Change Management: An International Journal

ISSN: 2327-798X (Print) ISSN: 2327-9176 (Online)

Volume 22 No. 2, 2022

Impact of Gender on Attribution of Victim Blame in Rape

Case: A Systematic Review
Ancha Rani1, Joginder Singh Kairon2
Vijeta Singh3, Suresh Kumar4, Rakesh Kumar Behmani5
1
Research Scholar, Department of Applied Psychology,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India
2
Clinical Psychologist, Institute of Mental Health, PGIMS,
Pt. B D Sharma University of Health Sciences, Rohtak, Haryana, India
3
Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Psychology,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India
4
Associate Professor, PG Govt. College, Sector 11, Chandigarh, India
5
Professor, Department of Applied Psychology,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology, Hisar, Haryana, India

Abstract
Women have been victimized and discriminated against due to various reasons in society. In
addition to the trivial forms of sexual victimizing such as sexist statements, sexually tainted
whistles, or bad touch, women frequently face more severe forms of victimization such as rape.
Rape is a social crime that is prevalent in all cultures around the world where the frequency of
a woman being a victim is pretty high. Statistics depict that in most rape cases, society attributes
the blame for the rape to the victim. The current paper explores the manner in which gender
influences the attribution of victim blaming in rape cases. However, studies with female victims
only were considered. The results present that the observer’ gender seemed to be a crucial
factor in the attribution of blame to victims of rape crime. There was a significant effect of
gender on the attribution of rape blame to the victim and it was observed that male participants

1
Corresponding Author, email: anchujaglan90@gmail.com
© Common Ground Research Networks, Ancha Rani, All Rights Reserved.
Acceptance: 04November2022, Publication: 22December2022
2
Second Author
3
Third Author
4
Fourth Author
5
Fifth Author

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showed a high tendency to blame the victim for rape than the female participants. It is necessary
to examine the complex interaction between an individual and the situational factors that
influence the attribution of rape to the victims.
Keywords
Gender, Attribution of Victim Blame, Rape.

Introduction
Women have been victimized and discriminated against due to various reasons which
include, but are not limited to gender-based violence (Stockl, 2021), physical violence, (Krook,
2020), sexual violence (Krook, 2020, Rani, 2019) domestic violence (Soni et al., 2018),
menstrual issues (Shalini et al., 2022). In addition to the trivial forms of sexual victimizing
such as sexist statements, sexually tainted whistles, or bad touch, women frequently face more
severe forms of victimization such as rape. Sexual violence is a social crime that is prevalent
in all cultures around the world. The available data presents that almost two-fold victimization
of females than males is prevalent in society (Poropat & Rosevear, 1993). The global statistics
reveal that around 35% of women have experienced sexual harassment in their lifetime.
UNICEF estimates that one in ten women will be a victim of rape at least once in their lifetime.
The rape of a single woman creates terror and fear in the life of a female as well as their family.
Generally, women have to limit themselves and their behavior to prevent themselves from such
events. They sacrifice their freedom and opportunities in their life to stay safe. The reason is
the pressure of safety on their shoulders, and being blamed by society when they fail to do so.
The word rape is derived from the Latin word “rapio,” which means “to seize.” Thus,
“rape” literally means to seize by force. It denotes “as the ravishment of a woman without her
consent, by force, fear, or fraud.” WHO defined sexual assault as “any sexual act, attempt to
obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise
directed, against a person’s sexuality using coercion, by any person regardless of their
relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work” (WHO,
2002). Rape is a form of sexual assault. The definitions of rape differ substantially in every
country’s law, it was described by WHO as “physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration
– even if slight – of the vulva or anus, using a penis, other body parts or an object” (World
Health Organization, 2002). Rape is defined in Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code as
“intentional, unlawful sexual intercourse with a woman without her consent.” In Indian society,

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the term “IZZAT LUTNA” is used for rape, which means “to steal one's honor”. A rape
survivor is viewed as a “damaged or spoiled goods” in many cultures/societies of the world.
Prevalence of Rape in India
India is referred to as “Mother India” and women might be “worshipped” in ‘Indian’
culture as a goddess. Big claims are made for the empowerment of women; however, the
ground reality shows that the frightening condition of the women in the country has put the
‘Indian’ culture to shame. Thomson Reuters Foundation (2018) assessed nations regarding
overall women’s safety and found India as the world’s most dangerous country for women.
558 experts of Thomson Reuters Foundation perceived India as the country with the worst
results in terms of sexual violence, harassment from cultural and traditional practices, and
human trafficking. Sexual assault is a very common problem in India and outrage over both
the problem and the failure to address it. Whether a woman is at home or work, in a public
place or an institution - she has to face minor forms of sexual harassment such as molestation,
lewd comments, unnecessary pats, verbal abuses, and coercive hold besides serious incidents
like rape.
The report of the National Crime Records Bureau (2019) presents the fact that one
woman is raped every 20 minutes on average in India. Crime statistics revealed that there were
32033 cases of rape reported in 2019. Out of these reported cases, 94.2 percent of the cases
were committed by acquaintances (persons known to victims). Rajasthan topped the country
with recorded 5997 rape cases and UP comes second with 3065. Rajasthan, UP, MP,
Maharashtra, and Kerala are the top five states in recorded rape cases. Maharashtra topped the
country in the heinous category (gang rape with murder) with 47 cases. According to the report,
90 percent of cases of sexual assault go unreported. A high rate of prevalence but a low rate of
reporting was found in rape crime. The problem of rape in India is clearly understood from the
statistics published in CII By NCRB (2019).
Attribution of Rape Blame
Blame is generally defined as a value judgment about the magnitude to which a person
needs to be held liable for an adverse event. Victim blaming refers to holding the victims
responsible wholly or partially for the tragedy which happened to them. So, whose fault is it
when someone is raped? A greater tendency of victim blaming is found in domestic and sexual
violence in comparison to other crimes such as robbery, accident, etc. (Bieneck & Krahé,
2011). In rape crime, the victims are generally blamed, and they must prove their innocence.

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When people blame the victim, it is possible for them to not take rape seriously as a sexual
crime. Blaming a victim for their wrongdoing. A victimization is a devaluing act that occurs in
a situation where the victim herself or victims of offense are held liable whole or partially for
the incident which was committed against them. Blaming the victim for the setback that was
experienced by her, makes a crime look less serious (Lonsway & Fitzerald, 1994). Rapists use
victim blaming as a defense mechanism for psychological disconnect from their crime and to
justify their acts.
In India, BBC conducted an interview (2015) in which a case was taken on 16
December 2012 in which a girl was brutally raped and murdered in Delhi (the capital of India).
Questions were asked of one culprit and the culprit gave a justification that the victim did cross
the line of gender role and feminine morality which forced him to commit the crime. More
shocking behavior was displayed by the offender’s advocate who also blamed the victim for
the incident, and he stated that if the same kind of behavior was shown by his daughter, he
would have burned her alive. These statements showed that deteriorating attitudes and practices
towards women prevail even among the educated classes, who are very supportive of the
perpetrators.
In 2013, Asaram Bapu, ‘spiritual leader’ and alleged rapist said that “Galati ek taraf se
nhi hoti, use un ladko ko bhai bolna chahiye tha or chhodne ki bhikh mangni chahiye thi.” In
April 2014, SP supremo Mulayam Singh Yadav said “boys will be boys, they commit
mistakes.” When he opposed the death penalty for convicts in Delhi gang rape. These cases
show that Indian society has a harmful misogynistic attitude that can be the reason for obstacles
in providing proper rehabilitation to rape victims and adequate punishment for the offenders.
It is important to examine and understand victim blaming in rape cases because it has severe
negative consequences not only for the victims of rape but for women and society. Victim-
blaming attitudes marginalize rape survivors and make it difficult for them to come forward
and report abuse. The purpose of the study is therefore to study the role of gender in the
attribution of blame for rape.

Methodology
This review paper included qualitative and quantitative research as well as mixed methods
research. This study aims to identify, evaluate, and interpret the best currently available
evidence associated with the study objective. This review paper was conducted by searching

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articles in Sage Publications, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Global Health, and PubMed
database. The search was conducted from January 2022 to the 5th of December 2022. The term
“rape blame,” “attribution rape blame,” “rape perception”, as well as “victim blaming” were
used for searching the articles. All articles included in this review paper are available in English
Languages.

Table A
Gender -significant differences in the attribution of victim blame in rape cases

Title of Study Researcher Year Sample Type Sample Size

“Social perception of the Calhoun et 1976 Undergraduate 128 (64 males &
victim’s causal role on rape: An al. Students 64 females)
exploratory examination of four
factors”
“Perceptions of victims and Feldman- 1976 Undergraduate 300 (150 males
defendants in criminal assault Summers & Students & 150 females)
cases” Lindner
“Rape victims and attributed Fulero & 1976 Undergraduate 170 (78 males &
responsibility: A defensive Delara Students 92 females)
attribution approach”
“Sex differences in university Barnett & 1977 Undergraduate 400 (200 males
students’ attitudes toward rape” Field Students & 200 females)
“Sex differences in the social Selby et al. 1977 Undergraduate 181 (111 males
perception of rape victims” Students & 70 females)
“Responsibility in relation to Kanekar & 1977 Undergraduate 300 (150 males
respectability” Kolsawalla Students &150 females)
“Perception of rape: The Kruelwitz & 1978 Undergraduate 232 (114 males
influence of closeness of Payne students &118 females)
relationship, intoxication, and
sex of participants”

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“Factors affecting responsibility Kanekar & 1981 Undergraduate 240 (120 males
attributed to a rape victim” Kolsawalla Students & 120 females)

“Reactions to rape victims: Kruelwitz 1981 Undergraduate 215 (98 males &
Effects of rape circumstances, Students 107 females)
victim’s emotional response and
sex of helper”
“Rape and responsibility: How Luginbuhl 1981 Undergraduate 130 (65 males &
much is the victim blamed?” & Mullin Students 65 females)
“Attribution theory and rape Gilmartin- 1983 Undergraduate 150 (110 males
victim responsibility” Zena Students & 40 females)
“Attribution of responsibility for Deitz, 1984 Undergraduate 190 (93 males &
rape: the influence of observer Littman & Students 97 females)
empathy, victim attractiveness” Bentley
“Attitudes concerning crimes Edmonds & 1986 Undergraduate 143 (52 males &
related to clothing worn by Cahoon Students 91 females)
female victims”
“Expert psychological testimony Brekke & 1988 Undergraduate 208 (98 males &
in rape trials: A social-cognitive Borgida Students 110 females)
analysis”
“Perceptions of rape victims and Gerdes, 1988 Undergraduate 64 (32 males &
assailants: Effects of physical Dammann Students 32 females)
attractiveness, acquaintance and & Heilig
subject gender”
“The Role of Ambiguity and Johnson, 1989 Undergraduate 160 (80 males &
Gender in Mediating the Effects Jackson & Students 80 females)
of Salient Cognitions” Smith
“Attributions of blame toward Schwartz & 1989 Undergraduate 180 (89 males &
assailants and victims of rape” Lundgren Students 91 females)
“Understanding attributions of McCaul 1990 Undergraduate 93 (39 males &
victim blame for rape: sex, et al. students 54 females)
violence, and foreseeability”

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“The Acquaintance Predicament Kanekar et 1991 Undergraduate 360 (180 males

of a Rape Victim” al. Students & 180 females)
“Acquaintance versus stranger Kanekar & 1993 Undergraduate 240 (120 males
rape: Testing the ambiguity Seksaria Students &120 females)
reduction hypothesis”
“Gender, sex-role stereotypes Proite et al. 1993 Undergraduate 417 (217 males
and the attribution of Students & 200 females)
responsibility for date and
acquaintance rape”
“Attribution of blame in stranger Bell et al. 1994 Undergraduate 303 (135males
rape and date rape situations: An Students & 168 females)
examination of gender, race
identification and student’s
social perception of rape victim”
“Theories of rape and the just Furnham & 1996 Community 121 (50 males &
world” Boston sample 71 females)
“The effects of defendant and Schuller and 1998 Undergraduate 152 (60 males &
complainant intoxication on Wall Students 92 females)
mock jurors’ judgements of
sexual assault”
“Attribution about rape in a Ewoldt et al. 2000 Undergraduate 234 (males &
continuum of dissolving marital students 114 females)
relations”
“The role of political ideology in Lambert and 2000 Undergraduate 57 (27 males &
mediating judgements of blame Raichle students 30 females)
in rape victims and their
assailants: A test of the just
world, personal responsibility
and legitimization”
“But she was unfaithful: Viki & 2002 Undergraduate 57 (29 males &
benevolent sexism and reactions Abrams students 28 females)
to rape victims who violate

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traditional gender role

expectations”

“Social perception of rape: How Frese et al. 2004 Undergraduate 182 (91 males &
rape myth acceptance modulates students 91 females)
the influence of situational
factors”
“The effect of victim’s social Anderson & 2005 Undergraduate 121 (47 males &
support on attribution of blame Lyons students 74 females)
in female and male”
“The effect of participant sex, Whatley 2005 Undergraduate 160 (80 males &
victim dress and traditional students 80 females)
attitudes on casual judgements
for marital rape”
“The case of the guilty victim: Rye et al. 2006 Undergraduate 256 (128 males
the effects of gender of victim students & 128 females)
and gender of perpetrators on
attributions of blame and
responsibility”
“To blame or not to blame: Donovan 2007 Undergraduate 313 (119 males
Influences of target race and students & 194 females)
observer sex on rape blame
attribution”
“Perceptions of sexual assault: Klippenstine 2007 Undergraduate 213 (95 males &
the expression of gender et al. students 118 females)
differences and the impact of
target alcohol consumption”
“Schema driven information Krahe et al. 2007 Undergraduate 283 (94 males &
processing in judgements about students 189 females)
rape”

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“Rape blame as a functions of Sims et al. 2007 Undergraduate 213 (70 males &
alcohol presence and resistance students 143 females)
type”
“Rape perception and the Yamawaki 2007 Undergraduate 126 (68 males &
function of ambivalent sexism et al. students 58 females)
and gender role traditionality”
“Gender differences and socio- Black & 2008 Undergraduate 160 (80 males &
economic status biases in Gold students 80 females)
judgements about blame in date
rape scenarios”
“In the eye of beholder: Do Cohn et al. 2009 Undergraduate 250 (114 males
behavior and character affect students & 136 females)
victim and perpetrator
responsibility for acquaintance
rape?”
“Effects of victim gender, victim Davies et al. 2009 community 164 (81 males &
sexual orientation, victim sample 83 females)
response and respondent gender
on judgements of blame in a
hypothetical adolescent rape”
“Understanding attribution of Grubb & 2009 Undergraduate 160 (55 males &
blame in cases of rape: An Harrower students 105 females)
analysis of participant gender,
type of rape and perceived
similarity to the victim”
“Effects of offender motivation, Mitchell et 2009 Undergraduate 171 (58 males &
victim gender and participant al. students 113 females)
gender on perceptions of rape
victims and offenders”
“The role of gender and ethnicity Schneider et 2009 Undergraduate 764 (250 males
in perceptions of rape and its al. students & 514 females)
aftereffects”

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“The influence of rape myths Hammond 2011 Undergraduate 172 (68 males &
acceptance, sexual attitudes and et al. students 104 females)
belief in a just world on
attributions of responsibility in a
date rape scenario”
“Gender versus gender role in Kahn et al. 2011 Undergraduate 324 (128 males,
attributions of blame for sexual students 177 females &
assault” 19 unreported)
“Rape victim and perpetrator Stromwall et 2013 community 164 (84 males &
blame and the just world al. sample 80 females)
hypothesis: The influence of
victim gender and age”
“Attitudes toward rape and Henriksen & 2014 community 475 (183 males
attribution of responsibility to Nostdahl sample & 292 females)
rape victims in a Norwegian
community sample”
“Perception of, and assistance Paul et al. 2014 Undergraduate 192 (152 males
provided to a hypothetical rape students & 40 females)
victim: Differences between rape
disclosure recipients and
nonrecipients”
“Attributions of responsibility, Qi et al. 2016 Undergraduate 377 (169 males
blame, and justifiability to a students & 208 females)
perpetrator and victim in and
acquaintance rape scenario: The
influence of marijuana
intoxication”
“Attribution of blame in rape: Genna 2017 Undergraduate 281 (200 males
The role of race” students & 81 females)
Table B
Gender – no significant differences in the attribution of victim blame in rape cases

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“Attribution of fault to a rape Jones & 1973 Undergraduate 234 (117 males
victim as a function of Aronson students & 117 females)
respectability of the victim”
“Effects of rape victim Kruelwitz & 1979 Undergraduate 229 (112 males
resistance, assault outcome and Nash students & 117 females)
sex of observer on attribution
about rape”
“Victim emotional response: Calhoun, 1981 Undergraduate 55 (26 males &
Effects on social reaction to Cann, Selby students 29 females)
victims of rape” & Magee
“Attribution of blame in rape Acock & 1983 Undergraduate 389 (195 males
cases: The impact of norm Ireland students & 194 females)
violation, gender and sex-role
attitude”
“Debriefing effectiveness Check & 1984 Undergraduate 150 (77 males &
following exposure to Malamuth students 73 females)
pornographic rape depictions”
“Older and younger adults Yarmey 1985 Community 768 (384 males
attributions of responsibility sample & 384 females)
toward rape victims and rapists”
“Victim and observer Krahe 1988 Community 72 (35 males &
characteristics as determinants of sample 37 females)
responsibility attributions to
victims of rape”
“It could have been better or it Nario- 1996 Undergraduate 106 (54 males &
might have been worse: Redmond & students 52 females)
implications for blame Branscombe
assignment in rape cases”
“Perception of race: The Hammock 1997 Undergraduate 253 (104 males
influence of Closeness of & students & 149 females)
relationship, intoxication and sex Richardson
of participant”

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“Effects of victim gender and Wakelin & 2002 Undergraduate 221 (113 males
sexuality on attributions of Long students & 108 females)
blame to rape victims”
“The Role of the New “Date Girard & 2008 Undergraduate 280 (143 males
Rape Drugs” in Attributions Senn students & 137 females)
About Date Rape”
“Attribution of responsibility for Newcombe 2008 Undergraduate 102 (43 males &
rape: Differences across et al. students 59 females)
familiarity of situation, gender,
and acceptance of rape myths”
“Blaming the victim and Bieneck & 2011 Undergraduate 288 (81 males &
exonerating the perpetrator in Krahe students 207 females)
cases of rape and robbery: Is
there a double standard?”
“Rape Attribution for African- Mandela 2011 Undergraduate 416 (158 males
American Students” students & 258 females)
“Sexual objectification increases Loughnan et 2013 Undergraduate 60 (15 males, 44
rape victim blame and decreases al. students females & 1
perceived suffering” unreported)
“The Selective Use of Rape- Bongiorno 2016 Community 299 (138 males
Victim Stereotypes to Protect et al. sample & 161 females)
Culturally Similar Perpetrators”
“The effects of exposure to Brown 2019 Undergraduate 173 (87 males &
negative social reactions and students 86 females)
participants gender on attitudes
and behaviour toward a rape
victim”
“Attribution of Victim Blame in Vale 2020 Undergraduate 210 (105 males
Rape” students &105 females)

Conclusion

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The present study examined the influence of participants’ gender on rape blame attribution in
rape cases. In this review paper, 67 research studies (1976- 2020) related to the attribution of
rape blame by different researchers from all over the world were considered. Observer gender
seemed to be an imperative variable when blame is attributed to the victim especially in rape
crimes. Past researches suggest that there is a general propensity to attribute the blame of the
assault to the victim (Jenkins & Dambrot, 1987). The blame for rape is normally attributed to
the female victims, and this is also the case in Indian society as well. Various factors are
responsible for the growth of an individual’s inclination to blame the victim. Nevertheless,
there are certain situations where the female victims are highly blamed, such as, when the
dressing is deemed to be provocative ((Kanekar & Kolsawalla, 1980), the perpetrator is familiar
(Bolt & Caswell, 1981), the assault could have been “foreseen” (McCaul et al., 1990) or is
unattractive (Thornton & Ryckman, 1982). The society seems to justify the crime by blaming
the victim and so does the participant gender. Additionally, there exists a gender difference in
blaming the victim. The results of the present study bring light to the fact that males are more
likely to blame the victim for rape, which has been supported by various other researchers
(Black & Gold, 2008; Jenkins & Dambrot, 1987; Thornton et al., 1981).
The result of more than 48 empirical studies (Table A) showed a significant effect of
gender on the attribution of rape blame to the victim. Male participants showed a high
propensity for victim blaming than the female participants. The study conducted by Kruelwitz
& Payne (1978) was distinct as the result revealed the significant effect of gender on victim
blaming, but in a reverse pattern, female participants of this study attributed the rape blame on
the victims more than the male participants. Results of the remaining 18 empirical studies
(Table B) presented that gender did not affect the attribution of blame on victim in rape crime.
Male as well as female participants of all 18 studies equally blamed the victims for their assault.
So, the result indicates that gender differences are found in attribution of rapes where gender
identification with victim or perpetrator exists which influences their attribution. However, the
effect of participants' gender could be a result of greater support for gender roles and
identification with one's own gender identity (Grubb & Turner, 2012). Male and female
participants who are supporters of conventional gender roles tend have more tendency for
blaming the victim than others. Some studies have observed that males tend to put significantly
less blame on perpetrators than females because they identify more with the perpetrator (Kahn
et al., 2011). Ward (1995) observed that males attribute victim blaming on the basis of attributes

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of the victim. The victim has to bear the moral responsibility for their adversity and male
unsurprisingly blame them. Conversely, female would put the strong liability on the situational
factors, blaming women only if they are careless (Ward, 1995) and try to analyze the whole
situation (Pinciotti et al., 2021).

Limitations and Future Implications

Researchers are making greater effort than before to study the topic of rape and sexual
violence. However, the sensitive nature of the topic requires open mindset and better
understanding of the topic. The influence of the various underlying factors that affect the belief
of people while making attributions also needs to be considered. More in-depth and qualitative
studies are required for better understanding the attributions made against the victim. Other
moderating factors can also influence attributions of rape on victims. More studies are required
in different areas as the culture and context also plays a vital role in attributing the blame on
the victim. The role of culture and societal norms is also evident in victim blaming.
There is a strong need for other studies that replicate these investigations in different
situations and to establish a concrete conclusion in rape victim blaming research. It is also
important to find out the reasons of victim blaming in rape scenarios. The diversity of our
country -religion, caste, culture, socio- economic status and political ideology etc. mark the
necessity to consider these aspects while conducting researches. The researches need to be
comprised of sample population which varies in age, education, and background. Victim
blaming is also influenced by victim’s background so this factor should also be considered.
There is unavailability of studies on the topic of rape in our country where crime against women
is committed on large scale. So, Indian researchers need to think over in this direction as well.
These results could have enormous implications on the judicial system as gender
identification could be balanced as it can have an impact on the guilty verdicts in rape trials
(Fischer, 1997). Counselling services are highly required in such cases for the victims as well
as the perpetrators. The fairness with victims also depends on whether the health practitioners
and counsellors who to work with rape victims are non-judgment. The government and the
non-government organizations need to take steps to formulate policies and to educate the public
to about the seriousness and consequences of rape. The attitude of society, family environment
and parents also play an essential in development of an individual (Singh et al., 2018). This
would help to diminish rape blame of victims, to rehabilitate them and to lower rape crimes.

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Education and awareness regarding rape and sexual violence at mass level is essential to
combat this social crime. People need to become more empathic and sensitive to understand
the concern of rape victims and to decrease this crime.

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