CONDITIONALS (УМОВНІ РЕЧЕННЯ)

Zero Conditional
If/when + obj. + Present Simple, obj + Present
Simple
1) Result that are always the same:
If the wind blows, the threes move or the threes move if the wind blows.
If he lives ice-cream in the fridge, it doesn’t melt.
2) Facts are generally true:
If we use spectaculars, we see better.
3) Using “unless”:

Unless = if … not
Unless I do this homework, I don’t understand the new rules.
We don’t go to the caffe unless we are busy.
4) Difference between if und when:
If – maybe smth will happen, when – certainly smth will happen.
5) Interrogative sentences:
If you oversleep, what do you do?
What happens when you don’t go to the supermarket?

First Conditional
If/when + obj. + Present Simple, obj + Future
Simple
1) Things that may happen in the future or if it is possible future result:
If you are late again, you will lose your job.
We will fail the exam if we don’t prepare.
2) Using “unless”:

Unless = if … not
Unless my mother gives me some money, I won’t buy a gift.
I can run away from prison unless guards are here.
3) Modal verbs:
If a person goes to the gym, she could run for a long time.
I might be expelled from a university if I continue to miss classes.
When you tell me the news, I am going to faint.
4) Interrogative sentences:
Where will I study if a library is closed?
If you want to come back, when will you do it?

Second Conditional
If/when + obj. + Past Simple, obj + would + infinitive
Simple
nreal/impossible/hypothetical situation in the present or future:
If The Beatles had the concert in Ukraine, we would be happy. (But The Beatles aren’t alive today)
I would buy the house of my dream if I didn’t have a lot of debts.
We can use “I wish…” if we say about, we want smth to be different from how it’s now:
I wish (that) my grandparents were alive.
My friend wishes he were rich.
he, she, it + WERE:
If Plato were alive, he will teach us life.
4) Using “unless”:

Unless = if … not
Unless I have the loving mother, I won’t be successful.
5) Modal verbs:
If police didn’t do his thing, our lives couldn’t be safe.
I might go to the cinema if there weren’t the war.
6) Interrogative sentences:
What would you do if you miss the bus?
If I check my e-mail, will I see necessary letter?

Third Conditional
If/when + obj. + Past Perfect, obj + would + have + PP (V(III)/-ed)
1) Unreal/impossible/hypothetical situation in the past:
If she hadn’t taken the train, she would have missed the meeting.
2) If we want to show the continuous action in the future, we use Past Perf. Cont. in conditional part of the
sentence:
Past Perfect Past Perf. Cont.
If I had studies harder, I would have passed the If I hadn’t been working, I would have gone to the
exam. party.
If the boss had said your work was good, would If I hadn’t been working, I would have been
you have been happy? dancing in the club.

6) Inversion or Had (Formal):

Had she passed the exam, she could have become a vet. = If she had passed the exam, she could have
become a vet. (to want to stress the fact)
7) The main part (result) of the sentence can be:
Would + have + PP Would + have + been + ing
If I had studied harder, I would If I had been lying on a bad when
have passed the TOELF exam. you called, I would been eating
an ice-cream.
I would have been lying on the
beach yesterday if I had caught
the plain.
Past modals + have + PP
If he hadn’t been at home, I
might have called him.
She could have spoken to your
friend from Japan if she had
studied the language.

8) Using modal verbs:

Could (opportunity) Might (possibility) Should (advice)
If he had had more time, he could We might have gone the sea if it If she had helped you, you should
have helped you. hadn’t been raining. have thanked her.

9) Interrogative sentences:
If your car hadn’t broken down, what time would you have arrived?
What would you have done if the boss had asked you to work overtime?
Mixed Conditional
 Показує як щось є для нас не правдою (I)+V/Ved +as if/as though+(I)+were
зараз.
Показує як щось може бути реальним (I)+V/Ved +as if/as though +(I) +have(has)
зараз. +Ved/III
Показує як щось (що відбулось у (I)+V/Ved +as if/as though+(I)+had+Ved/III
минулому) є зараз не правдою.
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Опис переваги. (I) + would rather/sooner + V

Ввічливий спосіб дати дозвіл/відмовити, (I) + would rather/sooner + (you) +
або рекомендувати. Ved/II/were
Показ почуттів (жалю, докорів) щодо I) + would rather/sooner + (you) + had V2/ed
зробленого у минулому.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Теперішня ситуація, яку ми

хочемо змінити.
Побажання чи жаль У
СЬОГОДЕННІ через
відсутність якихось
здібностей.
Побажання змін у
майбутньому.
Побажання чи жаль, коли
щось станеться або ні У
МАЙБУТНЬОМУ.
- щось не відбулося, але мало б
бути.
- !!! не може викор-ся у негативних
реченнях.

- можна опустити if у
розмовній мові, якщо
співбесідник висуває умови
чи погрози.

- у формал. та літ-ну стилі

можна опустити if, ставлячи
при цьому допоміжне слово
перед іменником.
 - if necessary – якщо необхідно
- if any – якщо якісь
- if anything – якщо що
- if ever – якщо колись
- if in doubt – якщо
сумніваєтесь
- if about – якщо збираєтесь

- дуже ввічливі прохання

UNIT 1
SECTION I

ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS

NO ARTICLE

Countable nouns are used with no article:

Generalizing
 We use no article with plural nouns to talk about things in general – to talk about all books, all people, etc. This is
the most common way of referring generally to a whole group. Compare:
Move the books off that chair and sit down. (= particular books)
Books are expensive. (NOT The books are expensive. The sentence is about books in general – all books).
I’m studying the life of Beethoven. (= one particular life).
Life is complicated. (NOT The life … The sentence is about the whole of life)
 Most (meaning ‘the majority of’) is used without the:
e.g Most birds can fly. (NOT the most…)
Most of the children got very tired. (NOT the most…)
‘Half-general’
 Some expressions are ‘half-general’ – in the middle between general and particular. If we talk about African
butterflies, British painters, European museums we are not talking about all butterflies, all painters or all
museums, but these are still rather general ideas (compared with the butterflies I got before my exam, the painters
I am fond of, the museums we visited in Europe). In these ‘half-general’ expressions, we usually use no article.
e.g. African butterflies
 However, the is often used when the noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of.
e.g. the butterflies of Africa
 This is common with abstract nouns as well. Compare:
e.g. eighteenth century history – the history I did at school
sixties music – the music we heard last night
poverty in Britain – the poverty I grew up in

A / AN

Countable nouns are used with a / an:

Nominating (номінальне значення)
 When the speaker denotes what kind of object he/she has to do with (говориться про об’єкт, з яким розповідач
має справу). In this case the indefinite article has the nominating meaning:
e.g. She has a watch of her own.
In the plural we normally express similar meaning with some/any or no article (у множ. можна НЕ викор.
артикль або викор. some/any):
e.g. I liked the room because there were flowers in it.
Have you got any matches?

Classifying (класифікаційне знач.)

 After a copular verb or as to classify people or things – to say what group, class or type they belong to (the
classifying meaning) (після дієслова-зв’язки або AS при класифікації):
e.g. Her brother was an artist.
I’m looking forward to being a grandmother.
He decided to become an engineer.
Don’t use your plate as an ashtray. (NOT … as ashtray)

Generalizing (узагальнення)
 When the noun is used in a general sense, i.e to talk about any one member of a class (the generalizing meaning
‘every, any, all’) (іменник викор. у загальному значенні, наприклад говорить про будь якого члена класу):
e.g. A drowning man catches at a straw.
A spider has eight legs (= any spider).
A seagull is a large white and grey bird. (= all seagulls are…)
WATCH OUT! We cannot use a singular noun with a / an in phrases that refer to the whole group (НЕ можна
викор. a / an, коли ми говоримо про цілий клас):
e.g. A tiger is in danger of becoming extinct.
Tigers are in danger of becoming extinct.
 The singular with a / an also loses its general meaning when it isn’t the subject of the
sentence. We use the plural (or the…, see below) (a / an ми не ставимо, коли слово НЕ є
іменником у реченні):
e.g. I’ve been studying a seagull. (= one particular bird)
I’ve been studying seagulls. (= seagulls as a group)

Numeric (числове знач.)

 There are cases when the indefinite article preserves its old original meaning of ‘one’ (the numeric meaning):
e.g. A stitch in time saves nine.
 This meaning is generally found:
1)with nouns denoting time, measure (міру) and weight:
e.g. A week or two passed.
sixty pence a kilo thirty miles an hour (or … per hour) twice a week
2) with the numerals hundred, thousand, million and the nouns dozen and score:
e.g. An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.

 However, we use the in measuring expressions beginning with by (по):

e.g. Do you sell eggs by the kilo or by the dozen?
He sits watching TV by the hour.
Can I pay by the month?

THE

Countable nouns are used with the:

Specifying (конкретизуюче значення)
 When the noun denotes an object or objects which the speaker singles out from all the objects of a given class ( the
specifying meaning), i.e. when a listener / reader knows (or can work out) which particular person(s), thing(s) etc
we are talking about. Compare:
Did you lock the car? (The listener knows very well which car is meant).
We hired a car to go to Scotland. (The listener does not know which one).
 The listener / reader may know which one(s) we mean because:

a we have mentioned it / them before: (мовець вже згадує об’єкт удруге)

e.g. She’s got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy’s fourteen and the girl’s eight.
‘So what did you do then?’ ‘Gave the money straight back to the policeman.’ (The speaker uses the
because the listener has already heard about the money and the policeman.)

b we say which one(s) we mean:

e.g. Who’s the girl over there with John?
Tell Pat the story about John and Susie.

c it is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean:

e.g. Could you close the door? (Only one door is open.)
Ann’s in the kitchen.
What’s the time?

Generic
 With nouns used in a generic sense in academic or formal language, mainly to describe typical characteristics, i.e.
the definite article is used with singular nouns referring to a class of objects as a whole.
(the викор. з іменником в однині, що відноситься до класу об’єктів у цілому)
e.g. The tragedy and the comedy first appeared in Greece.
The seagull is a scavenging bird.
I’ve been studying the seagull. (possible, but formal)
WATCH OUT! We can’t refer to a whole group in general by using a singular countable noun without an article:
e.g. Seagull lives near the sea.
Seagulls live near the sea.
 However, this is the only possibility with uncountable nouns:
e.g. Happiness is not an inevitable result of having money.
 Therefore, three ways of making general statements are:
1) with the + singular:
e.g. The cobra is dangerous. (= a certain class of snakes as distinct from other classes,
such as the grass snake)
2) with ‘no article’ + plural:
e.g. Cobras are dangerous. (the whole class: all the creatures with the characteristics of
snakes called cobras)
3) with a / an + singular:
e.g. A cobra is a very poisonous snake. (a cobra as an example of a class of reptile known
as snake)
 The nouns ‘man’, ‘woman’ have no article when used in a general sense:
e.g. Man is helpless in this case.
Man and woman were created equal.
But in Modern English we more often use a woman and a man, or men and women:
e.g. A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle. (old feminist joke)
Men and women have similar abilities and needs.
 Plural nouns which denote social classes, religious groups, nationalities as undivided bodies:
e.g. the Tories, the Conservatives, the Catholics, the Ukrainians, the Hungarians.

 There are three groups of things that we commonly refer to as a general class with the: parts of the body,
musical instruments, and scientific inventions (винаходи).

Parts of the body

 When talking about parts of someone’s body, or about their possessions, we usually use possessives, not the. This
happens especially when the noun is related to the subject of the sentence:
e.g. Katy broke her arm climbing. (NOT Katy broke the arm climbing.)
That seagull had hurt its wing. (NOT That seagull had hurt the wing.)

However, the is used when the noun is related to the object of the sentence (or the subject of passives), and
especially in prepositional phrases:
e.g. The bird was shot in the wing.
 She gave me a pot on the back.
This can also happen in prepositional phrases after be + adjective:
e.g. He’s broad across the shoulders.

Some of these are common phrases:

e.g. I looked him straight in the eye.
He’s a pain in the neck.
I’ve got this annoying tune on the brain.

Musical instruments
 We often refer to musical instruments generically or talk about playing musical instruments with the:
(говоримо про музичні інструменти взагалі або про гру на них)
e.g. The horn is one of the most difficult orchestral instruments to play.
Who’s that on the piano?
However, when we talk about bands, orchestras, recordings, etc. we can omit the:
(говоримо про музичні групи, оркестри чи записи)
e.g. I used to play trumpet in my school orchestra.
Does the recording have Clapton on guitar?

Scientific inventions
 We talk about scientific instruments and inventions in general by using the with a singular countable noun:
e.g. It would be difficult to imagine life without the telephone.
However, we do not use the with all inventions:
e.g. It would be very difficult these days to live life without video / e-mail.

The definite article in the GENERIC MEANING is also found with:

 Collective nouns denoting social classes or groups as undivided bodies:

e.g. the aristocracy, the nobility, the elite, the public, the press, the police.
The combination public opinion is used without any article. The noun ‘people’ used generically takes the definite
article:
e.g. the Ukrainian people, the Polish people, the English people.
The nouns ‘mankind’ (людство), ‘humanity’ take no article in this case:
e.g. Mankind lives on a wonderful planet.
Here are more examples of collective nouns:
media army jury family band
community audience staff committee cast

 Adjectives and participles used as abstract nouns:

e.g. The listeners noted something beyond the usual in his voice.
You’re asking me to do the impossible.
Of the two, the former is my preference.
In that case, the latter is fine for me.
Some examples are common phrases:
into the open (у відкритий) for the common good (для загального блага)
out of the ordinary (незвичайне) in the extreme (у вищій ступені; у крайньому (випадку)) on
the loose (на свободі, на волі) to the full (у повні мірі)
The good, the bad and the ugly (also a film title)
The survival of the fittest (= a saying)
Moving from the sublime to the ridiculous (= a saying)

The evil that men do lives after them;

The good is oft interred with their bones;
(from Julius Caesar, Shakespeare)

 Adjectives used to talk about certain well-known groups or classes of people, especially those in a particular
physical or social condition:
e.g. The unemployed are losing hope.
He’s collecting money for the blind.
 The meaning is usually general, but occasionally a more limited group is referred to:
e.g. The wounded were taken to the nearest hospital.
The most common expressions of this kind are:
the blind the old
the dead the poor
the deaf (глухі) the rich
the handicapped (інваліди) the unemployed
the jobless the young
the mentally ill

Here are more examples:

the injured the penniless (нищі) the well educated the famous
the very healthy the chronically sick the terminally (невеліковно) ill
the mentally disabled (розумово відсталі, душевнохворі) the very old

 We use the same pattern (the + adjective) for most nationalities:

e.g. the Swiss the British the French the Japanese
WATCH OUT! Plural nationality nouns can be used with the or without any article to refer to the group as a whole:
the Americans or Americans.

 There are a few examples that can refer to one person, and we use a singular verb. These include the accused
(обвинувачений, підсудний), the undersigned (той, що підписався нижче), the deceased (той, що помер),
the former (перший) and the latter (останній):
e.g. The accused was released on bail.
The deceased has left a very detailed will.
Plural meanings are also possible:
e.g. The accused were released on bail
WHACH OUT! Adjectives as personal nouns use a plural verb.
Adjectives as abstract nouns use a singular verb:
e.g. The rich doesn’t understand our problems.
The unknown are often very frightening.
The rich don’t understand our problems.
The unknown is often very frightening.
 Adjectives without the are sometimes possible after quantifiers like many and more, in paired
structures with and or or and after possessives:
e.g. There are more unemployed than ever before. Opportunities for both rich and poor ...
Give me your tired, your poor...

section II

ARTICLES WITH COUNTABLE NOUNS MODIFIED BY ATTRIBUTES (ОЗНАКИ)

In accordance with their role in the choice of articles attributes may be divided into limiting and descriptive.
 A limiting attribute is used to point out a particular object (a person or thing) or a number of objects as distinct
from all other objects of the same class or kind. A noun with a limiting attribute is used with the definite article:
(виділення іменників, які відрізняють від усього класу, до якого відносяться)
e.g. There was a crowd of people in the principal street of the village. (конкретна вулиця)

 A descriptive attribute (описова ознака) describes an object or a number of objects and gives additional
(додаткову) information about them. It does not affect the use of articles. The use of articles depends on the
context or the situation. (артикль ставиться залежно від контексту та ситуації)

LIMITING

There are certain words that are always limiting because of their lexical meaning. They are:
  adjectives and adjective pronouns: (прикметники, прикметникові займенники)

1. adjectives in the superlative degree:

e.g. This is the safest way out, I’m sure.

2. the adjectives
same, only, very, main, principal, left, right, central,
following (наступний), present, former (минулий, бывший), latter, last, next:
e.g. They spent the latter part of the year on the farm.
WATCH OUT! The adjective only is used as a descriptive attribute in combination with the nouns daughter, son, child:
e.g. Isabel was an only daughter of wealthy parents.

3. the adjectives
alleged (допустовий, предполагаемый), necessary (необхідний), opposite, previous (попередній),
lower, upper, usual, so-called
(they may be used both as limiting and descriptive attributes, though they occur more often as limiting
attributes):
e.g. He came in surrounded by the usual crowd.

4. the adjectives
absent (відсутній) , present (присутній), proper, involved (залучений), concerned (зацікавлений,
занепокоєний)
(which are often postposed): (часто ставляться після)
e.g. The people involved were asked to come and testify.

The most common expressions of this kind are:

president elect (обраний президент), heir apparent (наслідник), postmaster general

(генеральний/головний начальник поштового відділення),
attorney general (генпрокурор), notary public (держнотаріус), princess royal (королівська
принцеса)

 ordinal numerals:
e.g. The second attempt (спроба) proved more successful than the first.

WATCH OUT! The indefinite article is used when a noun modified by an ordinal numeral means ‘another’, ‘one more’:
e.g. Encouraged by her smile the boy took a third helping of the apple pie. (3-тю порцію, як «ще
одну»)
 Ordinal (порядкові) numerals used alone may have the zero article:
e.g. She was first in her class.
Our team is third in the standings.

 prepositional gerundial phrases:

e.g. Lady Emily had the reputation of being a beauty.
WATCH OUT! A prepositional gerundial phrase is treated as a descriptive attribute when its head-noun is an object of
the verb ‘to have’:
e.g. He had a feeling of missing something important.

DESCRIPTIVE

The following words are used as descriptive attributes:

 Postposed adjectives which often occur as heads of adjective phrases:

e.g. Edward was dressed in a shabby clothes, none too clean.
She has dark splendid eyes and a red mouth tremulous with laughter.

 Cardinal numerals (are used only as descriptive attributes):

 e.g. They received three invitations to Sunday parties.

WATCH OUT! If the situation requires the definite article is used:

e.g. The five days seemed an age to him.
 No article is used when a cardinal numeral follows a noun:
e.g. Have you read Chapter Ten?

Modification by of-phrases
 An of-structure may be used as a limiting or descriptive attribute.

Descriptive

 An of-phrase usually functions as a descriptive attribute when it is a part of the so-called partitive structure.
Partitives are words (a piece, a bit, a lump, etc) used to refer to specific pieces of an uncountable substance, or to
a limited number of countable items.
 Partitive of-phrases are used to indicate different categories of meaning:
Category Example

mass a mountain of work, a pile of washing,

a pile of papers, a sheaf of documents
a small quantity / amount a lump of sugar, a slice of lemon, a pinch of salt
a portion of liquid a drop of milk, a pool of blood
speed of movement a jet of water, a gush of blood
a group a flock of sheep, a gang of youths
a container a bottle of beer, a packet of cigarettes,
a pot of tea, a box of matches
an example or part
of an uncountable noun an article of clothing, an item of news
measure a temperature of 200, a height of two metres
a length of cloth, a spoonful of medicine
origin a native of Wales, a man of Kent,
a descendant of a good family
characteristics of an object a woman of great charm, a man of courage,
a question of importance
age a man of middle age, a boy of five
two objects of the same kind a pair of gloves, a couple of apples,
a pair of trousers
indication of implied analogy a beast of a man, a peach of a girl,
a fool of a woman
a fixed shape a ball of wool, a stick of dynamite
types / species a brand of soap, a kind of biscuit,
a type of drug, a variety of pasta

WATCH OUT! We often leave out a / an after partitives followed by of:

e.g. What kind of person is she?
Have you got a cheaper sort of radio?
They’ve developed a new variety of sheep.
 Most of ‘containers’ used as partitives can be re-expressed as compounds to describe the container
itself:
e.g. matchbox, teapot
Thus a teapot describes the container (which may be full or empty), while a pot of tea describes a pot with
tea in it.

 We use informal vocabulary in a variety of common phrases (both singular and plural):
a blob of glue a bit of land a heap of papers
piles of homework stacks of replies
mountains of washing
 Some examples depend on collocation:

e.g. At last there’s a ray of hope.

There wasn’t a speck of dust to be seen
He was greeted with a torrent of abuse.
Her enquiries were met with a wall of silence.

 In modern English noun + noun structure is normally used to say what things are made of:
e.g. a silk dress, a stone bridge, an iron rod, a gold ring
In older English, the of-structure was more common in this case (e.g. a dress of silk, a bridge of stone), and it is
still used in some metaphorical expressions:
e.g. He rules his family with a rod of iron.
The flowers were like a carpet of gold.

 The of-phrase is always a descriptive attribute in the double genitive construction:

e.g. a friend of mine / hers / his / my brother’s.

Limiting

 Here are the most typical kinds of ‘of-phrases’ with a limiting force:
the city of Chicago the sound of the bell the figure of a man
the position of a teacher the foot of the hill the bank of the river
the wife of the local doctor the number of people
the shadow of a tree the shot of a gun the face of a woman
the manager of a hotel the edge of a table the story of his life
WATCH OUT! The is dropped after the amount of / number of.
e.g. I was surprised at the amount of money collected.
The number of unemployed is rising steadily.

Modification by nouns in the genitive case

 In a noun phrase where an attribute is expressed by a noun in the genitive case the article or its absence mostly
refers to the noun in the genitive case. The meanings of articles are the same as with nouns in the common case:
1. The specifying meaning:
e.g. I was told by my friends not to believe the girl’s tears. (= tears of this / that (definite) girl).
2. The nominating meaning:
e.g. She is a neighbour’s daughter. (the daughter of a neighbour)
3. The generalizing meaning:
e.g. Very early in my life I was taught not to believe a girl’s tears. (= tears of any girl).
4. The generic meaning:
e.g. The poet’s talent (the talent of the poet) is born with him, but I doubt if this can be said of the artist.
WATCH OUT! There is no article before an adverb or proper noun in the genitive case:
e.g. We didn’t go to yesterday’s concert.
Margaret’s face was unmoved.
 In the above mentioned examples the nouns in the genitive case function as determiners to the head noun.
Such combinations can be substituted for by of-phrases. Other attributes to the head noun are placed after
a noun in the genitive case:
e.g. the boy’s sister – the boy’s younger sister
the girl’s text-book – the girl’s new English text-book
 Attributes placed before nouns in the genitive case used as determiners never refer to the head noun:
e.g. They saw the old woman’s house before them, but there were no signs of life there. (= the house of
the old woman NOT the old house)

 A noun in the genitive case may be used as a descriptive attribute to the head noun. The article or its absence then
refer to the head noun:
e.g. a women’s college, a children’s hospital, a doctor’s degree, widow’s weeds, a doll’s house, sheep’s eyes,
cow’s milk, lady’s stockings, a lady’s maid, a world’s fair, a three months’ leave, a summer’s day, etc.
WATCH OUT! A noun in the genitive case used as a descriptive attribute is not a determiner. Such a combination
cannot be substituted for by an of-phrase:
e.g. boy’s clothes (= a kind of clothes worn by boys) (NOT clothes of a boy);
a women’s magazine (= a magazine read by women) (NOT a magazine of women)
 A noun in the genitive case used as a descriptive attribute may be preceded by other attributes referring
to the head noun:
e.g. They gave the girl a beautiful doll’s house as a birthday present.
Go to bed and have a good night’s rest.

Unit 2

ARTICLES WITH UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

SECTION 1

ARTICLES WITH NAMES OF SUBSTANCES AND MATERIALS

General
 Names of substances and materials are generally used without any article:
e.g. Honey is wholesome.
Sugar is bad for you.
Without oil, our industry would come to a halt.

Specific
 When a definite part of the substance is meant (when the noun is modified by a limiting attribute or is made
definite by the situation) the is used:
e.g. The meat was good and White Fang was hungry.
The sugar you bought yesterday has got damp.
The oil I got on my trousers won’t wash out.

Indefinite
 When an indefinite part of the substance is meant ‘some’ or ‘any’ is used:
e.g. We took some bread and cheese with us.

Countable or uncountable uses

 Names of substances and materials normally treated uncountable can have countable uses. In such cases the
articles are used according to the general use of articles with countable nouns.

 Names of substances can be treated as countable when used in the meaning ‘a type of’ or ‘a portion of’:
e.g. Simon ordered two beers for us and a coke and an ice for Kit.
Have you got a shampoo for dry hair?

 Words for materials (paper, glass, etc) are uncountable, but we can often use the same word as a countable noun
to refer to something made of material. Compare:
I’d like some typing paper. – I’m going out to buy a paper (= a newspaper).
The window’s made of unbreakable glass. – Would you like a glass of water?

 And normally uncountable nouns (names of substances and materials) can often be used as countable if we are
talking about different kinds of material, liquid etc., their varieties:
e.g. Not all washing powders are kind to your hands.
The 1961 wines were among the best this century.
This region produces an excellent wine.
Kalamata produces some of the best olive oil in the world; it’s an oil of very high quality.

 Such countable nouns as a duck, a lamb, a chicken, a fish, a turkey, a salmon, a lobster, etc. are used as names
of substances when they denote flesh used for food:
e.g. Fried fish is often eaten with chips.
 ARTICLES WITH ABSTRACT NOUNS

General
 Abstract uncountable nouns take no article when used in a general sense:
e.g. While there is life there is hope.
Standards of education are falling.
Time costs money.

‘Half-general’
 Some expressions with uncountable nouns, either names of materials, substances or abstract nouns, are ‘half-
general’ – in the middle between general and particular. If we talk about European architecture, American
literature we are not talking about all architecture, all literature etc, but these are still rather general ideas
(compared with the architecture I did at university, the literature I am fond of). In these ‘half-general’
expressions, we usually use no article. Compare:
eighteenth century history – the history I did at school
sixties music – the music we heard last night
poverty in Britain – the poverty I grew up in

 However, the is often used when the noun is followed by a limiting, defining phrase, especially one with of.
e.g. the architecture of Europe
the literature of America

 A phrase with of usually takes the, but with other phrases and clauses we can use a noun without an article:
e.g. Life in those days wasn’t easy. (life in those days is still a general idea)
Silk from Japan was used to make the wedding dress. (silk form Japan means a type of material rather
than a specific piece of material).

Specific
 We use the with abstract nouns to refer to a specific example of something. To make clear which specific example
we are referring to, we may add a qualifying clause with of (or another preposition), a relative clause or a limiting
attribute:
General Specific

I like all kinds of music.
Is there life after death?
We must fight for freedom.
Truth is the first victim of war.
You learn from experience.
She ought to be in jail –
she’s a danger to society.
The music of Skalkottas is virtually unknown outside Greece.
It was a film about the life of a popular explorer.
I was allowed the freedom of the house and garden.
We’ll never know the truth about what really happened.
The terrible experience was something he never got over.
The society which they set out to create was based
on mutual trust.

 Sometimes the qualifying clause is implied rather than stated explicitly (щось мається на увазі, але не
вказується відкрито). This is especially true of truth:
e.g. I promise to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. (= about what happened).

 The is always used with such nouns as

the present the past the future the singular the plural
e.g. I am certain nothing will happen in the nearest future.

Modification by attributes
 Abstract uncountable nouns may be modified by descriptive attributes. No article is used when descriptive
attributes are expressed by adjectives denoting:

1) nationality (Ukrainian, French, English, German):

e.g. English literature, French poetry, Italian music;

2) social characteristics (feudal, capitalist, racial, religious, etc.):

e.g. racial segregation, feudal law;
 3) periods of time, often historical periods (contemporary, modern, ancient, medieval (середньовічний), daily,
further):
e.g. modern art, ancient history, contemporary music;

4) authenticity or reliability (true, authentic, solid (твердий), false, dubious (сумнівний), real, genuine,
reliable, etc.):
e.g. real freedom, genuine happiness, true friendship;

5) degree or extent (міра чи ступінь) (perfect, great, sufficient (достатній) , immense (величезний,
колосальний), utter (повний, абсолютний), huge, tremendous (величезний, грандіозний), complete,
absolute, infinite (нескінченний), considerable (значний, суттєвий), etc.):
e.g. immense joy, sheer foolishness, perfect law;

6) various genres or trends in art (dramatic, theatrical, classical, romantic, etc.):

e.g. romantic prose, detective literature;

7) man’s social and spiritual life (social, public, political, intellectual, spiritual, moral, mental, humane,
personal, reasonable, etc.):
e.g. humane philosophy, public recognition;

8) man’s manner or behaviour (polite, nervous, formal, serious, etc.):

e.g. nervous attitude, formal behaviour;

9) position or locality (outside, inside, inner, local, internal, etc.):

e.g. local distribution, inner vision, inside information;

10) recurrent or going on without stopping phenomena (continual, continuous, constant, incessant, etc.): (явища,
що тривають безперервно)
e.g. constant displeasure, incessant talk;

11) some other adjectives of different meanings: good, bad, free, critical, ordinary, plain, physical, human,
consistent, etc.:
e.g. He lacked ordinary honesty.

 A / an is obligatory if an abstract noun is modified by the adjectives certain or peculiar: (певний або
своєрідний)
e.g. There is a peculiar tension about her.

 A / an is omitted (опускається) if an abstract noun modified by a descriptive attribute (описове значення) is used
as:
1) a predicative:
e.g. It was gallant courage.
2) an attribute expressed by a prepositional phrase (mostly ‘of-phrase’):
e.g. She was a woman of wonderful generosity.
3) an adverbial modifier of manner expressed by a prepositional group (mostly with the prepositions with or in):
e.g. He shouted at them in helpless rage.

Countable or uncountable uses

 A number of abstract nouns may function both as uncountables and countables. In the latter case they follow the
general rules for the use of articles with countable nouns:
e.g. She was a beauty twenty years ago.

 Many normally uncountable abstract nouns – especially nouns referring to human emotions and mental activity –
can have ‘partly countable’ uses. An abstract noun is used with a / an when a certain aspect of the notion is meant
(an abstract noun expresses a certain kind of quality, emotion, state) or when the meaning is particular rather than
general. In such cases, the nouns are usually qualified by an adjective or phrase (such as a prepositional phrase or
relative clause):
e.g. He was filled with a loathing (огиди) he had never known.
We need a secretary with a knowledge of English.
 You’ve been a great help.
I need a good sleep.
WATCH OUT! Some uncountable nouns cannot normally be used in this way, they are never used with a / an . Here are
some of them:
advice assistance (допомога, підтримка) bliss (блаженство) breeding (розведення,
селекція) cunning (хитрий) control evidence (доказ, свідоцтво) guidance (руководство,
рекомендація) health fun information luck money nature news nonsense
permission progress trade (торгівля, справа) weather work

e.g. What nasty weather we are having today!

 Note also:
She speaks very good English.

 Some nouns which are countable in other languages are countable in English. Examples are
information (NOT an information), advice (NOT an advice); see supplement for a more complete list.

It is … a … What a…!
 The nouns
Pity (шкода) shame (сором) disgrace (ганьба) pleasure
relief comfort disappointment (розчарування)
are always used with a / an in sentences with the formal it as subject and in exclamatory sentences after what:
e.g. It is a pity. What a disgrace!

Measurements
 A / an is used with the nouns
period population distance height salary etc.
followed by ‘of + numeral + noun’:
e.g. Gary was out of the city for a period of ten days.

SECTION 2

ARTICLES WITH NOUNS REFERRING TO UNIQUE OBJECTS AND NOTIONS

 We nearly always use the with some singular nouns because we consider there is only one in existence, i.e.
because we are talking about something unique, like the sun, or something that is at least unique in our
environment, like the Government, the police. Here is a list of some of these nouns:
the sun the sky the moon the universe the atmosphere the air
the ozone layer the past the future the countryside the seaside
the world the earth the ground the horizon the cosmos
the presidency the Vietnam War the Government the environment

e.g. The sun was getting warmer.

WATCH OUT! Logic is not always a reliable guide. We talk about the atmosphere and the environment. But we usually
think of nature in a general sense and so omit the. Although we talk about the universe, we consider space
as infinite, and we use it without the:
… . … . Але ви зазвичай думаємо про природу у загальному сенсі й опускаємо the. Хоча ми
говоримо про всесвіт, ми вважаємо простір нескінченним і також використовуємо без the.
e.g. The oldest man in the space was John Glenn.
The oldest man in space was John Glenn.
 The noun society is used without any article:
e.g. He’s a danger to society.

Physical Environment

 The is used with a lot of general expressions that refer to our physical environment – the world around us and its
climate – or to other common features of our lives. The use of the seems to suggest shared experience or
knowledge. Some more examples are:
 the town the mountains the fog the country the rain
the weather the sea the wind the night the sunshine

e.g. My wife likes the sea, but I like the mountains. English people always talk about the weather.

Parts of a Whole

 The is often used to name parts of a whole. Most references of this kind refer to a single identifiable place or
object. This extends to:
1) a room – the ceiling, the door, the floor;
2) a town – the shops, the street;
3) an appliance – the on/off switch.

Модуль:
 a trip
 a holiday
 a yacht
 departure
 an airport
 Air Terminal
 Luggage registered, weighed and labelled
 the suitcase is overweight
 excess baggage
 flight
 proceeded through the gate
 boarded the plane
 smooth flight
 hit an air pocket
 air crash
 on board a plane
 a stewardess
 passengers
 safety belts
 travelers
 air craft
 the flight is announced

 wife
 family
 mother
 children
 adopted
 orphanage
 ti give a birth
 frugal and dominant man
 FRUGAL ( from Unit 8)
 maintaining hearth
 to put up a tough impersonal front
 son
 child
 tenderness
 a couple
 exchanged marriage vows
 rice as a symbol of fertility, good fortune and eternal happiness
 man

Экзамен:
 in-flight demonstration
 on the plane
 the departure
 the security check
 check-in counter
 helpful and friendly staff
 delayed departure
 Window/isle seat
 Boarding pass
 Luggage carousel system
 Hand luggage being loaded into the hold
 Sightseeing
 Hiking
 In the trailer
 Horseback riding
 Under …
 Motel with parking areas
 A small low-prise hotel
 Youth hostel
 Guest house
 Connecting flight
 To make the hotel reservation
 Ferry
 Short crossing
 Voyage
 Self-sacrifice
 Compulsion
 Underestimated
 Armor plating
 Semi-spontaneous journey
 To set off on a journey
 Habitual traveller
 Toughness
 Intensified sex role
 Break down
 Result in unhappiness
 Full board/half
 Single/double room
 Motel
 Holiday camp
 Campsite
 BandB
 Upper/lower berth
 Adventure
 Unpredictable factors
 Jet lag
 Excess baggage charge
 Emergency landing
 Flying weather
 Luggage claim areas
 Delay flights
 To queue …
 Turbulence
 Long distance traveling
 Canoeing
 Hitch-hiking
 Tracking
 Honeymoon
 Mixed feeling
 Action-packed holiday
 Package holiday
 Entitled for a holiday