Applied Electricity

APPLIED ELECTRICITY (EE 151)
Compiled by:
E. A. Frimpong
Taught by:
Dr. Kwame Oteng Gyasi

Address: Department of Telecommunication Engineering
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
E-mail: kermaabar@yahoo.com
Phone: (054) 447-8819
Office: Room 313, Caesar Building
Semester 1, 2021
1
TEACHING ASSISTANT
Kitch Mensah-Bonsu
Tel: (055) 682-8075
Mail: mensahbonsukitch@gmail.com
Office: Satellite Lab, Caesar Building
2
EDUCATIONAL AIM
“To introduce students to the physical

principles underpinning Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, including tools
required to analyze electric and magnetic
circuits.”
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
a. Knowledge and understanding
❖ Understand Kirchhoff’s laws, Norton and Thévenin equivalent circuits and be able to
apply them to simple circuits
❖ Understand the superposition principle and be able to apply them to simple circuits
❖ Understand the concept of phasors and be able to apply them to simple AC circuits
b. Intellectual skills
❖ Be able to reduce complex circuits to a simple form

❖ Perform calculations on three-phase circuits
❖ Perform analysis on linear and non-linear magnetic circuits
c. Professional practical skills

❖ Students should be able to apply appropriate method to analyze various
circuits/systems
4
METHODOLOGY
❖ Classroom lectures
5
MATERIAL REQUIRED
❖ Powerpoint presentation:https://goo.gl/W9rKXm
❖ Text book : FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC AND
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
by P. Y. Okyere and E. A. Frimpong
6
COURSE OUTLINE
Unit 1: Circuits and Network Theorems – Kirchhoff's laws, Thevenin’s Theorem,

Norton's Theorem, Superposition Theorem, Reciprocity Theorem and
Delta- Star Transformation.
Unit 2: Alternating current circuits – Determination of Average and RMS values,

Harmonics, Phasors, impedance, current and power in ac circuits
Unit 3: Three-phase circuits – Connection of three-phase windings, three phase loads,

power in three-phase circuits, solving three-phase circuit problems
Unit 4: Magnetic circuits – Components and terminologies, solving

magnetic circuit problems
7
CLASSROOM NORMS
1. No phone usage
2. No eating
3. No noise-making
4. No lateness
5. No intimidation
6. No sleeping
❖Students who fail to abide by these norms will be asked to

leave the classroom
8
ASSESSMENT
1. Quizzes
2. Laboratory work 30%
3. Mid-semester examination
4. End of semester examination 70%
9
UNIT 1: CIRCUIT AND NETWORK THEOREMS
❖ Definitionof a circuit
An interconnection of elements forming a closed path along which
current can flow.
R
+
V(t) L
-
C
❖Elements of an electric circuit

Active elements: Energy producing elements eg. Batteries,
Generators, Solar cells, Transistor models
Passive elements: Energy using elements eg.
Resistors, inductors, capacitors
10
CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGIES
❖ Node (Junction) –A point where currents split or come
together [ points c, d, e and f]
❖Path – Any connection where current flows [eg bc, be,
fa]
b c e g
a d f h
11
❖Branch – A connection (path) between two nodes [eg.
cd, cbad, df]
❖Loop/Mesh – a closed path of a circuit [ eg. cghdc]
b c e g
a d f h
12
❖ Short-circuit– A branch of theoretically zero resistance. It
diverts to itself all currents that would have flown in adjacent
branches (branches hooked to the same node) except
branches with sources.
a b R1 c R3 d R1 R
a 2 R4
V R2 V R3
h g f e b
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
13
❖ Short-circuit cont.
Self assessment
Which of the resistors in the circuit below have been short-
circuited?
R 1 ANS: R2 and R3
V R2 R3
14
❖ Open circuit – A branch of theoretically infinite resistance.
It prevents current from flowing in its branch.
R2 R3 R5
V R1 R4
15
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
16
RESISTORS IN SERIES
17
RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors are in series when the same current flows through
them. There is NO JUNCTION between them.
R1 R2 R1 R2
V V R3
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
In Fig. 1 : R1 and R2 are in series
In Fig. 2: None of the resistors are in series
18
RESISTORS IN SERIES
❖Self assessment 1
Which of the following resistors are in series?
R2 R5 R6
R3
R1
R4
ANS: R1&R2, R3 & R4 and R5 & R6

19
RESISTORS IN SERIES
❖ Total (effective) resistance of series resistors
The total resistance RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, ….., RN which are
in series is given by:
RT = R1 + R2 + ... + RN
20
Resistors are said to be in parallel when the voltage across
them is the same.
R1//R2 R1//R2
R1//R2
R1//R3
R3//R2
21
Colloquially, TWO resistors are in parallel if it is possible to
traverse them without passing through another element.
R1 V R2
22
Self assessment
Which of the resistors in the circuit below are in parallel?
1.6Ω
3Ω 6Ω
4Ω
ANS: 4 // 6
23
Total resistance
When resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel, the total resistance RT
is given by:
1 1 1 R1 R2
= +  RT =
RT R1 R2 R1 + R2
24
EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF A CIRCUIT
Effective circuit resistance is found by identifying and putting
together series and or parallel resistors
Eg 1. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
23
RT = (2 // 3) + 1 =
11
❖Solution +1 = 
2+3 5
25
Eg. 2. Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
❖Solution
2 2
RT = (2 // 2) + 1 = + 1 = 2
2+2 26
Self Assessment 1
Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
2Ω
3Ω 6Ω
4Ω
V
Answer
 46  22 66
RT = (4 // 6 ) + 2 // 3 =  + 2 // 3 = // 3 = 
4 + 6  5 37 27
Self Assessment 2
Find the total resistance of the circuit below.
Answer
1 
RT = (1 // 1) + 1 // 1 // 1 =  + 1 // 1 // 1 = // = 
3 1 3
2  2 2 8
28
CURRENT DIVISION RULE
The current division rule is applied to share current between
parallel branches. Consider the circuits below
I
R1 R2
RT = I1 I2
R1 + R2
R1 R2 R1 R2
V = IRT = I V
R1 + R2
R1 R2
I
V R1 + R2 R1 R2 1 R2
I1 = = =I  =I
R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 R1 + R2 29
Similarly, I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R1
I2 = I
R1 + R2
30
Comparing currents I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R2 R1
I1 = I I2 = I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
31
Consider the figure below,
I
I1 I2
V R1 R2
R2 R1
I1 = I I2 = − I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 32
Example 1
Find the values of I1 and I2 in the circuit below.
10A
I1 I2
V 3Ω 2Ω
Solution
R2 2
I1 = I =  10 = 4 A
R1 + R2 2+3
R1 3
I2 = − I =−  10 = −6 A
R1 + R2 2+3 33
Example 2
Find the value of I1 in the circuit below.
10A
I1
V 3Ω 2Ω 2Ω
Solution
10A
I1 1
I1 =  10 = 2.5 A
V 3Ω 1Ω 1+ 3
34
VOLTAGE DROP
❖Any time a voltage drives current through a resistor, some
of the voltage drops across the resistor.
❖The magnitude of the drop is the product of the resistance
and current
I V1 V2
R1 R2
V2 = V − V1 35
VOLTAGE DROP
Example
Find the values of I and R in the circuit below.
I 4V
R 3
10V
Solution
Voltage across 3Ω resistor = 10 – 4 = 6V
Current in 3Ω resistor = I = 6/3 = 2A
Resistance R = 4V/I = 4/2 = 2Ω
36
REVISION EXERCISE
Find the value of I in the circuit below.
I
3 3.5
4 1 2 5 7
25V
Solution
I I
3 6

4 1 2 4 1 5
25V 25V
37
REVISION EXERCISE
12

13
1
25V
25 V 25
RT =  IT = = = 13 A
13 RT 25
13
38
REVISION EXERCISE
I
6

4 1 5
25V
6
I = − 5  13 = −3 A
6
+4
5 39
Group Assignment 1
Find the value of the current in all resistors of the circuit
below using total resistance and voltage drop principles. DO
NOT use current division rule.
3.5 3
2 1 4 5 7
25V
Submission date: God willing a week today

Submission time: Before lecture starts
Where to submit: Electrical Engineering office 40
KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW(KCL)
❖ The Law
The sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of
currents leaving the node.
i5
i6
i1 i4
i3
i2
Sum of currents entering i1 + i3 + i5
Sum of currents Leaving i2 + i4 + i6
Applying KCL i1 + i3 + i5 = i2 + i4 + i6 41
❖ Example
Find the value of i in the figure below.
i
2
3 4
Solution 7
i+2+3= 4+7
i + 5 = 11
i =6 42
❖ Self assessment
Find the value of i in the figure below.
i
2
3 4
7
ANS i=2
43
KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW(KVL)
❖ The law
The algebraic sum of the voltages in a loop (closed path)
equals zero. Alternatively, in a loop, the algebraic sum of
voltage sources equals the algebraic sum of voltage drops.
R1 R2 R4
a I1 b I2 c I4 d
I3 I5
R3 R5
V1 V2
h g f e
Loop abgha
V1=I1R1+I3R3
Loop adeha
V1-V2=I1R1+I2R2-I4R4 44
R1 R2 R4
a I1 b I2 c I4 d
I3 I5
R3 R5
V1 V2
h g f e
Loop cbgfc 0 = -I2R2 + I3R3 +I5R5

Loop acfha V1=I1R1 + I2R2 – I5R5
45
Example 1
Find the current in all parts of the circuit below.
2Ω 4Ω
b c e
I1 I2
32V 8Ω 20V
I3
a d f
❖Applying KVL to loop bcdab 32 – 2I1 – 8I3 = 0
32 = 2I1 + 8I3 (1)
❖Applying KVL to loop ecdfe 20 – 4I2 – 8I3 = 0
20 = 4I2 + 8I3 (2) 46
2Ω 4Ω
b c e
I1 I2
32V 8Ω 20V
I3
a d f
❖Applying KCL to node c: I 3 = I1 + I 2 (3)

Solving the equations simultaneously yields
I1 = 4A, I2 = -1A and I3 = 3A 47

Example 2
Find the currents in all parts of the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
I1 I1-I2 I2 I2-I3 I3
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
I2
a d f h
2Ω
Solution
Apply KVL to loop cefdc
5I2 + 2 ( I2 – I3 ) + 2I2 - 3 ( I1 – I2 ) = 0 48
0 = -3I1 + 12I2 - 2I3 (1)
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
I1 I1-I2 I2 I2-I3 I3
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
I2
a d f h
2Ω
Apply KVL to loop abcda: 7 = 2I1 + 3(I1 – I2)
7 = 5I1 – 3I2 (2)
Apply KVL to loop ghfeg: 10 = -2 ( I2 – I3 ) + 2I3
10 = -2I2 + 4I3 (3) 49
Solving the three equations:
0 = -3I1 + 12I2 - 2I3 (1)
7 = 5I1 – 3I2 (2)
10 = -2I2 + 4I3 (3)
Simultaneously,
I1 = 2.0A, I2 = 1.0A and I3 = 3.0A
50
Thevenin’s Theorem
Theorem:
Any linear circuit connected between two terminals can be
replaced by a Thevenin’s voltage(VTH) in series with a
Thevenin's resistance (RTH).
VTH is the open-circuit voltage across the two terminals

RTH is the resistance seen from the two terminals when all
sources have been deactivated
12 Ω RTH
A B
A
6Ω VTH
42 V 35 V
B 51
To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following
steps are taken:
1. Remove the resistor from the circuit and mark the two
terminals.
12 Ω 3
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
52
2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) across the two

terminals by applying KVL. Treat VTH as a source.
12 Ω
A B
VTH
42 V 35 V
6Ω
53
3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

sources. Short-circuit voltage sources and Open-circuit
current sources.
12 Ω
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
54
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step
3 as seen from the two terminals
12 Ω
A B
6Ω
55
5. Reproduce the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and connect
the resistor whose current is to be found.
RTH
A
VTH 3
B
56
6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the
current being sought.
I
RTH
A
VTH VTH 3
i=
RTH + R
B
57
Example 1
Using Thevenin’s theorem, determine the current in the 3-Ω
resistor of the circuit below. 12 Ω 3Ω
42 V 35 V
6Ω
Solution 12 Ω
A B
Steps 1 & 2 VTH
6Ω
42 V 35 V
I
58
12 Ω A B
a b c
VTH
6Ω
42 V 35 V
I
f e d
Applying KVL to loop dcbed: 35 + VTH = 6I (1)
Applying KVL to loop fabef: 42 = (12 + 6) I

7
I= A 59
3
7
Substituting for I in equation 1: 35 + VTH = 6( )
3
Steps 3 & 4
VTH = −21V
12 Ω RTH
A B
12  6
RTH = 12 // 6 = = 4
6Ω 12 + 6
60
Steps 5 & 6 RTH = 4Ω
A
I3
VTH= -21V 3Ω
VTH 21
I3 = =− = −3 A
RTH + 3 4+3
61
Example 2
Find the current in the 10-Ω resistor of the circuit below using
Thevenin’s theorem. 5Ω 10 Ω 12 Ω
4V 15 Ω 8Ω 6V
Solution 5Ω VTH
12 Ω
Steps 1 & 2 A B
4V I1 15 Ω I2 8Ω 6V
62
5Ω VTH
a b c 12 Ω d
A B
4V I1 15 Ω I2 8Ω 6V
h g f e
Applying KVL to loop cbgfc: VTH = 15I1 - 8I2 (1)

1
Applying KVL to loop abgha: 4 = (5+15)I1 I1 = A
5
Applying KVL to loop dcfed: 6 = (12 + 8) I 2
3
I2 = A 63
10
Substituting for I1 and I2 in equation 1 yields:
 1  3  3
VTH = 15  − 8  = V
 5   10  5
5Ω RTH
12 Ω
Steps 3 & 4 A B
15 Ω 8Ω
171
RTH = (5 // 15) + (12 // 8) = 
20 64
Steps 5 & 6 RTH
A
I
VTH 10 Ω
VTH 3 3  20
I = = = = 0.032 A
RTH + 10  171  5  371
5 + 10 
 20 
65
Group Assignment 2
Use Thevenin’s theorem to find the current in the 5Ω resistor
of the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
a d f h
2Ω
Where to submit: Electrical Engineering office
66
NORTON’S Theorem
Theorem:
Any linear circuit connected between two terminals can be
replaced by a Norton’s current(IN) in parallel with a Norton's
resistance (RN).
IN is the short-circuit current between the two terminals

RN is the resistance seen from the two terminals when all
sources have been deactivated (RN = RTH)
12 Ω A B A
6Ω IN
RN
42 V 35 V
B 67
NORTON’S Theorem
To find the current through a resistor in a circuit, the following
steps are taken:
1. Remove the resistor from the circuit and mark the two
terminals.
12 Ω 3
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
68
NORTON’S Theorem
2. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the two

terminals by applying KVL.
12 Ω IN
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
69
NORTON’S Theorem
3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

sources. Short-circuit voltage sources and Open-circuit
current sources.
12 Ω
A B
42 V 35 V
6Ω
70
NORTON’S THEOREM
4. Find the total resistance of the circuit resulting from step
3 as seen from the two terminals
12 Ω
A B
6Ω
71
NORTON’S THEOREM
5. Reproduce the Norton’s equivalent circuit and connect
the resistor whose current is to be found.
IN
RN 3
B
72
NORTON’S THEOREM
6. Calculate the current in the circuit in step 5. This is the
current being sought for.
I
A
IN
RN 3
RN
i=  IN
RN + 3
B
73
NORTON’S THEOREM
Example 1
Using Norton’s theorem, determine the current in the 3-Ω
resistor of the circuit below. 12 Ω 3Ω
42 V 35 V
6Ω
Solution I+IN 12 Ω A
IN B
Steps 1 & 2 I
6 Ω
42 V 35 V
74
NORTON’S THEOREM
a I+IN
12 Ω b IN
A B c
I
6 Ω
42 V 35 V
f e d
Applying KVL to loop abefa: 42 = 12(I+IN) + 6I

42 = 18I + 12IN (1)
Applying KVL to loop cbedc: 35 = 6I
35
I= A
6 75
NORTON’S THEOREM
 35 
Substituting for I in equation 1: 42 = 18  + 12 I N
 6
− 21
IN = A
Steps 3 & 4 4
12 Ω RN
A B 12  6
RN = 12 // 6 = = 4
12 + 6
6Ω
76
NORTON’S THEOREM
Steps 5 & 6
I3
A
− 21
A 4 3
4
B
4 − 21
I3 =  = −3 A
4+3 4
77
NORTON’S THEOREM
Example 2
Determine the current in the load resistor RL
A
R1 R2 R3 R4 RL
E1 E2 E3 E4
B
Solution A
I1 I2 I3 I4
R1 R2 R3 R4 IN
E1 E2 E3 E4
B 78
NORTON’S THEOREM
A
I1 I2 I3 I4
R1 R2 R3 R4 IN
E1 E2 E3 E4
B
Solution
Applying KCL I N = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4
E1 E2 E3 E4
= + + +
R1 R2 R3 R4
79
NORTON’S THEOREM
Finding RN
A
R1 R2 R3 R4 RN
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
RN R1 R2 R3 R4
80
NORTON’S THEOREM
Finding IL
A
IL
IN RN RL
B
RN
IL =  IN
RN + RL
81
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
The Theorem
The current through(or the voltage across) any element in a
multiple-source linear circuit can be found by taking the
algebraic sum of the current through(or the voltage across)
that element due to each individual source acting alone.
82
The Theorem
I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V
IA IB
12Ω 12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
6Ω 3Ω
42V
+ 35V
83
Example 1
Use superposition theorem to find the current supplied by
the 35V battery of the circuit below.
I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V
Solution
With the 42V battery acting alone,
IA
RT = (3 // 6) + 12 = 14
12Ω 42
6Ω 3Ω IT = = 3A
14
6
42V IA = 3 = 2A
6+3 84
IB
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
35V
RT = (12 // 6) + 3 = 7
35
IT = = 5A
7
I B = IT = 5 A
85
With both batteries acting,
I IA IB
12Ω 12Ω 12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V
= 6Ω 3Ω
+ 35V
42V
I = IB − I A
= 5 − 2 = 3A
86
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
The Theorem
An ideal ammeter and ideal voltage source when inserted in
two different branches of a linear network can be
interchanged without changing the reading of the ammeter
R1 R2 R1 R2
+
+
V(t)
R3 A = A
R3 V(t)
- -
87
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Similarly,
An ideal voltmeter and ideal current source when connected
across two different branches of a network can be
interchanged without changing the reading of the voltmeter.
R3 R3
+ +
R1 R2 + R1 R2 +
i R4 V = V R4
-
i
- - -
88
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
Example 1
Jointly use superposition and reciprocity theorems to find
the current supplied by the 35V battery of the circuit below.
I
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V 35V
Solution
RT = (3 // 6) + 12 = 14
IA 42
12Ω IT = = 3A
6Ω 3Ω 14
6
IA = 3 = 2A
42V
6+3 89
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
The second circuit to be solved is:
IB IA
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω 12Ω
is comparable 6Ω 3Ω
35V to 42V
Applying the reciprocity theorem

IA IA
12Ω 12Ω
6Ω 3Ω 6Ω 3Ω
42V
= 42V
A B
90
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
I B IA
12Ω 6Ω 3Ω 12Ω
6Ω 3Ω
is comparable
35V to circuit B 42V
Applying proportion,
If 42V = IA =2A,
Then 35V =(35*2)/42=5/3A
5
A
3
B
Applying KVL,
I
12Ω 5
6Ω 3Ω
35 = 3I + 12 
B
3
35V
 I = 5A
B
91
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
I = IB − I A
= 5 − 2 = 3A
92
Group Assignment 3
Use Norton’s theorem to find the current in the 2Ω resistor
connected between e and f in the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
a d f h
2Ω
93
Group Assignment 3
connected between e and f in the circuit below.
2Ω c 5Ω e 2Ω g
b
7V 3Ω 2Ω
10 V
a d f h
2Ω
94
DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION
❖The transformation is employed in situations
where neither series nor parallel arrangements
can be identified.
❖An arrangement of three(3) resistors where the
resistors are connected to each other is a delta
A
arrangement.
A A
R2 R3
R2 R3
B R1 C
B R1 C
95
❖An arrangement of three(3) resistors
where all resistors have a common point
of connection through one terminal is a
star(wye) arrangement.
Ra
Ra
Rc Rb Rc Rb
96
❖A delta arrangement can be changed to star and vice
versa using the following relations:
A R2 R3
Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
Ra R3 R1
R2 R3 Rb =
R1 + R2 + R3
Rc Rb R1 R2
Rc =
B R1 C R1 + R2 + R3
97
A
Rb Rc
R1 = Rb + Rc +
Ra
Ra
R2 R3
Ra Rc
Rb R2 = Ra + Rc +
Rc Rb
B R1 C Ra Rb
R3 = Ra + Rb +
Rc
When all values are the same, delta values are 3
times star values
98
Example 1
Determine the voltage V0 across the 6Ω resistor of the circuit
below 6Ω
2Ω 2Ω
a
10 V 2Ω 6Ω Vo
Solution 6
Ra = Rb = Rc = 2  3 = 6
Ra
2 2
2 Rb
6
10 R
c
99
6Ω
6Ω
10V 6Ω
6Ω
6Ω
3Ω
a
3
V0 =  10V = 5V
3Ω 3+3
10V 6Ω
Vo
b 100
Group Assignment 4
connected between points A and B of the circuit below.
A
3Ω 2.4Ω
3Ω
3Ω 5Ω
3Ω
10v

101
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
❖Alternating current (AC) circuits are circuits with currents
and voltages which are time-varying
❖Examples of AC waveforms are:

❑ Sine wave
❑Square wave
❑Triangular wave
102
TERMINOLOGIES IN AC CIRCUITS
❖Amplitude (peak): The maximum deviation of the function
from its center position
❖Cycle: A repeating portion of a function (wave).
❖Period (T): The duration of a cycle 1
f =
❖Frequency(f): The inverse of period. T
v(V)
E
A B C
t(s)
-E 103
AVERAGE VALUE
❖Average value: The average value of a periodic function is
its dc value.
If i = f (t )
1 T area[ f (t )]
Then I av =
T 
0
f (t )dt =
T
104
AVERAGE VALUE
The following steps are followed when finding average values
of waveforms:
1. Identify a cycle of the wave
2. Note the period
3. Find the area of the cycle
4. Divide the area by the period

105
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE
The Root Mean Square (RMS) or Effective value of an
alternating quantity is the value of a direct current which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time
produces the same heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same resistance.
The RMS value of an alternating current i = f (t ) is:
area[( f (t )) ]
1
 
2
1 T 2
=  0  f (t ) dt  =
2
I rms
T  T
106
The following steps are taken when finding the RMS value of a
waveform :
1. Identify a cycle of the waveform
2. Note the period
3. Square the cycle
4. Find the area under the squared cycle
5. Divide the area by the period
6. Take the square root of the result

107
Example 1
Find the average and rms values of the waveform below.
v
E
2 4 6 8 s
-E
Solution
Average Value
❑Cycle spans from 0 to 4
❑Period= 4s
❑Area of cycle = (2  E ) + (2  − E ) 108
=0
Area 0
Vavg = = = 0V
period 4
109
v
RMS value E
❑Cycle spans 0 to 4
2 4 6 8
❑Period = 4s
s
❑Squared cycle E2
-E
2 4
❑Area covered by squared cycle = 4  E = 4E2 2
2
4E
❑Division of area by period = =E 2
4 110
❑Taking square root
Vrms = E =E
2
111
Example 2
Calculate the effective value of the voltage below.
sine
Vm
θ
π 2π
Solution
❑Cycle spans from 0 to 2π
❑Area of sine part
Vm (1 − cos 2 )
2
 
As =  Vm sin d =  d
2 2
Vm
0 2
0 2
= 
2 112
sine
Area of triangular part Vm
θ
π 2π


2
 Vm  2  Vm   2
Vm 
2 3
At =     d =  2   =
0
    3  0 3
V  V  5 2
2 2
Total area: = + m
= Vm  m
5 2 2 3 6
Vm 
5
Mean =6 = V 2
2
m
12 113
5 2 5
RMS value = Vm = Vm
12 12
Note:
The area of a squared right-angled triangular wave is
2
bh
=
3 114
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENT
Voltages and currents of commercial ac generators have the
following expressions:
v = Vm sin tor v = Vm sin 2ft

Vmis the peak voltage
f is the frequency in Hz
 issecond.
the angular frequency in radian per
It specifies how many oscillations
occur in a unit time interval
115
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENT
i = I m sin t or i = I m sin 2ft

I m is the peak current
f is the frequency in Hz
 Issecond.
the angular frequency in radian per
It specifies how many oscillations
occur in a unit time interval
116
RMS VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL
QUANTITIES
The RMS value of a sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin 2ft
is given by: 1
1 T 2 2  2
V =   Vm sin 2ftdt 
T 0 
1
 1 TV 
2 2
=  0 (1 − cos 4ft )dt 

m
T 2 1 
 m 
2
V T 2
Vm
=  =
 2 T 2
117
QUANTITIES
Similarly,
The RMS value of a sinusoidal current i = I m sin 2ft
is given by:
Im
I =
2
118
QUANTITIES
Example 1
Find the rms values of the following quantities:
(a) i = 10 2 sin 100t
(b) v = 20 sin100t
Solution
10 2
(a) I = = 10
2
20
(b)
V = = 14.14
2
119
HARMONICS
Non-sinusoidal periodic voltages and currents can be
expressed as the sum of sine waves in which the lowest
frequency is f and all other frequencies are integral multiples
of f.
For example, a square wave v(t ) of amplitude E can be

expressed as:
4E  1 1 
v(t ) = sin 2ft + sin 6ft + sin 10ft + − − −
  3 5 

120
HARMONICS
❖Any quantity which contains multiple frequencies is a
harmonic quantity.
❖The frequency of which others have been expressed as
multiples of is the fundamental frequency.
❖An odd multiple of the fundamental is an odd harmonic.
❖An even multiple of the fundamental is an even harmonic.
121
RMS VALUE OF A HARMONIC
QUANTITY
The effective value of a harmonic quantity is obtained by:
❖First obtaining the square of the rms value of each term
❖Adding the obtained squared rms values
❖Taking the square root of the sum
v(t ) = ao + a1 sin (t + 1 ) + a 2 sin (2t +  2 ) + a3 sin (3t +  3 ) + ........
2 2 2
 a1   a 2   a3 
V = ao +   +   +   + ..........
2
 2  2  2 122
RMS VALUE OF A HARMONIC
QUANTITY
Example
Find the RMS value of the current
i(t ) = 2 + 5 sin wt + 3 2 sin(3wt + 30 0
)
Solution
2
5  3 2
2

I = 2 +  + 
2
 2  2 
= 5.05
123
PHASORS
❖Phasors are used to represent sinusoidal quantities to
avoid drawing the sine waves.
❖A phasor is a straight line whose length is proportional to

the rms voltage or current it represents.
❖To show the phase angle or phase displacement between

voltages and currents, the phasors bear an arrow.
124
PHASORS
❖Two phasors are said to be in phase when they point in
the same direction. The phase angle between them is
then zero.
V
I I V
125
PHASORS
❖Two phasors are said to be out of phase when they point in
different directions.
❖The phase angle between them is the angle through which

one of them has to be rotated to make it point in the same
direction as the other.
V
φ
I
126
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
❖It is used to show at a glance the magnitude and phase
relations among the various quantities within a network.
This is often helpful in the analysis of the network.
❖Example
A 50 Hz source having rms voltage of 240 V delivers a rms
current of 10 A to a circuit. The current lags the voltage by
30°. (a) Draw the phasor diagram for the circuit. (b)
Express the voltage and current as functions of time.
127
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
❖Solution
(a) Take V as the reference
V = 240V
30o
I = 10A
(b) v(t ) = 240 2 sin 100t

i (t ) = 10 2 sin(100t − 30 )

128/244
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
SINUSOIDAL QUANTITIES
❖The sum of sinusoidal quantities is obtained by taking the
vector sum of their phasors.
❖The difference of sinusoidal quantities is obtained by first
reversing the subtracted quantity and adding it as a vector
to the other phasors.
❖A sinusoidal quantity is reversed by adding 1800 to its
angle
❖Only sinusoidal quantities of the SAME FREQUENCY can
be added or subtracted.
129
❖Example 1
Let v1(t) = 60 sin ωt and v2(t) = 80 sin (ωt – 90°).
Determine (a) v1 + v2 and (b) v1 – v2
❖Solution Φ
V1 ≡ 60
(a) Phasor diagram

V1 + V2
V2 ≡ 80
V1 + V2 = 602 + 802 = 100

−1  80 
 = tan   = 530
 60  130
 v1 + v2 = 100 sin t − 53 ( 0
)
(b) v1 − v2 = v1 + (− v2 )
= 60 sin t + 80 sin (t − 90 + 180
0 0
)
= 60 sin t + 80 sin (t + 90 )
0
Phasor diagram -V2 ≡ 80
V1 ≡ 60 131
-V2 ≡ 80 V1 – V2
Φ
V1 ≡ 60
V1 −V2 = 60 + 80 = 100
2 2
−1  80 
 = tan   = 53 0
 60 
 v1 − v2 = 100 sin t + 53 ( 0
) 132
❖Example 2
Four conductors meet at a junction. The following
relationship exists between them. i = i + i + i
4 1 2 3
Find the value of i 4 given that
i1 = 5 sin t
(
i 2 = 8 sin t + 3 ) + 5 sin 3t

i 3 = 15 sin(t − 4 ) + 8 sin( 3t + 3 )
133
❖Solution
(a) There are two different frequencies. They must
therefore be added separately.
Addition of  part. 8
X-component
= 8 cos 60 + 5 + 15 cos 45
o 0 60o
= 19.607 45 o
5
Y-component
= 8 sin 60 + 0 − 15 sin 45
o 0
= −3.678 134
Amplitude
= (19.607 ) + (− 3.678 )
2 2
= 19.949
 − 3.678 
Angle
= tan −1
 = −10.62
0
 19.607 
Therefore,  part of i 4 is
19.949 sin(t − 10.62 ) 0
135
Addition of 3 part.
X-component 8
= 8 cos 60 + 50
=9 60o
5
Y-component
= 8 sin 60 + 00
= 6.928
Amplitude
= 9 + 6.928
2 2
= 11.358 136
Angle
 6.928 
= tan  −1
 = 37.59
0
 9 
Therefore, 3 part of i 4 is
11.358 sin(3t + 37.59 ) 0
Hence i4 = 19.949 sin(t − 10.62 ) +

0
11.358 sin(3t + 37.59 0

)
137
GROUP ASSIGNMENT 5
Four circuit elements are connected in series across a
sinusoidal alternating voltage given by e = 110 sin (t + 30 0 ). The
instantaneous voltage across three of the elements are given
by
v1 = 30 sin t , v2 = 60 sin (t + 60 ) and v3 = 30 sin (t − 30 )
0 0
(a)Determine the expression for the fourth voltage in the form

v4 = A sin (t +  )
(b)What is the r.m.s. value of v4?
Use phasor diagrams. DO NOT use complex number
approach
138
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖The opposition to current flow in ac circuits owing to the
presence of combinations of resistive, inductive and
capacitive elements.
❖Opposition due to inductance (L) is called inductive
reactance(XL).
❖Opposition due to capacitance is called capacitive
reactance(XC).
139
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase relationship between the current and voltage in a
resistor i
v
i= +
R R v
Let v = Vm sin t -
v Vm sin t
i= = = I m sin t
R R
It is noted that the voltage across and the current through
a resistor are in phase.
140
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase relationship between the current and voltage iin an
inductor +
di
v=L VL = I L X L
dt L v
Let i = I m sin t -
v = L  I m cos t = LI m sin(t + 90 )

0
= Vm sin(t + 90 )
0
It is noted that the current through an inductor lags the

voltage by 900.
X L = L 141
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase relationship between the current and voltage in a
i
capacitor
i=c
dv VC
= I C
X C
+
v
C
dt -
Let v = Vm sin t
i = C  Vm cos t = CVm sin(t + 90 )0
= I m (sin t + 90 )
0
It is noted that the current through a capacitor leads the

voltage by 900.
Xc = 1
c 142
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Series circuit containing R and L
VR VL
I VL V
R XL
VR I
V = VR + VL Z = R + XL
2 2 2
V = VR + VL
2 2 2
Z= R + XL
2 2
( IZ ) = ( IR ) + ( IX L )
2 2 2
143
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RL
circuit
 XL  VL V
 = tan  −1

 R  ϕ
VR I
❖The current in a series RL circuit lags the voltage but not

by 900
144
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Series circuit containing R and C VR I
VR VC
I
R
ϕ
XC
VC V
V
V = VR + VC Z = R + XC
2 2 2
V = VR + VC
2 2 2
Z= R + XC
2 2
( IZ ) = ( IR ) + ( IX C )
2 2 2
145
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RC
circuit
 XC  VR I
 = tan  −1
 ϕ
 R 
VC V
❖The current in a series RC circuit leads the voltage but not
by 900
146
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Series circuit containing R, L and C
VR VL VC VL
I
R XL XC V
VR I
V
VC
V = VR + VL + V c
V = VR + (VL − VC )
2 2 2
147
IMPEDANCE (Z)
V = VR + (VL − VC )
2 2 2
= ( IR ) + ( IX L − IX c )
2 2
V= ( IR ) + ( IX L − IX c )
2 2
IZ = I R + ( X L − X c )
2 2
 Z = R + (X L − Xc )
2 2
148
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Phase angle between current and voltage in a series RLC
XL
 X L − XC 
circuit
 = tan  −1
 Z
 R 
ϕ
R
XC
❖Current in a series RLC circuit may lead or lag the voltage
depending on the relative values of XL
and XC
149
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Example 1
A coil has R=12Ω and L=0.1H. It is connected across a
100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate (a) the reactance and
impedance of the coil (b) the current and (c) the phase
difference or angle between the current and the applied
I
voltage. R XL
X L Z
ϕ
❖Solution R I
(a) X =
L
2fL = 2  50  0.1 = 31.416 V
Z = R + X L = 12 + 31.416
2 2 2 2
= 33.630  150
IMPEDANCE (Z)
V 100
(b) I= = = 2.974 A
Z 33.630 X L V
ϕ
R I
 XL  − 1  31.416 
(c)  = tan 
−1
 = tan  
 R   12 
= 69.09 0
151
IMPEDANCE (Z)
❖Example 2
A metal filament lamp, rated at 750W, 100V is to be
connected in series with a capacitor across a 230V, 50Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the capacitance required and (b) the
phase angle between the current and supply voltage.
R I
VC I
ϕ
XC =
R
XC
❖Solution
2 IC
XC V
(a) 2
V = VR + VC
2
V
VC = V − VR = 230 − 100
2 2 2 2
= 207.123V 152
IMPEDANCE (Z)
PR 750
(a) I R = I C = I = = = 7.5 A
VR 100
VC 207.123
 XC = = = 27.616 
IC 7.5
1 1
Hence, c= =
2fX C 2  50  27.616
= 115 F
153
IMPEDANCE (Z)
 XC  − 1  VC 
(b)  = tan   = tan  
−1
 R   VR 
− 1  207.123 
= tan  
 100 
= 64.23 0
154
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
❖There are three kinds of power in ac circuits
1. Apparent Power (S) which is measured in Volt-
amperes (VA)
2. Active Power (P) which is measured in Watts
(W).
Active Power is also called Actual Power, Useful
Power, True Power, Real Power or simply, Power
3. Reactive Power (Q) which is measured in Volt-
amperes reactive (VAR)
155
❖The following relationships exist between S, P and Q
Q
S = VI S
S = P +Q
2 2 2 ϕ
P = S cos  P
P= VI cos Q = S sin Q = VI sin 
cos  is called power factor (pf)
P
pf =
S 156
❖Power factor may be said to be lagging or leading.
❖Power factor is lagging when current lags voltage
❖Power factor is leading when current leads voltage
157
❖Relationships between the three passive elements , P and
Q. Q
XL S
Z
ϕ
R ϕ
P
XC
1. Resistors consume only P
2. Inductors consume only Q
3. Capacitors do not consume P and Q. They rather supply
Q or reduce the consumption of Q.
158
❖Example 1
A single-phase motor connected to a 400-V, 50-Hz supply is
developing 10 kW with efficiency of 84 per cent and a power
factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate (a) the input kVA (b) the
active and reactive components of the current and (c) the
reactive kVA.
❖Solution
Pout 10
(a) P = = = 11.905 kW
in
 0.84
159
Pin 11.905
S= = = 17.007 kVA
pf 0.7
S 17.007  10 3
(b) S = VI  I = =
V 400
= 42.518 A
I
r
I I a = I cos  = 42.518  0.7
= 29.766 A
Ir = I − Ia
2 2
ϕ
I
= 30.361 A
a
160
(b) Q = VI sin = VI r = 400  30.361
= 12.144 kVAR
161
❖Example 2
An emf whose instantaneous value is given by 283sin(314t +
π/4)V is applied to an inductive circuit and the current in the
circuit is 5.66sin(314t – π/6)A. Determine (a) the frequency
of the emf (b) the R and L (c) the power absorbed.
❖Solution
(a) 314
2f = 314  f = = 50 Hz
(b)
2
V 283 5.66
Z= =  = 50 
I 2 2 162
  10 Z
(b)  = − − =  = 75 XL 0
4 6 24
R = Z cos  = 50 cos 75 0 ϕ
= 12.941 R
X L = Z sin = 50 sin75 = 48.296 
0
XL 48.296
X L = 2fL  L = =
2f 2  50
= 0.154 H
163
283 5.66
(c) P = VI cos  =  cos 75 0
2 2
= 207.286W
164
USING COMPLEX NUMBERS
TO SOLVE AC CIRCUIT PROBLEMS
❖The ability to make a vector quantity appear as a scalar
quantity using complex numbers is utilized in the analysis
of ac circuits.
❖All the mathematical manipulations in complex algebra
hold when employing complex numbers in analyzing ac
circuits.
❖The operator ‘i’ is replaced with ‘j’ in other to avoid
confusing it with current.
165
❖The three passive elements are represented as follows:
1. R as a complex number is R
2. X L as a complex number is jX L
3. X C as a complex number is − jX C
XL
4. Series impedance Z
Z = R + j( X L − X C ) ϕ
R
XC
166
❖Example 1
Express in rectangular and polar notations, the impedance
of each of the following circuits at a frequency of 50 Hz: (a) a
resistance of 20 Ω (b) a resistance of 20 Ω in series with an
inductance of 0.1 H (c) a resistance of 50 Ω in series with a
capacitance of 40 μF.
❖Solution
= 200
(a) Z = 20 + j 0
0
2  50  0.1 = 31.416 
(b) X L = 2fL =
 Z = 20 + j 31.416
= 37.242 57.52 0
167
1 1
(c) XC = =
2fC 2  50  40  10
−6
= 79.577 
 Z = 50 − j79.577
= 93.981 − 57.86 0
168
❖Example 2
A circuit is arranged as indicated in the figure below, the
values being as shown. Calculate the value of the current in
each branch and its phase relative to the supply voltage.
A
150 μF 20 Ω
❖Solution C
Z A = 20 + j 0
B 0.1 H 5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
Z B = R + jX L = 5 + j 31.4
Z C = − jX C = − j 21.2 
Z AB = Z A // Z B = 15.84  29.48 0
169
A
150 μF
= 13.78 + j7.8
20 Ω
C
ZT = Z C + Z AB B 0.1 H 5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
= − j 21.2 + (13.78 + j7.8 )

= 19.22 − 44.2 0
Choosing the voltage as the reference phasor,

V 200 0 0
I C = IT = =
Z T 19.22 − 44.2 0
= 10.4  44.2 0
170
Current leads supply voltage by 44.20
VAB = IZ AB
= (10.4 44.2 )  (15.84
0
A
 29 . 48 0
)
= 164.873.68 150 μF
0
20 Ω
V AB C
IA = B 0.1 H 5Ω
ZA 200 V, 50 Hz
164.873.68 0
= Current leads supply

20
= 8.24 73.68 0 voltage by 73.680
171
V AB 164.873.68 0
IB = = 0 = 5.18  − 7.27
0
Z B 31.79 80.95
Current lags supply voltage by 7.270
A
150 μF 20 Ω
C
B 0.1 H 5Ω
200 V, 50 Hz
172
S = VI *
= P + jQ
❖Q is positive when the current lags the voltage
❖Q is negative when the current leads the voltage
173
CALCULATION OF COMPLEX
POWER
❖Example 1
The potential difference across and the current in a circuit
are represented by 100 + j200 v and 10 + j5 a respectively.
Calculate the power and reactive voltamperes (or vars).
❖Solution
S = VI = (100 + j 200 )(10 + j 5 )

* *
= (100 + j 200 )(10 − j 5 )

= 2000 + j 1500
P = 2000W Q = 1500VAR 174
POWER
❖Example 2
A small installation consists of the following loads connected
in parallel across a single-phase 240V, 50Hz supply:
(a) a fan motor taking an input of 1.5kVA at 0.75pf lag,
(b) a 1000W radiator operating at unity power factor
(c) a number of fluorescent lamps taking a total load of
1.2kVA at 0.95pf lagging
Find the total current, kW, kVA and power factor of the load.
175
POWER
❖Solution
The problem is solved by obtaining the active and reactive
component of each load and then summing all reactive
components and all active components
Load (kVA) cosϕ P(kW) = sinϕ Q(kVAR) =
Scosϕ Ssinϕ
( a ) 1.5 0.75 1.125 0.66 0.99

( b ) 1.0 1.0 1.0 0 0
( c ) 1.2 0.95 1.14 0.312 0.374
TOTAL 3.265 1.364 176
POWER
 Total kW = 3.265
Total kVA = P + Q
2 2
= 3.265 + 1.364
2 2
= 3.54
S 3.54  10 3
I= = = 14.8 A
V 240
P 3.265
pf = = = 0.923 lagging
S 3.54
177
POWER
❖NOTE
In the problem above, if one load had a leading power
factor, then its Q would have a negative sign and thus would
have subtracted from the others.
178
Group Assignment 6
A small installation consists of the following loads connected
in parallel across a single-phase 240V, 50Hz supply:
(a) a fan motor having an input of 2kVA at 0.75pf lag,
(b) a 1.5kW radiator operating at unity power factor,
(c) a 1kVA load operating 0.85 leading power factor.
Find the total current, kW, kVA and power factor of the load.

179
THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
❖A single-phase generator produces a single
sinusoidal voltage.
❖A 3-phase generator on the other hand produces
three equal voltages which are out of phase with
one another by 120o.
❖The three voltages are generated in three
separate windings arranged in a special way in
the machine.
180
❖A 3-phase system is a power supply system
consisting of three voltages which are 120o out of
phase with one another.
❖Three-phase systems have the following
advantages over single phase systems
❑Three-phase motors, generators and
transformers are simpler, cheaper and more
efficient
❑Three-phase transmission lines can deliver
more power for a given weight and cost 181
❑The voltage regulation of three-phase
transmission lines is inherently better
❑A 1-phase supply can be obtained from a 3-
phase one
182
Winding arrangement of a three-phase generator
183
A three-phase transmission line
184
11kV Distribution Feeder
185
A distribution line
186
❖The two main connections of three-phase windings
1. A star arrangement where all winding have a common
point a line
L1
Neutral point Va
Vb
Vc L2
c b
L3
❑Letters a, b and c , colours red (R), yellow (Y) and
blue (B) or numbers 1, 2 and 3 are used to name the
windings 187
2. A delta arrangement where all winding are connected
to each other line
a L1
Va Vb
c L2
b
Vc
❑Letters a, b and c , colours red (R), yellow(Y) and blue

(B) or numbers 1, 2 and 3 are used to name the
windings 188
❖The phasor diagram for the three-voltages (in star or
delta) is indicated below.
V3,Vc or VB
Vc = Vm sin(t + 120 o
)
V1,Va or VR
Va = Vm sin t
V2,Vb or VY
Vb = Vm sin(t − 120 o
) 189
❖Line and phase voltages
❑The voltage from one line to another is called a line-to-
line voltage or simple a line voltage
❑The voltage across each winding is a phase voltage
❑On a phasor diagram, a line voltage is drawn from the
end of one phase to another in the anti clockwise
a
direction
Van = V0
Vab
N Vbn = V − 120
b
Vcn = V  + 120
190
c
❖Relationship between line and phase voltages for a star
connection
Vab = Van − Vbn
= V0 − V − 120
o 0
= V (1 − 1 − 120 ) 0
= V (1 − cos(− 120 ) − j sin(− 120 ))

3 3
=V + j  = 3V 30
0
 2 2 
Hence, for a star connection, the line voltage is
3 times the phase voltage. VL = 3V p 191
❖Relationship between Line and phase voltages for a delta
connection
VL = V p Va Vb VL
Vc
192
❖Relationship between Line and phase current for a star
connection IL L
a 1
IL = I p Ia
Ib
Ic L2
b
c
L3
193
❖Relationship between Line and phase currents for a delta
ILa
connection
I La = I a − I b a I b I
= I0 − I − 120
o 0
= I (1 − 1 − 120 ) 0 Ic
= I (1 − cos(− 120 ) − j sin(− 120 ))

3 3
= I + j  = 3I 30
0
 2 2 
Hence, for a delta connection, the line current is
3 times the phase current I L = 3I p 194
❖Analysis of three-phase balanced circuits
❑A balanced three-phase circuit is that in which identical
loads are connected in each phase.
❑The currents that flow in a balanced three-phase
system are equal in magnitude and also 120° out of
phase.
❑A balanced three-phase circuit is analysed by
considering just one phase
❑When finding total power, the per phase power is
multiplied by three
❑1-phase power factor is the same as 3-phase 195
❖Example 1
Three identical resistors are connected in star across a 3-
phase, 415-V supply. If each resistor has a resistance of 50
ohms, calculate (a) the voltage across each resistor (b) the
current in each resistor (c) the total power supplied to the
load
❖Solution
V 415
(a) V =
p
L
= = 240
3 3
V p 240
(b) Ip = = = 4.8 A
R 50 196
(c) Pp = V p I p = 240  4.8 = 1152W
 PT = 3  Pp = 3  1152 = 3456W
197
❖Example 2
Three identical impedances are connected in delta across
a 3-phase, 415-V supply. If the line current is 10 A,
calculate (a) the current in each impedance (b) the value
of each impedance.
❖Solution
❖(a) I =
I 10
p
L
= = 5.78 A
3 3
V p 415
❖(b) Zp = = = 71.80 
I p 5.78
198
❖Example 3
A 3-phase, 450-V system supplies a balanced delta-
connected load of 12 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging.
Calculate (a) the phase currents (b) the line currents and
(c) the effective impedance per phase.
❖Solution
❖(a) P = V I cos 
p p p12
Pp  10 3
 Ip = = 3 = 11.1 A
V p cos  450  0.8
199
(b) IL = 3I p = 3  11.1 = 19.2 A
Vp
(c) Zp =
Ip
450 0 o
= = 40.5  36.9 0
11.1 − cos (0.8 )

−1
200
❖Power in three-phase circuits
❑The total apparent power of a balanced three-phase
circuit (star or delta) is given by:
S= 3VL I L
❑The total active power of a balanced three-phase circuit
(star or delta) is given by:
P= 3VL I L cos 
❑The total reactive power of a balanced three-phase
circuit (star or delta) is given by:
Q= 3VL I L sin
201
❖Analysis of parallel balanced three-phase circuit problems
❑When the parallel loads are not of the same kind(say
one is delta and the other is star), then they must be
changed either all to star or all to delta.
❑When all are in star, the circuit is analyzed by taking one
phase of each and applying the star characteristics.
❑When all are in delta, the circuit is
analyzed by taking one phase of each and applying the
delta characteristics.
202
❑Parallel circuits are better analysed by reverting to
complex numbers.
❖ Example 1
A Y-connected impedance Z1 = 20.0 + j37.75 Ω per phase is
connected in parallel with ∆-connected impedance Z2 = 30.0
– j159.3 Ω per phase. For an impressed 3-phase voltage of
398 V line to line, compute the line current, power factor
and the power taken by the parallel combination.
❖Solution
The circuit is solved by making all star.
203
Y-connected impedance Z1 = 20.0 + j37.75 Ω
∆-connected impedance Z2 = 30.0 – j159.3 Ω
30.0 − j 159.3
Changing the delta to star Z 2e =
3
398 = 10
I
.0 − j 53.1
Vp = = 230V
p
3
Z1 Z2e
Vp Vp Vp
Ip = +
Z1 Z 2e
= 3.37  − 9.9 0
204
I L = I p = 3.37 A
pf = cos  = cos 9.9 = 0.985 lagging
0
P = 3VL I L cos 
= 3  398  3.37  0.985
= 2.29 kW
205
❖Example 2
A manufacturing plant draws 415 kVA from a 2400 V, 3-
phase line. If the plant power factor is 0.875 lagging,
calculate (a) the impedance of the plant per phase (b) the
phase angle between the phase voltage and phase current.
❖Solution
The load is considered to be star.
(a)
VL 2400
Vp = = = 1390V
3 3
206
S
S= 3VL I L  I L =
3VL
415000
 I p = IL = = 100 A
3  2400
V p 1390
Zp = = = 13.9 
Ip 100
 = cos (0.875 ) = 29
−1 0
207
❖Example 3
A star-connected motor is connected to a 4000 V, 3-phase,
50 Hz line. The motor produces an output power of 2681 kW
at efficiency of 93 % and a power factor of 0.9 lagging.
Calculate (a) the active power absorbed by the motor, (b)
the reactive power absorbed by the motor, (c) the apparent
power supplied by the transmission line and (d) the motor
line current.
❖Solution
Pout 2681
(a) Pin = = = 2883 kW
 0.93 208
(a) P =
Pout 2681
= = 2883 kW
in
 0.93
Pin 2883
(b) S = = = 3203 kVA
pf 0. 9
Q= S −P2 2
= 3203 − 2883 = 1395 kVAR

2 2
(c) S = 3203 kVA

209
S 3203  103
(d) I = = = 462 A
L
3VL 3  4000
210
(a)Three-phase four-wire feeding unbalanced star-connected
loads
❑Three-phase unbalanced load does not have the same
impedance in all the three phases.
❑The neutral points of the source and the load are the
same, so the voltage across each phase of the load is
the phase voltage of the source
❑Three-phase four wire is usually used for low-voltage
power distribution
❑The neutral carries current if the load is unbalanced
I N = I pa + I pb + I pc 211
❑Each phase is analyzed separately when the load is
unbalanced
❖Example 1
A three-phase four-wire system has the following data:
Supply voltage is 415 V, Z1 = 8 + j0 Ω, Z2 = 0 - j8 Ω and Z3 = 0 +
j8 Ω. Determine the load currents and the current in the
neutral.
❖Solution
VL 415
Vp = = = 240V
3 3
212
V p 240 0 0
I p1 = = = 30 0 0
Z1 8 + j0
V p 240  − 120 0
I p2 = = = 30  − 30 0
Z2 0 − j8
V p 240 120 0
I p3 = = = 30  30 0
Z3 0 + j8
I N = I p1 + I p 2 + I p 3
I N = 30 0 + 30  − 30 + 30  30
0 0 0
213
I N = 82 A
214
❖Example 2
In a three-phase four-wire system, the line voltage is 400V
and resistive loads of 10 kW, 8 kW and 5 kW are connected
between the three lines and neutral. Calculate (a) the
current in each line and (b) the current in the neutral
conductor.
❖Solution
VL 400
(a) Vp = = = 231V
3 3 215
Let Ia, Ib and Ic be the currents drawn by the 10kW, 8kW and
5kW loads respectively.
Pa 10  10 3
Ia = = = 43.3 A
V p cos  231  1
Pb 8  10 3
Ib = = = 34.6 A
Vp 231
Pc 5  10 3
Ic = = = 21.65 A
Vp 231
216
I N = Ia + Ib + Ic
= 43.30 + 34.6  − 120 + 21.65  120
0 0 0
= 18.9 A
217
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖A magnetic circuit is a closed path followed by any group
of lines of magnetic flux.
❖Magnetic circuits are created with coils and ferromagnetic
(iron, cobalt, nickel, etc) or permanent magnetic materials.
218
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Terminologies in magnetic circuits
❑Flux(ϕ)
It is a measure of the amount of magnetic field passing
through a given surface. The SI unit of flux is
Weber(Wb).
❑Flux density (B)
It is the flux per unit area. It is the flux divided by the
cross-sectional area. The SI unit is Weber per square
meter (Wb/m2) or Tesla (T)

B=
A 219
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❑Magnetomotive force (F)
It is the source which sets up the flux flowing around a
magnetic circuit. The unit is Amperes (A) or Ampere-
turns(AT). It is the product of current in coil and number
of turns of coil
F = NI
220
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❑Reluctance(S or  )
It is likened to resistance. It is the opposition offered by
a material to the flow of magnetic flux.
L
S=
o r A
L is the length of the magnetic path in meters (m)
A is the cross sectional area in square meter (m2)
The unit of reluctance is ampere-turns per weber
(AT/Wb)
F = S 221
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❑Magnetic field intensity (H)
It is the mmf per unit length. The unit is Amperes per
meter (A/m)or Ampere-Turns per meter (AT/m)
F
H=
L
222
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖B-H curves
They are curves which show the relation between
magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity for
various materials B
❑The B-H curve of vacuum is as shown
B = o H
o is a constant called magnetic
constant or permeability of free
space H
 o = 4  10 H / m
−7
223
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❑B-H curve of non-magnetic materials
The B-H curves are almost identical to that of vacuum.
B = o H
224
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❑B-H curve of magnetic materials
The B-H curves have linear, non-linear and saturation
regions
B = o  r H
 r is a the relative permeability
of the magnetic material.
The above formula only works for the linear

region.
225
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Analysis of linear magnetic circuits
Magnetic circuits are analyzed by drawing an equivalent
electric circuit and applying the laws used to analyze
electric circuits. The following similarities exit.
(a) Flux is similar to current
(b) Magnetomotive force is similar to electromotive force
(c) Reluctance is similar to resistance
226
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Analysis of non-linear magnetic circuits
Not all the laws of electric circuits can be applied to
magnetic circuits. Kirchoff’s laws are applicable and when
applied to magnetic circuits are stated as follows:
First law: The total magnetic flux towards a junction is equal

to the total magnetic flux away from that junction.
Second law: In any closed magnetic circuit, the algebraic

sum of the product of magnetic field strength and
the length of each part of the circuit is equal to
the resultant magnetomotive force.
227
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Example 1
A 600-turn coil carrying a current of 0.2A
sets up a flux of 200mWb in a magnetic
circuit. (i) What is the mmf in amperes
developed in the circuit?
(ii) Determine the total reluctance of the
circuit.
228
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Example 2
The figure below shows the equivalent electric circuit of a
three-part magnetic circuit energised by a 100-turn coil
carrying a current of 1A. The mmf drop across part ‘b’ is
40AT
a Sc
285 AT Wb 50 mWb
F Sb
229
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
(a) Calculate the flux in part c.
(b) Determine the reluctance of parts b and c.
(c) Obtain the flux density in part b if the cross sectional
area of the material used is 0.05m2.
230
LINEAR MAGNETIC
CIRCUIT PROBLEMS
❖Example 1
A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series each of
uniform cross section. They are (a) a length of 80 mm and
cross sectional area 50mm2 (b) a length of 60mm and
cross sectional area 90 mm2 (c) an air gap of length 0.5
mm and cross sectional area 150mm2 . A coil of 4000 turns
is wound on part (b) and the flux density in the air gap is
0.3 T. Assuming that all the flux passes through the given
circuit and that the relative permeability of section (a) and
(b) is μr = 3000, estimate the coil current to produce
such a flux density.
231
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Solution
The electric analogue circuit is shown below.
Sa Sb Sc(air)
F = NI
F
I= F
Φ
N
F = Fa + Fb + Fc
La
Fa = Sa= Bair Aair  = 19.1AT
a r A
232
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Lb
Fb = Sb=  = 7.96 AT
a r A
Lc
Fc = S c=  = 119.3 AT
a r A
F = Fa + Fb + Fc = 146.36 AT
F 146.36
I = = = 36 .59 mA
N 4000
233
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Example 2
A steel ring of cross-sectional area 50mm2 has an air gap of
2mm and of the same cross-sectional area as shown in Fig.
4.5.a. The coil shown has 2000 turns with current 10 A. If the
mean radius of the steel ring is 5cm and μr = 800, calculate
(a) the total reluctance of the circuit (b) the flux Φ in the
ring. Φ
❖Solution Ssteel
(a) The equivalent electric F
circuit is as shown
Sair
234
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Ls 2  5  10
−2
Ss = =
0  r As 4  10  800  50  10
−7 −6
8
10
= A / Wb
16
La 2  10 −3
Sa = =
 0 Aa 4  10  50  10
−7 −6
8
10
= A / Wb
 235
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
8 8
10 10
Total reluctance S= +
16 
= 0.381  10 A / Wb
8
= S
(b) F
F NI 2000  10
 = = =
S S 0.381  10 8
= 5.25  10 Wb
−4
236
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Example 3
It is desired to produce a magnetic field of 1 Wb/m2 in the
air gap of the electromagnet shown in Example 2. The cross
section of the iron is 1 cm2, the mean length Li + Lg = 10 cm,
gap length Lg = 5 mm, and from the B-H curve of the iron μr
was found to be 500 at B = 1 Wb/m2. Calculate the m.m.f.
required.
❖Solution
 Li Lg 
F =  (S i + S g ) =   + 

 0  r Ai 0 Ag 
Ai = Ag = A 237
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
  Li 
F=  + Lg 
0 A   r 
 9.5  10
−2
1 
= −7 
+ 5  10 
−3
4  10  500 
= 4130 AT
238
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Example4
A coil of 1500 turns is wound on a circular wooden former
which has a mean circumference of 30cm and a cross-
sectional area of 4cm2. Calculate (a) the flux density in the
ring when the coil carries a current of 0.4 A (b) the flux in
the ring in webers.
When the wooden former was replaced with a steel former

of the same dimensions, the total flux became 600μWb for a
current of 0.4 A. Calculate the relative permeability of the
steel and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit at this flux
density.
239
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
❖Solution
A coil of 1500 turns is wound on a circular wooden
F NI 0.4  1500
(a) H = = = = 2000 AT / m
L L 0.3
B = 0 H = 4  10  2000
−7
= 2.513 mWb / m 2
 = BA = 2.513  10 − 3  4  10 − 4
= 1.005 Wb
240
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
With the magnetic former
H = 2000 AT / Wb  = 600 Wb
 600  10 −6
B = = = 1.5Wb / m 2
A 4  10 −4
B 1.5
r = = = 597
 0 H 4  10  2000
−7
F NI 1500  0.4
S= = = = 10 AT / Wb
4
  600  10 −4
241
THE END
242
I have enjoyed teaching you.
243
I wish you the very best in the
years ahead.
244
May the ALMIGHTY GOD be
with you.
245

Applied Electricity

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Applied Electricity

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APPLIED ELECTRICITY (EE 151)

Dr. Kwame Oteng Gyasi

“To introduce students to the physical

❖ Be able to reduce complex circuits to a simple form

c. Professional practical skills

Unit 1: Circuits and Network Theorems – Kirchhoff's laws, Thevenin’s Theorem,

Unit 2: Alternating current circuits – Determination of Average and RMS values,

Unit 3: Three-phase circuits – Connection of three-phase windings, three phase loads,

Unit 4: Magnetic circuits – Components and terminologies, solving

❖Students who fail to abide by these norms will be asked to

4. End of semester examination 70%

❖Elements of an electric circuit

ANS: R1&R2, R3 & R4 and R5 & R6

Submission date: God willing a week today

Loop cbgfc 0 = -I2R2 + I3R3 +I5R5

❖Applying KCL to node c: I 3 = I1 + I 2 (3)

I1 = 4A, I2 = -1A and I3 = 3A 47

I1 = 2.0A, I2 = 1.0A and I3 = 3.0A

VTH is the open-circuit voltage across the two terminals

2. Find the open-circuit voltage (VTH) across the two

3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

Applying KVL to loop dcbed: 35 + VTH = 6I (1)

Applying KVL to loop fabef: 42 = (12 + 6) I

Applying KVL to loop cbgfc: VTH = 15I1 - 8I2 (1)

IN is the short-circuit current between the two terminals

2. Find the short-circuit current (IN) through the two

3. Recall the circuit created before step 2 and deactivate all

Applying KVL to loop abefa: 42 = 12(I+IN) + 6I

Applying the reciprocity theorem

Submission date: God willing a week today

❖Examples of AC waveforms are:

1. Identify a cycle of the wave

2. Note the period

3. Find the area of the cycle

4. Divide the area by the period

The RMS value of an alternating current i = f (t ) is:

2. Note the period

3. Square the cycle

4. Find the area under the squared cycle

5. Divide the area by the period

6. Take the square root of the result

❑Area covered by squared cycle = 4  E = 4E2 2

❑Taking square root

Area of triangular part Vm

v = Vm sin tor v = Vm sin 2ft

i = I m sin t or i = I m sin 2ft

=  0 (1 − cos 4ft )dt 

For example, a square wave v(t ) of amplitude E can be

v(t ) = ao + a1 sin (t + 1 ) + a 2 sin (2t +  2 ) + a3 sin (3t +  3 ) + ........

❖A phasor is a straight line whose length is proportional to

❖To show the phase angle or phase displacement between

❖The phase angle between them is the angle through which

(b) v(t ) = 240 2 sin 100t

(a) Phasor diagram

V1 + V2 = 602 + 802 = 100

Phasor diagram -V2 ≡ 80

i 3 = 15 sin(t − 4 ) + 8 sin( 3t + 3 )

11.358 sin(3t + 37.59 ) 0

Hence i4 = 19.949 sin(t − 10.62 ) +

11.358 sin(3t + 37.59 0

(a)Determine the expression for the fourth voltage in the form

v = L  I m cos t = LI m sin(t + 90 )

It is noted that the current through an inductor lags the