the direction the front is moving. On
colored weather maps, an occluded
front is drawn with a solid purple line.
Occluded front

Occluded front
Changes in temperature, dew point
temperature, and wind direction can
occur with the passage of an occluded
front.
Occluded front
In the map below, temperatures ahead
(east of) the front were reported in the
low 40's while temperatures behind
(west of) the front were in the 20's and
30's. The lower dew point
temperatures behind the front indicate
the presence of drier air.
Occluded front

Stationary front
When a warm or cold front stops
moving, it becomes a stationary front.
Once this boundary resumes its
forward motion, it once again becomes
a warm front or cold front.
Stationary front
A stationary front is represented by
alternating blue and red lines with blue
triangles pointing towards the warmer
air and red semicircles pointing towards
the colder air.
•
Stationary front

Stationary front
• A noticeable temperature change
and/or shift in wind direction is
commonly observed when crossing
from one side of a stationary front to
the other.
Stationary front

Clouds and weather at fronts
IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.athensgaweather.com/meteorology-101-pressure-fronts/

Sequence of weather at cold fronts
ELEMENT IN WARM SECTOR AT PASSAGE IN THE REAR
Barometer Little change at first; falls Show sudden rise as Continuous rise,
on near approach of front passes. rapid at first
front becoming slower
Wind Steady in direction, then Sudden well-marked Usually fairly steady

backing † a little and veer ‡ often with squall, in direction, except in
becoming squally on sometimes followed by squalls, decreases
near approach of front. slight backing and slowly.
strengthening.
Temperature Little change, but Sudden fall Little change,

marked fall with onset of sometimes slow fall;
frontal rain. varies in showers.
Cloud St, or Sc, then Cu or Cb Cu or Cb with Fs and As, Ac, then Cu and
Fc below, sometimes possibly Cb with blue
very low Ns sky increasing.
Sequence of weather at cold fronts
Precipitation Intermittent light rain or Heavy rain, sometimes hail Heavy rain usually
drizzle, sometimes fair. perhaps thunder. clears quickly and is
Heavy rain on near followed by isolated
approach to front. showers becoming less
frequent.
Visibility Moderate or poor, perhaps Reduced further rain. Rapid improvement as
fog. front passes, becomes
very good except in
showers.
NOTE:
† Backing in northern hemisphere, veering in
southern hemisphere
‡ Veering in northern hemisphere, backing in
southern hemisphere
Sequence of weather at warm fronts
Barometer Steady fall. Stops falling. Little chne,

sometimes unsteady
in vigorous system.
Wind Increasing; someties Veers. ‡ Steady in direction.

backing a little. †
Temperature Steady or slow rise. Rises. Little change.
Cloud Ci followed by Cs Low Ns and Fs St or Sc.

increasing, then As, then
Ns with Fs below.
Sequence of weather at warm fronts
Precipitation * Light rain, soon Rain stops or gives Intermittent slight

becoming continuous way to drizzle. rain, or drizzle,
and slowly increasing to possibly fog;
moderate. sometimes fair.
Visibility Good except in Poor, sometimes mist Moderate or poor;
precipitation or fog. sometimes
widespread mist or
fog.
NOTE:
† Backing in northern hemisphere, veering in southern
hemisphere
‡ Veering in northern hemisphere, backing in southern
hemisphere
* If the air temperature is low enough snow will fall instead of
rain
Summary
• Front and kinds of front
• Weather associated with kind of front
References:
1. -T1- Bowditch, N. The American
Practical Navigator.2002. National
Imagery & Mapping Agency.
Maryland.p.489
2. -T2- Cornish, M. and Ives, E. Reeds
Maritime Meteorology 3rd
Edition.pp.90,92
3. -WR34-
http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guid
es/mtr/fw/prs/def.rxml
IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.lordgrey.org.ukC
Structure of Depressions
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.75 Define depression.
LO2.76 Identify a depression on a surface

synoptic or prognostic chart.
LO2.77 Describe the stages in the life cycle

of a polar front depression.
identify a depression on a
synoptic and prognostic chart
which is very useful in their
maritime profession for the
interpretation of weather
charts onboard the vessel.
Depressions
An area of barometric pressure
surrounded by an area in which the
pressure is relatively high. The isobars
are roughly circular or oval in shape
and, in accordance to Buys Ballot Law,
…
Depressions
…the wind flows in an anticlockwise
direction round the area of low
pressure in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
Depressions
Depressions are formed at the

boundary between two different air
masses. This depression is normally
associated with cloudy, rainy and windy
weather. This occurs, when warm air is
forced to rise over cold air.
Depressions
Here warm air is traveling faster than
cold air or warm air travels in opposite
direction, which are described as
below,
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

Depressions
Since this depression is formed at
frontal area of different air masses, it is
also known as Frontal depression.
Depressions
The formation process of this
depression is called Frontogeneses;
similarly decay or weakening of a

depression is called Frontolysis.
Depressions
On a weather chart (synoptic or
prognostic) a depression appears as a
set of closed curved isobars, with wind
circulation anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere (as below diagram),
clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Depressions

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.metlink.org/secondary/a-level/weather-charts/ ukC
Polar Front
Depression
Life cycle of a polar front depression:
The front, being the interface of two

different air masses, becomes a wave
form. This wave undergoes a cycle,
which finally generates a depression.

Life cycle of this polar front depression

has four stages.


• 1st stage (Figure 1) : Two different air

masses are traveling at opposite
directions. They meet along a line, which
is called frontal boundary.
• 2nd stage (Figure 2) : A small wave-like

disturbance develops on the frontal
boundary between the two air masses.
• 3rd stage (Figure 3) : The system is about

developed and two distinct fronts (warm &
cold front) are formed as part of the
system.
• 4th stage (Figure 4) : The cycle is

completed and the depression is formed,
with wind circulation anticlockwise and
inward direction to low pressure (as it is for
northern hemisphere)
Summary
• Depression
• Depression in a Surface Prognostic
Chart
• Polar Front Depression
References:
Maritime Meteorology 3rd Edition.pp.76
2. -WR54- https://books.google.com.ph
3. -WR55-
http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/A
IR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pd
f
IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.metcheck.com/WEATHER/discussion.asp?DiscussionID=349&DiscussionTitle=Family+Of+Depressions
(Continuation)
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.78 Describe a family of
depressions.
LO2.79 Draw a diagram of a polar front

depression, for both northern and
southern hemispheres, showing
isobars, warm and cold fronts, wind
circulation and warm sector.
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.80 Draw a cross-section through a

polar front depression, on the
poleward and equatorial side of the
centre, showing fronts, cloud and
precipitation areas.
Family of Depressions
The speed of movement of a cold front
is greatest where the winds are
strongest, that is, near the depression’s
centre.
Near the perimeter of the system
movement is less rapid and, as the
whole system advances, the cold front
tends to trail out well to the rear where
it is continuous with the more or less
inactive part of the polar front.
A new depression may be formed on
this trailing cold front and, as it matures
and occludes, the process is repeated
and another depression is born.
So from two or three to five
depressions can form along a particular
front.
Primary Depression - initial depression

Secondary Depression – is one which
is contained within the circulation of a
larger depression called primary.
These secondary depressions
sometimes grow very quickly into
intense low with almost same
characteristics as primary low.
Primary along with another or a series
of secondary depressions is termed as
Family of depression, which is shown
as below figure.

Below diagram and chart are showing
the cross-section through a depression,
which is providing the weather
conditions (cloud, precipitation,
visibility, temperature etc).

At cold front Warm Sector At warm front
Wind very squally and Wind steady Wind increasing and
veers backing
Thick cloud with Cloud may thin and break Nimbostratus cloud
cumulonimbus building and thickening
Heavy rain, sometimes Occasional showers or Rain becoming heavier.
with hail, thunder or clear sky
sleet
Air pressure falls near Pressure steady Air pressure falling

the front then suddenly
rises
Visibility poor Poor visibility. Visibility deteriorating
Temperature is cold. Temperature is mild. Temperature continues to

rise.
Behind the cold front Forward of warm front
Strong and gusty wind Wind veers
Clear skies for a while or cumulus cloud. Altostratus and cirrus clouds.
Air pressure steady. Air pressure steadies
Visibility good. Visibility is poor
Rain turns to drizzle.

Diagram of a Polar Front Depression
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.ecoca.ro/meteo/tutorial/Weather/Older/Depressions.html

A depression appears on
a synoptic (weather) chart as a set of
closed curved isobars with winds
circulating anticlockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere due to the
rotation of the Earth.
The warm and cold fronts associated

with depressions bring with them
characteristically unsettled weather.
Depressions vary from between 200

and 2,000 miles in diameter; they may
be deep when pressure at their centre is
very low and the isobars are tightly
packed, or shallow when less well
developed.
Northern Hemisphere
IMAGE SOURCE: http://freedomsailingscotland.com/aa4-depressions/

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.metlink.org/secondary/a-level/weather-systems/

Summary
• Family of Depressions
• Polar Front Depressions
References:
Maritime Meteorology 3rd Edition.p.94-
95,97-98
2. -WR55-
http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/
AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.
pdf
3. -WR56- http://www.ecoca.ro
IMAGE SOURCE: http://agron-www.agron.iastate.edu/courses/Agron541/classes/541/lesson07b/7b.5.html
(Continuation)
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.81 Describe the usual movement of a
polar front depression.
LO2.82 Apply previous concepts to an
explanation of the weather changes
experienced when a frontal depression
passes with its centre on the poleward
side of an observer in the northern
hemisphere and in the southern
hemisphere.
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.83 Describe the process leading to the

occlusion of a polar front depression.
Secondary Depression
It is one which forms within the isobaric

pattern of another (primary)
depression. When the primary
depression is old and filling up, the
secondary may develop and deepen till
it completely absorbs all traces of the
primary.
IMAGE SOURCE: Cornish, M. and Ives, E. Reeds Maritime Meteorology 3rd Edition.p.79
The secondary in Fig.12.3 has a

steeper gradient and lower pressure at
its center than the primary or parent
depression. Note that the secondary
depressions often develop into
much more vigorous systems than
their primaries.
Formation of Secondary Depressions
A secondary depression is one which is

contained within the circulation of a
larger depression.
The depression forming on the trailing
cold front of a depression is a
secondary depression.
Occasionally depressions can also

form at the tip of the warm sector or on
the warm front of a partly occluded
depression. These secondaries form
when the movement of the center of
the primary depression is blocked.
Movement of Secondary Depressions
Secondaries have a tendency to move

with the main flow of air round the
primary center. Their speed of
movement is governed by the strength
of wind in the primary circulation.
The Occluding of a Depression
The cold front advances faster than the

warm front and gradually overtakes it,
commencing at the tip of the warm
sector and working down the length of
the front until the occluding process
has been completed and all the tropical
air has been lifted off the ground.
Figures 13.6 and 13.7 show the stages

in the occluding process. Note that the
symbol for occlusion is a combination
of those used for warm and cold fronts.
On working charts an occlusion is
represented by a purple line.
An occlusion is classified as warm or

cold according to whether the
overtaking polar air is warmer or colder
than the retreating polar air,
respectively.
In the former case the overtaking air

will override the colder air and, in the
latter case, will undercut the warmer
air.
In figures 13.8a and 13.9a the position

of the upper front is indicated by a
dotted line. Compare these two figures
and notice that the line marking a cold
occlusion is continuous with the line of
the cold front whereas the warm
occlusion is shown as a continuation of
the warm front.
Movement of Depressions
➢ small active depressions move faster

than large dying ones
➢Small depressions tend to follow the
flow of isobars in the general pattern
➢ move from areas of rising pressure
tendency towards areas of falling
pressure
➢ follow the flow of air around the

perimeter of large, well established,
warm anticyclones
➢ an unoccluded depression moves in
a direction parallel to the isobars in the
warm sector and, at sea, at
approximately the same speed as the
surface wind in the warm sector.
➢ a partly occluded depression tends

to slow down as the occluding process
continues.
➢ a fully occluded depression becomes
slow and sometimes erratic in
movement, but generally moving in the
direction of the average flow of air up to
the tropopause.
➢ large, completely occluded

depressions are liable to become
stationary, or nearly, so especially if
there is little horizontal change in
temperature within the area covered.
➢ a depression within a family follows

the approximate path of its parent but
tends to move off towards lower
latitudes.
➢ secondary depression tend to move
with the main circulation of air round
the primary
➢ a non-frontal depression tends to

move in the same direction as the
strongest winds circulating round it.
The Weather Sequence Associated With Depressions
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.geocoops.com/uploads/2/4/5/3/24532387/71__geo_factsheet_-_cyclones.pdf

Cold Sector Cold front Warm sector Warm front The Approach
Rise in Fall of
pressure Sudden rise in Steady low pressure slows Steady fall of
continues but pressure pressure down and pressure
steadies out ceases in time
Wind veers
Wind veers Likely to be
NW winds again SW/S
from SSE-SW SSE/SE winds
SSW- NW
Squally, speed Very strong Slowly

of wind slowly gusting winds, increasing in
Decreases Strong (e.g.
decreases strong to gale strength
(e.g. force 2-4) force 4-5)
(force force (force 6- (force 1-3
3-6) 8) common)

Cold 3-4°C Warm mild 10- Sudden rise in Relatively cool

Sudden
(W) 11°C (W) °C 10-11°C in winter 6°C
decrease
Cool 12-13°C Warm/hot 19- winter 19-20°C around 15-
of 4-5°C
(S) 20°C (S) summer 16°C summer
Still high
High humidity Slowly rising
Rapid fall in relative High during
until relative
humidity humidity – precipitation
precipitation humidity
drizzle
Clouds initially
Decreasing Low stratus high and thin.
Often towering Low thick
cloud, fair clouds may Hooked cirrus
cumulo- nimbostratus
weather clear a in upper air
nimbus cloud
cumulus little show first sign
of disturbance

Short period of
Continuous
heavy rain,
Heavy rainfall for
then
showers Drizzle. May several No
showers of
but sunny clear a little hours, steady precipitation
hail,
intervals and quite
sleet, snow in
heavy
W
Visibility good
Very good Rapid initially, but
Poor visibility
visibility except Poor visibility decrease in decreasing as
but improving
in showers visibility cloud base
lowers


Summary
• Polar Front Depression
• Occluding of a Depression
• Weather Associated with a Depression
References:
1. -T2- Cornish, M. and Ives, E. Reeds Maritime
Meteorology 3rd Edition.pp.78-79, 93-99
2. -WR59-
http://www.geocoops.com/uploads/2/4/5/3/245
32387/71__geo_factsheet_-_cyclones.pdf
IMAGE SOURCE: http://agron-www.agron.iastate.edu/courses/Agron541/classes/541/lesson07b/7b.5.html
(Continuation)
Learning Outcomes:
LO2.84 Identify a trough of low pressure on
a surface synoptic or prognostic chart
LO2.85 Describe the weather associated

with the passage of a trough.
Trough of Low Pressure
• This is distinguished on the weather
chart by a system of isobars which
appear sharply curved (concave
towards low pressure) along a line
called trough line within a depression.
• (See Figure 12.6)

IMAGE SOURCE: Cornish, M. and Ives, E. Reeds Maritime Meteorology 3rd Edition.p81
• A trough may be termed deep or
shallow according to whether the
curvature of the isobars is acute or
gentle, respectively.
• A trough of low pressure is merely an
extended region of low pressure.
IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.metlink.org

Weather Associated by the
Passage of Trough
• Why are troughs important?
• Troughs of low pressure are
important because they sometimes
lead to the development of a low
pressure system.
Passage of Trough
• Why are troughs important?
• In such a process, the developing
cloud mass associated with a trough
often originate from thunderstorms
which then may further develop into
rain events.
Passage of Trough
• Troughs of low pressure are
responsible for the most severe
thunderstorms. The best situation is
the trough line where there is a
separation of dry air and moist air
mostly along a line. The best storms
occur when moist air is isolated in a
region of dry air.
Passage of Trough
• How do you know if there is a
trough of low pressure?
• There are several situations that can
exist. It depend on the experience of
the person observing the weather as
to how successful a trough can be
detected.
Passage of Trough
• How do you know if there is a
trough of low pressure?
• There is no one method to use but a
"combination" of the following factors
or observations can be considered.
Passage of Trough
• In most cases, cirrostratus (high
cloud) develops. Sometimes,
altostratus and altocumulus (middle
level clouds) also develop and follows
the high cloud.
Passage of Trough
• If high cloud develops from the north-
west or north, this almost certainly is
a trough as most high level and even
middle level clouds approach from the
west or southwest with a cold front.
Passage of Trough
• In clear weather, the first signs of a
trough developing are increasing
temperatures and cumulus beginning
to develop, becoming progressively
larger as well as more frequent over a
few day period. Again, high cloud
develops before or with the cumulus.
Passage of Trough
• Winds are normally light from the
ocean or from the north. The wind
strength may increase but generally
from the north or north-east.
• Another characteristic of a trough is
the moisture haze. Sometimes, there
is a progressive decrease in the
visibility over a few day period.
Passage of Trough
• Increases in moisture will also be
noticed with trough development.
Finding Trough
IMAGE SOURCE: http://australiasevereweather.com

Finding Trough
IMAGE SOURCE: http://australiasevereweather.com

Summary
• Trough of Low Pressure
• Weather Associated with the Passage
of Trough
References:
Maritime Meteorology 3rd
Edition.pp.79, 81
2. WR65
http://australiasevereweather.com

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IMAGE SOURCE:http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter11/cf_xsect.

LO2.74 Describe, with the aid of a diagram,

As air masses move within the general

This leads to a zone of separation

IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.earthonlinemedia.com

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

Symbolically, a cold front is represented

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

Symbolically, a warm front is

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu

IMAGE SOURCE: https://www.athensgaweather.com/meteorology-101-pressure-fronts/

Wind Steady in direction, then Sudden well-marked Usually fairly steady

Temperature Little change, but Sudden fall Little change,

Barometer Steady fall. Stops falling. Little chne,

Wind Increasing; someties Veers. ‡ Steady in direction.

Temperature Steady or slow rise. Rises. Little change.

Cloud Ci followed by Cs Low Ns and Fs St or Sc.

Precipitation * Light rain, soon Rain stops or gives Intermittent slight

LO2.76 Identify a depression on a surface

LO2.77 Describe the stages in the life cycle

Depressions are formed at the

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

similarly decay or weakening of a

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

The front, being the interface of two

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

Life cycle of this polar front depression

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

• 1st stage (Figure 1) : Two different air

• 2nd stage (Figure 2) : A small wave-like

• 3rd stage (Figure 3) : The system is about

• 4th stage (Figure 4) : The cycle is

LO2.79 Draw a diagram of a polar front

LO2.80 Draw a cross-section through a

Primary Depression - initial depression

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.gspmarine.com/Publications/AIR%20MASS%20&%20DEPRESSION.pdf

Air pressure falls near Pressure steady Air pressure falling

Visibility poor Poor visibility. Visibility deteriorating

Temperature is cold. Temperature is mild. Temperature continues to

Air pressure steady. Air pressure steadies

Visibility good. Visibility is poor

Rain turns to drizzle.

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.ecoca.ro/meteo/tutorial/Weather/Older/Depressions.html

The warm and cold fronts associated

Depressions vary from between 200

IMAGE SOURCE: http://freedomsailingscotland.com/aa4-depressions/

IMAGE SOURCE: http://www.metlink.org/secondary/a-level/weather-systems/

LO2.83 Describe the process leading to the

It is one which forms within the isobaric

The secondary in Fig.12.3 has a

A secondary depression is one which is

Occasionally depressions can also