Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Complex Numbers
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Introduction
Consider the quadratic equation

x 2 + 4x + 13 = 0 (1)

Solving this equation using the general formula for a quadratic

equation, we obtain
√
−4 ± 16 − 52
x =
2
√
−4 ± 6 −1
=
2√
= −2 ± 3 −1

Thus Equation (1) does not have solution in the real number system.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

√
In the 18th century the symbol i was introduced to denote −1, to
provide solution to equations such as (1).

Thus, the solution to Equation (1) would then been denoted by

−2 ± 3i.

Such numbers are called complex numbers.

Complex numbers are manipulated in the same manner as ordinary

real numbers with i 2 = −1
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Definition
A complex number is a number of the form z = x + iy , where x and y
are real numbers.
x is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z).
y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z).
If x = 0, then z = iy and is called pure imaginary.
Numbers having zero imaginary part are simple real numbers.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Operations on Complex Numbers

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be complex numbers. We have the

following
Equality
z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 ; that is, they have the
same real parts and the same imaginary parts.
Addition

z1 + z2 = x1 + iy1 + x2 + iy2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )

For example, (2 + 3i) + (5 − 2i) = (2 + 5) + i(3 + (−2)) = 7 + i

Multiplication

z1 z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i

For example, (2 + 3i) × (5 − 2i) = (10 + 6) + (15 − 4)i = 16 + 11i.

Conjugate The conjugate of the complex number z = x + iy is
denoted by z and defined by z = x − iy .
For example, if z = 2 − 3i then z = 2 + 3i.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Let z = x + iy . It follows that zz = x 2 + y 2 , which is a real

number.
From the definition of conjugates, we obtain the following
1 z=z

2 Re(z) = 12 (z + z)

1
3 Im(z) = 2i
(z − z)

4 z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2

5 z1 z2 = z 1 z 2
 
z1 z1
6
z2
= z2
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Division
The quotient z = zz12 (z2 ̸= 0) is the complex number z for which
z1 = zz2 . To find z we multiply the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate z2 of the denominator.

For example, if z1 = 8 + 3i and z2 = 9 − 2i. Then we have

z1 8 + 3i (8 + 3i) × (9 + 2i)
z= = =
z2 9 − 2i (9 − 2i) × (9 + 2i)
66 + 43i
=
81 + 4
66 43
= + i
85 85
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Complex Plane
Since a complex number z = x + iy is simply an ordered pair (x, y) of
real numbers, it can be represented by a point (x, y) in the plane
called the complex plane or the Argand diagram.

In this plane, the x-axis is referred to as the real axis and the y -axis
as imaginary axis.

The following figure shows the complex plane and an example of a

complex number in the complex plane.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 . Since

z = z1 + z2 = (x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 )i,
complex numbers are added in a similar manner to vectors (See
figure below).
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Definition
complex number, the modulus (or length) |z| of z is
If z = x + iy is a p
defined as |z| = x 2 + y 2 .

Geometrically, |z| is the distance of the point z from the origin.

Similarly, |z1 − z2 | is the distance between z1 and z2

Theorem (Properties of the Modulus)

The following statements are true
1 |z|2 = zz
2 |z| = |z|
3 |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | for any two complex numbers z1 and z2
(This property is called Triangle inequality.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Argument of a complex number

Definition
The angle θ between the positive real axis and the vector
representing z is called the argument of the complex number z and is
denoted arg(z). It is conventional to choose arg(z) between −π and π.

Alternatively to the Cartesian representation z = x + iy, the complex

number z can be specified by polar coordinates. The polar
coordinates are the modulus r = |z| ≠ 0 and the argument
θ = arg(z). The representation of a complex number by its polar
coordinates is called the polar form of the complex number.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Let z = x + iy be a complex number. In the polar form we write

z = r (cos θ + i sin θ),

where r is the modulus and θ is the argument of z.

That is x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. Hence,
p √
r = x 2 + y 2 = zz

and
y
θ = arctan
x

Here, as in Calculus, all angles are measured in radians and positive

in the counterclockwise sense.
If z = 0, the angle θ is undefined. For a given z ̸= 0, θ is determined
only up to integer multiples of 2π.
The value of θ that lies in the interval −π < θ ≤ π is called the
principal value of z and is denoted by Arg z, with capital A.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Thus, by definition, θ = Arg z satisfies the condition

−π < Arg z ≤ π

This principal value is important in connection with roots of complex

numbers.
Example √ √
z = 1 + i has the polar form z = 2(cos π4 + sin π4 i). Hence r = 2
and arg(z) = π4 ± 2nπ (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). Similarly,
√
z = 3 + 3 3i = 6(cos π3 + sin π3 i), r = 6 and arg z = π3 .
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Triangle Inequality

For any two complex numbers, we define the Triangle Inequality as

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |

The triangle inequality follows by noting that the three points O, z1 ,

and z1 + z2 are the vertices of a triangle (see figure above) with sides
|z1 |, |z2 | and |z1 + z2 |, and one side can not exceed the sum of the
other two sides.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

A formal proof of the inequality is left to the reader. (The triangle

degenerates if z1 and z2 lie on the same straight line through the
origin.)
By induction, the generalized triangle inequality is

|z1 + z2 + · · · + zn | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | + · · · + |zn |;

that is, the absolute value of a sum can not exceed the sum of the
absolute values of the terms.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Multiplication in Polar Form

Let
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ2 )
and
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )
It follows that

z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ2 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )] , (2)

since
cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 = cos(θ1 + θ2 )
and
sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 = sin(θ1 + θ2 )
Equation (2) immediately imply that

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) (3)

Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

De Moivre’s Formula
From Equation (2) with z1 = z2 = · · · = z we obtain by induction for
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (4)
For |z| = r = 1, Equation (4) becomes De Moivre’s formula

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ (5)

Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Division in Polar Form

Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) be complex
numbers. Then
  
z1 r1 cos θ1 + i sin θ1 cos θ2 − i sin θ2
=
z2 r2 cos θ2 + i sin θ2 cos θ2 − i sin θ2
r1 cos θ1 cos θ2 + sin θ1 sin θ2 + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 − cos θ1 sin θ2 )
=
r2 cos2 θ2 + sin2 θ2
r1
= [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )] (6)
r2
Equation (6) immediately imply that
   
 z1  |z1 | z1
 z2  |z2 | and arg z2 = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ). (7)
 =
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Examples
1 Find the polar form of z = 1 + i.
Solution:
p √
z = 1 + i then |z| = 12 + 12 = 2
π
θ = arg (z) = tan−1 (1) = ± 2nπ, where n = 0, 1, · · · , and the
4
π
principal value is Arg (z) = .
4
Therefore, in polar form,
√  π π
z = 2 cos + i sin
4 4
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

2 If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = −2 + 3i, verify the triangle inequality.

Solution:
√ √ p √ √
|z1 | = 12 + 12 = 2 and |z2 | = (−2)2 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13.
So √ √
|z1 | + |z2 | = 2+ 13 ∼
= 5.020.
Also,
√ √
|z1 +z2 | = |1+i +(−2+3i)| = |−1+4i| = 1 + 16 = 17 ∼
= 4.123

Clearly, we see that |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

3 Let z1 = −2 + 2i and z2 = 3i. Verify that

(a) |z
 1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and Arg (z1 z2 ) = Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 )
 z1  |z1 |  
z
(b)   = and Arg z1 = Arg (z1 ) − Arg (z2 )
z2 |z2 | 2

Solution:
√ √ √
|z1 | = 4 + 4 = 8 and |z2 | = 0 + 9 = 3
   
−2 3π 3 π
Arg (z1 ) = tan−1 = and Arg (z2 ) = tan−1 =
2 4 0 2
Then
(a) z1 z2 = (−2 + 2i)(3i) = −6 − 6i, so that
√ √ √
|z1 z2 | = 36 + 36 = 72 = 3 8 = |z1 ||z2 |

and
 
−6 5π 3π π
Arg (z1 z2 ) = tan−1 = = + = Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 )
−6 4 4 2
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

z1 −2 + 2i (−2 + 2i)(−3i) 6i + 6 2 2
(b) = = = = + i, so that
z2 3i (3i)(−3i) 9 3 3
  r r √
  = 4 + 4 = 8 = 8 = |z1 |
 z1 
 z2  9 9 9 3 |z2 |

and
   
z1 −1 2/3 π 3π π
Arg = tan = = − = Arg (z1 ) − Arg (z2 )
z2 2/3 4 4 2
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

4 Find the modulus of

√
(−1 + i)10 ( 3 − i)4
√
(1 + i 3)8

Solution: We have
 (−1 + i)10 (√3 − i)4  √
 
|(−1 + i)10 | × |( 3 − i)4 |
√  = √
 

 (1 + i 3)8  |(1 + i 3)8 |
√
( 2)10 × 24
=
28
= 2
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Roots of a complex function

If z is a complex number and n a positive integer, then any complex
number w satisfying w n = z is called an n-th root of z. If z is nonzero,
there are exactly n distinct n-th roots of z. We write
√
w = nz
√
The n values of n z can easily be found as follows. In terms of polar
forms
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) and w = R(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ)
The equation w n = z becomes

w n = R n (cos nϕ + i sin nϕ) = z = r (cos θ + i sin θ)

By equating the absolute values on both sides we have

√
R n = r , thus R = n r

where the root is real positive and thus uniquely determined.

Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

By equating the arguments we obtain

θ 2k π
nϕ = θ + 2k π, thus ϕ = +
n n
where k is an integer. For k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 we get n distinct values
of w.
Further integers of k would give values already obtained. For
2k π
instance, k = n gives = 2π, hence the w corresponding to
n
k = 0, etc.
√
Consequently, n z, for z ̸= 0, has n distinct values
√ √
 
n n θ + 2k π θ + 2kπ
z = r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. (8)
n n

√
These n values lie on a circle of radius n r with center at the origin
and constitute the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

√
n
The value of z obtained by taking the principal√value of arg (z) and
k = 0 in (8) is called the principal value of w = n z.
In particular, taking z = 1, we have |z| = r = 1 and Arg (z) = 0. Then
Equation (8) gives
√
n 2kπ 2k π
1 = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
n n

These n values are called the nth roots of unity. They lie on the circle
of radius 1 and center 0, briefly called the unit circle.
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Example
√
3
Find all values of w such that w = 1 + i.

Solution: Let z = 1 + i. We first write z in the polar form.

√ π
|z| = r = 2 and Arg(z) = .
4
Therefore, √  π π
z= 2 cos + i sin
4 4
and
h√  π π i 13
w=2 cos + i sin .
4 4
By Equation (8), we have
 π  π 
1 + 2kπ + 2kπ
w = 2 6 cos 4 + i sin 4 , k = 0, 1, 2.
3 3
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Putting k = 0, 1, 2, we get
1
h π π i
w1 = 2 6 cos + i sin
 12 12 
1 9π 9π
w2 = 2 6 cos + i sin
12 12
 
1 17π 17π
w3 = 2 6 cos + i sin
12 12
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

Exercises
1 Represent each of the following in polar form and plot in the
complex plane.
(a) 1+i
(b) −2 + 2i
(c) −3 − 4i
(d) −10
(e) 3i
1−i
(f)
1+i
 2
6 + 8i
(g)
4 − 3i
i
(h)
3 + 3i
2+i
(i)
5 − 3i
7 − 5i
(j)
4i
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

2 Determine the principal value of the argument:

(a) 1−i
(b) −10, −10 − i
(c) 3 + 4i, 3 − 4i
(d) −5 + 5i
(e) π − πi
3 Represent each of the following in the form x + iy and plot in the
complex plane:
1 1
(a) cos π + i sin π
 2 2 
1 1
(b) 6 cos π + i sin π
 3 3
√

1 1
(c) 8 cos π + i sin π
 4 4 
√ 3 3
(d) 18 cos π + i sin π
4 4
Introduction Complex Plane Polar Form of Complex Numbers Roots of a complex function

√
4 Find all roots of −7 + 24i
5 Solve the equations:
(a) z 2 − (5 + i)z + 8 + i = 0
(b) z 2 − (7 + i)z + 24 + 7i = 0