GE 270 Basic Physical Geodesy

1. Earth’s Gravity Field

 Basic principles of potential theory
 Gravitational, Centrifugal, and Gravity potentials
 Equipotential surfaces and Plumb lines
 Potential of the Earth in terms of spherical harmonics
 Normal gravity, Normal potential, and Disturbing potential

2. Height Systems
 Mean Seal Level and definition of the geoid
 Geopotential numbers
 Dynamic heights
 Orthometric heights
 Normal heights

References:
1. Weikko A. Heiskanen & Helmut Moritz (1967). Physical Geodesy. W. H. Freeman and Company,
London.

2. Peter Dehlinger (1978). Marine Gravity. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam.

1
1 Basic Principles of Potential Theory

Potential theory may be defined as the study of harmonic functions (which are solutions to Laplace’s equation)
used to model fundamental forces of nature like the Earth’s gravity field. Gravitational potential theory has its
physical origin in Newton’s law of gravitational attraction.

1.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Any two particles of matter of masses m1 and m2 , separated by a distance r , attract each other with a force

F whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product of m1 and m2 and inversely proportional to the
square of r , and it’s direction is along the line joining the centres of the two masses.

Gm1m2
F (1.1)
r2

9 1
Where G  66.7 x10 cm g
3
sec2  6.67 x1011 Nm 2 kg 2 , is termed Newton’s gravitational constant.

Any particle of matter of mass m generates a gravitational field around itself in which another particle of
matter placed in it experiences a gravitational force whose magnitude is given by Equation (1.1). Let the mass
that generated the gravitational field be termed attracting mass and the second mass that was brought into
the field be termed attracted mass. If the attracted mass is 1 kg, i.e. of unit mass, then Equation (1.1)
reduces to:

Gm
F (1.2)
r2

Equation (1.2) expresses the magnitude of the gravitational force that would be exerted by a body of
mass m on a unit mass (1 kg) located a distance r from it.

From Newton’s second law of motion (Force = mass x acceleration), the acceleration g of a body of mass m
due to the gravitational attraction by a body of mass M is related to the force F by:

GmM
F  mg 
r2
(1.3)
GM
g
r2

2
The magnitude of gravity is measured in gal, after Galileo. 1 Gal = 10-2 m/s2 = 1 cm/s². 1 milligal (mGal) is
equal to acceleration due to gravity of 1x10-3 cm/s² = 10-5 m/s2. 1 μGal = 10-8 m/s2.

1.2 POTENTIAL OF A POINT MASS

Potential is defined as the work done by the force field that results from a given mass (m) to bring a unit mass
(i.e. 1 kg) from infinity to a point distance r from m. Thus the potential at a point in a gravitational field
distance r from a point mass m generating the field is given by

Gm
V (1.4)
r

The potential V is a scalar quantity, and it expresses the amount of work (or energy) required to move a unit
mass from its initial position, a distance r from the attracting mass ( m ), to infinity. The potential of a point
mass is singular for r=0, and at r=  , the potential vanishes, i.e., V=0. A singular function is a function that
diverges to infinity at a point or on a boundary. For example, the function 1/X is a singular function because it
diverges to infinity at the origin.

Derivation:
When a point mass m exerts a gravitational force F on a unit mass causing it (i.e. the unit mass) to move

through a small distance  r , the small work done  W is given by

 W  F  r (1.5)

The total work done by the gravitational force in moving the unit mass from a point r in the gravitational field
to infinity is equal to the potential, V. By integrating both sides of Equation (1.5), the potential V is given by

 
Gm
V   Fdr   dr
r r
r2

 Gm 
  (1.6)
 r  r
Gm

r

Note 1: If the unit mass had been moved from infinity to a point distance r from the mass m, the potential V
would have been given by

3
 r r
Gm
V   Fdr   dr
 
r2
r
 Gm 
  (1.7)
 r  
Gm

r

Note 2: Gravitational potential is a function whose first derivative is the gravitational force.
Differentiating V in Equation (1.7) with respect to r , we have

V Gm
 2 F (1.8)
r r

GM GM
Note 3: Potential V  Force (F) x Distance (r) = 2
xr .
r r

1.3 POTENTIAL OF A SYSTEM OF MASSES

Potentials are additive. For a system of several point masses (i.e. discrete set of mass points) m1 , m2 ,..., mn ,

at distances r1 , r2 ,..., rn respectively from a point, the potential of the system at that point is the sum of the

individual potentials at that point:

V  V1  V2  ...  Vn
Gm1 Gm2 Gmn n
m (1.9)
   ...   G i
r1 r2 rn i 1 ri

1.4 POTENTIAL OF A SOLID BODY

The potential of a solid body with continuous density distribution and of arbitrary shape, as shown in Fig. 1,
can be computed by dividing the solid body into small mass elements and integrating the potentials due to the
mass elements to get the total effect.

The potential due to an element of mass dm at a distance r from P is

4
 Gdm
dV  (1.10)
r

From mass = density x volume,

dm   dv
  dxdydz
(1.11)
G dxdydz
dV 
r
Where  is density, dv  dxdydz is element of Fig.1 Potential of a solid body

volume, and r is the distance between the

evaluation point P (i.e. the point where the potential
is expressed) and the point of integration (i.e. the
point where the mass generating the potential is).

The potential of the total mass m is therefore given by

V  G   dv
v r

 G   dxdydz (1.12)

v r

V  G     dxdydz
x y z r

If the Cartesian coordinates of the evaluated or attracted point P is ( x, y , z ) and that of the mass element is

( xo , yo , zo ), then the distance r is given by

r  ( x  xo ) 2  ( y  yo ) 2  ( z  zo ) 2 (1.13)

and

V  G    dxdydz (1.14)
x y z ( x  xo )  ( y  yo )2  ( z  zo ) 2
2

1.5 POTENTIAL ON THE SURFACE OF A NON-ROTATING SPHERE

The potential at a point on the surface of a homogeneous sphere of mass M and radius R is given by

5
 GM
V (1.15)
R

The potential is the same as if the total mass were concentrated at its centre, because the potential of a point
mass is also given by this formula. This shows that, to a very good approximation, the external gravitational
potential of a planet such as the Earth is the same as that of a point mass. Differentiating V with respect to R,
gives the gravity on the surface of the sphere:

V GM
g  2 (1.16)
R R

2. GRAVITY FIELD OF THE EARTH

2.1 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
The spin or rotation of the Earth gives rise to centrifugal force. This force acts on all Earth-bound objects that
share the spin with the Earth. The magnitude of the centrifugal force on a body of mass m situated at latitude
 on the Earth’s surface is given by

mv 2
Centrifugal force, f c   m 2 p
p (2.1)
 m R cos 
2

Where v = linear speed of the body=angular speed (  ) x radius of parallel circle at latitude  ( p ).

The direction of centrifugal force is always perpendicular to the instantaneous spin axis. At the poles where
p is equal to zero or   90 , centrifugal force is zero. Centrifugal force attains its maximum value at the
equator where p  R or   0 .

Centrifugal force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to centripetal force. Centrifugal force is
subject to variations in time in both direction and magnitude.

Changes in the speed of the spin induce changes in the magnitude of the force, and changes in the direction
of the spin axis also produce changes in the direction of the force.

6
 Z Spin axis

m mv 2
X
p p Centrifugal force, f c   m 2 p
p
R Radius of small circle, p  R cos 
X
 f c  m 2 R cos 

 Y Where R is the radius of the Earth
and p is the perpendicular
distance of mass m from the
X spin axis

Fig. 2 Centrifugal force in terms of latitude of point

If x and y are the geocentric horizontal coordinates of the rotating mass m, then

p2  x2  y 2
(2.2)
p  x2  y 2

and Equation (2.1) becomes

Centrifugal force, f c  m 2 p  m 2 ( x 2  y 2 ) (2.3)

2.1.1 COMPONENTS OF CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Along the x-axis, y=0, and Equation (2.3) reduces to:

x  component of centrifugal force, f c. x  m 2 x 2  m 2 x (2.4)

Along the y-axis, x=0, and Equation (2.3) reduces to:

y  component of centrifugal force, f c. y  m 2 y 2  m 2 y (2.5)

Along the z-axis, both x and y are zero, and centrifugal force is zero. This means that centrifugal force has no
effect or component in the z-axis.

7
2.1.2 CENTRIFUGAL POTENTIAL
Centrifugal potential of a body of mass m rotating with an angular velocity  is given by:

Centrifugal potential ,   Rotational kinetic energy

1 2 1 1 (2.6)
 I   mp 2 2  m( x 2  y 2 ) 2
2 2 2

Where I, the moment of inertia of the body=mass of the body x square of perpendicular distance of the body

from the spin axis. That’s, I  mp  m( x  y ) . For a body of unit mass, Equation (2.6) reduces to
2 2 2

1
  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2 (2.7)
2

Note: Components of centrifugal force are spatial derivatives of the centrifugal potential. That’s, differentiating
Equation (2.6) with respect to x and y, we obtain


x  component of centrifugal force, f c. x   m 2 x
x
(2.8)

y  component of centrifugal force, f c. y   m 2 y
y

2.2 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL, V

The Earth’s mass attraction produces gravitational potential which accounts for more than 99.4% of the total
gravity field of the Earth. Since the Earth is a solid body, its gravitational potential, in Cartesian coordinates, is
given by

V  G   ( x, y, z ) dv
v r
(2.9)
 ( x, y , z )
 G   dxdydz
z y x
r

Note: Spatial derivatives of gravitational potential are the components of the gravitational force, F. That is,
Gravitational force, F = Gradient vector of the scalar potential, V, and also

V V V
Fx  , Fy  , Fz  (2.10)
x y z

8
Worked example 1: If the density of the Earth is  , show that the x-component of the Earth’s force of

attraction on a unit mass placed at a point P ( x, y , z ) , distance r, from an attracting mass element dm of

( x xo )
coordinates ( xo , yo , zo ) and volume dv is Fx  G   dv .
v r3

Solution 1
Gravitational potential at the point P ( x, y , z ) , V is given by

V  G   dv
v r

V 
Fx   G   dv
x x v r
(2.11)
 1
 G     dv
v
x  r 

From

r 2  ( x  xo ) 2  ( y  yo ) 2  ( z  zo ) 2
r
2r  2( x  xo ) (2.12)
x
r ( x  xo )

x r

But

  1    1  r
    .
x  r  r  r  x
 r
 ( r 1 ).
r x (2.13)
1 r 1 ( x  xo )
 2  2.
r x r r
( x  xo )

r3

Substituting Equation (2.13) into Equation (2.11),

9
 V  1
Fx   G     dv
x v
x  r 
(2.14)
( x  xo )
 G  3
 dv
v
r

2.2.1 PROPERTIES OF GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

i. Gravitational potential V(x,y,z) is a homogeneous function, complete and continuous at every point in space;

ii. Its first derivatives are continuous in the whole space. In the xyz-cartesian coordinate system, the first
partial derivatives of the gravitational potential V(x,y,z) are the components of the gravitational force in the
V V V
x, y, and z-directions. That is, Fx  ; Fy  ; Fz  ;
x y z

iii. The second partial derivatives of the gravitational potential are discontinuous at points of discontinuity of
the density (inside the volume of the Earth), and they satisfy the Poisson’s equation:

 2V  2V  2V
    4 G 
x 2 y 2 z 2 (2.15)
V  4 G 

iv. At points where the density vanishes (i.e. in free space), Poisson’s Equation turns into Laplace Equation:

 2V  2V  2V
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
V  0

vi. Gravitational potential is a regular function in infinity. That is

i. lim V  0
r 

ii. lim rV  GM (2.16)

r 

dV
iii. lim r 2  GM
r  dr

2.2.2 Laplace’s Equation and Harmonic Functions

Laplace’s equation is a second order partial differential equation that seeks to find twice differentiable real-
valued function whose second order derivatives sum up to zero.

10
Given a function V(x,y,z) of real variables x, y, and z in 3-dimensional coordinate system, if the sum of the
second order partial derivatives of V with respect to the independent variables is equal to zero, then the
function V(x,y,z) is said to satisfy Laplace’s Equation. That is, if

 2V  2V  2V
  0 (2.17)
x 2 y 2 z 2

then V ( x, y, z ) is said to satisfy Laplace’s equation. Note that Laplace’s equation can be expressed in any

dimensions and in any coordinate system. The symbol  , called the Laplacian operator, has the form

2 2 2
  . Thus Equation (2.17) can be written as V  0 .
x 2 y 2 z 2

Solutions of Laplace’s equation are called Harmonic functions. Thus any function that satisfies Laplace’s
equation is a harmonic function. Hence, gravitational potential is a harmonic function. More precisely, a
function is called harmonic in a region v of space if it satisfies Laplace’s equation at every point of v.

If the sum of the second order derivatives of V(x,y,z) with respect to the independent variables is not equal
to zero, then the function V(x,y,z) is said to satisfy Poisson’s Equation. That’s, V(x,y,z) is said to satisfy
Poisson’s Equation if

 2V  2V  2V
   k  4 G  0 (2.18)
x 2 y 2 z 2

2.3 GRAVITY POTENTIAL AND GRAVITY FORCE

Gravity potential of the Earth is the sum of the gravitational potential (produced by the Earth’s mass) and the
centrifugal potential (produced by the Earth’s rotation). That’s

Gravity potential  gravitational potential (V )  centrifugal potential ( )

W V   (2.19)

 G    ( x, y , z ) 1
dxdydz  ( x 2  y 2 ) 2
x y z ( x  xo ) 2  ( y  yo ) 2  ( z  zo ) 2 2

Note:
i. Gravity potential is a scalar quantity.
ii. Earth potentials, or geopotentials, are constant or equipotential surfaces produced by the Earth’s
mass and its rotation.

11
 iii. The first derivatives of gravity potential are components of the gravity force. That’s the
components of gravity in the z-direction (Earth’s spin axis) and in the x- and y-directions
W W W
(equatorial axes) are respectively  gz ,  gx ,  gy
z x y
iv. For points situated within the volume of the Earth, gravity potential satisfies the generalized
Poisson Equation

 2W  2W  2W
W   2  2
x 2 y z
 V   (2.20)
 4 G  2 2

v. For points situated in outer space, i.e. outside the attracting masses of the Earth,

 2W  2W  2W
W   2  2
x 2 y z
 V   (2.21)
 0  2 2  2 2

Gravity (force) is the resultant (or vector sum) of gravitational force and centrifugal force acting on a mass at
rest on the Earth’s surface.

Gravity force  vector sum of gravitational force and centrifugal force (2.22)

For a body of mass m situated at latitude  on the Earth’s surface, the magnitudes of the gravitational and

centrifugal forces are respectively

GMm
F
R2 (2.23)
f c  m 2 p  m 2 R cos 

Note: The component of the gravity vector produced by the Earth’s mass attraction acts vertically downward,
and that produced by the Earth’s rotation is directed outward along the normal to the Earth’s rotation axis.

12
 Ccos  = m 2 R cos 2 

r m C

F
F
z


P
gy
gx g
gz
y

x
1
 W  2  W 
2
 W  
2 2

Total gravity vector at P , g           

 x 
  y   z   

Gravity attains its maximum value at the poles and its minimum value at the equator. The increase of gravity
towards the poles is caused mainly by decrease of the centrifugal force. The magnitude of gravity on the
Earth’s surface depends on five factors:
i. latitude
ii. elevation
iii. topography of the surrounding terrain
iv. tides
v. variations in density in the subsurface

2.4 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES, PLUMB LINES AND THE GEOID

Equipotential (or level) surfaces are surfaces on which the gravity potentials W of the Earth are constant.
Gravity does work only when a mass moves from one equipotential surface to another. In Fig. 5, a unit mass
at a point P on a potential surface W is moved radially through a distance dr to a point Q on a potential

surface W  dW . The work which the Earth’s field does in moving the unit mass radially from equipotential

surface W to W  dW is

dW   g r dr
dW (2.24)
gr  
dr
13
where g r is the gravity force on a unit mass placed at point P. Note that g r acts toward m , and r is positive
outward from m .

dr
W  dW

P
gr
W
m

Fig. 4 Level surfaces and plumb lines Fig. 5 Potential surfaces W and W  dW

The shape of any geopotential surface results from mass distributions in the Earth. Level surfaces partly or
wholly inside the Earth are continuous and “smooth” (i. e. without edges), but they are not analytical surfaces
in that their curvature changes discontinuously with the density. Geopotential surfaces are normal to the
gravity vector.
Plumb lines are curved lines of force that intersect all equipotential surfaces normally (see Fig. 4). The gravity
vector at any point is tangent to the plumb line at that point. Hence, the direction of the gravity vector is the
direction of the plumb line or the vertical. To prove that the equipotential surfaces are normal to local plumb
lines, the gravity potential W = W (x, y, z) is first differentiated with respect to the independent variables:

W W W
dW  dx  dy  dz (2.25)
x y z

In vector notation, Equation (2.25) is represented as

 W 
 x 
   dx 
 W   
dW   dy
y    (2.26)
   dz 
 W 
 z 
 grad W  ds

where ds is the displacement. If the displacement is taken along an equipotential surface, the potential
remains unchanged and the work done dW = 0, and Equation (2.26) becomes

14
 g  ds  0 (2.27)

Since the scalar product of the two vectors in Equation (2.27) is zero, the vectors g and ds are normal to each
other. Hence, Equation (2.27) expresses the fact that the gravity vector is normal to the equipotential surface
passing through the same point.
The curvature of a plumb line is needed for the reductions of astronomical observations to the geoid. The total
curvature  of the plumb line is given by

  12  12 (2.28)

where

1 g
1 
g x
(2.29)
1 g
2 
g y

The geoid is defined as that equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field that best approximates the mean
sea level (in the open oceans, ignoring oceanographic effects). In other words, the mean sea level of the
oceans approximates the geoid, and it is this surface to which elevations or heights are referred. Heights
referred to the geoid are termed orthometric heights.
The height H of a point above sea level (also called its orthometric height) is measured along the curved
plumb line, starting from the geoid (see Fig. 6). The geoid is conveniently described by geoid heights relative
to the reference ellipsoid. Geodetic measurements (theodolite measurements, levelling, etc) are almost
exclusively referred to the system of level surfaces and plumb lines, the geoid playing an essential part. This is
because when optical survey instruments containing levelling devices are properly adjusted and levelled (i.e.
horizontalized by means of a spirit bubble), the primary (or vertical) axes of the instruments coincide with the
direction of gravity and is, therefore, perpendicular to the local equipotential surface and/or the geoid.

Fig. 6 Orthometric height of a point P Fig. 7 Natural coordinates of a point P

15
2.5 NATURAL COORDINATES
The natural coordinates of a point on the surface of the Earth are defined by the set of quantities (  , ,H )

or (  , ,W ) where

 - is the geographical (or astronomical) latitude of the point, defined as the angle between the vertical (or
direction of the plumb line) at the point and the equatorial plane
 - is the geographical (or astronomical) longitude of the point, defined as the angle between the meridian
plane of the point and the Greenwich meridian plane
H - is the orthometric height of the point, and
W - is the total geopotential (or gravity potential) of the level surface passing through the point
From Fig. 7, the gravity vector is equal to the gradient of the total geopotential. That’s,

g  Grad W
(2.30)
 (Wx ,Wy ,Wz , )

But

Wx   g cos  cos 
Wy   g cos  sin  (2.31)
Wz   g sin 

From Equation (2.31),  and  are obtained as follows:

 
1 Wz 
  tan  1 
 Wx2  Wy2  2  (2.32)
 
 Wy 
  tan 1  
 Wx 

and from

dH   g 1dW (2.33)

po int
H   g 1dW
geoid
(2.34)
W
H    g dW 1
Wo

16
2. HEIGHT SYSTEMS REFERENCED TO MEAN SEA LEVEL
2.1 Mean Sea Level
The mean sea level is a surface defined by averaging sea level over time and, in some cases, space. Tide
gauge stations are the principal source of information on sea level. Such stations continually monitor the rise
and fall of the sea level. Averaging sea level at a point over appropriate time intervals (1 to 18 years), yields
an average location of local mean sea level.
Mean sea level is not constant as it can be affected by ice cap melting, wind variations, and changing ocean
current patterns. Mean sea level is not an equipotential surface. This is due to the fact that currents exist in
the oceans causing water to flow from one equipotential level to another. It should be noted that the
equipotential surface of the Earth’s gravity field that closely approximates the mean sea level in the open
oceans is termed the geoid, and it is this surface that serves as the reference surface of height systems, also
called vertical datum, related to the mean sea level.

2.2 Geopotential Numbers

Geopotential number C at a point P in the Earth’s gravity field is the difference in gravity potential between
the potential at the geoid and the potential at that point, and is given by

C 
geoid
gdh  Wo  Wp (2.35)

Points on the same equipotential surface have the same geopotential number. As a potential difference, the
geopotential number is independent of the particular levelling line used for relating the point to sea level.
The geopotential number C is measured in geopotential units (g.p.u.), where 1 g.p.u=1 kgal metre=1000 gal
metre. Since g 0.98 kgal , C gH 0.98H , so that geopotential numbers in g.p.u are almost equal to
the height above sea level in metre.

For practical determination of gravity potential difference between two points A and B on the Earth’s surface,
a precise levelling operation is run between the two points to obtain various height differences dh for each
levelling instrument setup. At each of the levelling instrument stations, a gravimeter is used to measure the
gravity value g at that station. The gravity potential difference between the two points is then computed by

B
CB  C A  WB  WA   gdh (2.36)
A

2.3 Dynamic Height

dyn
The dynamic height H of a point in the Earth’s gravity field is its geopotential number divided by normal
gravity on an internationally accepted ellipsoid (such as the International ellipsoid or World Geodetic System
1984) at geodetic latitude  =45°. That’s

17
 C
H dyn  (2.37)
 45 o

Dynamic height is measured in metres.  45 o is computed using the Somigliana’s normal gravity formula given
as

1  k sin 2 
  e (2.38)
1  e2 sin 2 

Where

b p
k 1 (2.39)
a e

a. b = semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipsoid, respectively

e,  p = normal gravity at the equator and poles, respectively
e2 = square of the first ellipsoidal eccentricity
 = geodetic latitude
For the International ellipsoid,  45  980.6294 gals.
o

To convert measured height difference between two points A and B into a difference of dynamic height, a
correction term called dynamic correction DC AB is added. The difference in dynamic height is obtained as
follows:

H AB
dyn
 H Bdyn  H Adyn
1 1
 CB  C A  
B

 45 o  45 o

A
gdh

 g  
1 B
(2.40)
   45o dh
 45 o
A 45o

B B g  o 
  dh    45
dh
A 
  45o
A


 g  o  B  g  
A   o45
B B
 dh  hAB is the sum of the measured height difference, and A   o45  h is
o
where
A
dh
 45   45 
the dynamic correction. Note that the dynamic correction may also be used to compute differences in
geopotential numbers as follows:

CB  C A   45o hAB   45o DC AB (2.41)

18
2.4 Orthometric Height
Orthometric height of a point on the Earth’s surface is the height of the point above the geoid measured along
the vertical (or plumb line) passing through the point. Thus it is the length of the plumb line segment between
the point and the geoid. If g is the gravity value along the plumb line and dH is the change in orthometric

height, then from Equation (2.35)

H
C   gdH  Wo  Wp (2.42)
o

which can be written as

H H
1
C   gdH  H  gdH
o
H o
(2.43)
C  gH

where

H
1
g
H  gdH
o
(2.44)

is the mean value of gravity along the plumb line between the geoid and the ground point P. From Equation
(2.43) the orthometric height H of a point on the Earth’s surface is given by

C
H (2.45)
g

From Prey’s gravity reduction, g  g  0.0424 H , and H in Equation (2.45) is termed Helmert height, and is
given by

C
H (2.46)
g  0.0424 H

where C is in g.p.u., g in gals and H in km. Equation (2.46) is quadratic in H and can be evaluated as
follows:

0.0424 H 2  gH  C  0
 g  g 2  4(0.0424)C (2.47)
H
2(0.0424)

In order to convert measured height difference between two points A and B (obtained from levelling) into

difference in orthometric heights, a correction term called orthometric height correction, OC AB , is added to

the measured height difference. The orthometric correction is given by

19
 B
g   45 g A   45 g B   45
OC AB   h  HA  HB (2.48)
A  45   45
45

Where
g A , g B are the mean values of gravity along the plumb lines passing through A and B, respectively;
H A , H B are the orthometric heights of points A and B, respectively;
h is the measured height difference between A and B; so that

H AB  H B  H A  hAB  OC AB (2.49)

2.5 Normal Height

*
The normal height H of a point P on the physical surface of the Earth is the point’s geopotential number
divided by the mean normal gravity computed along the plumb line passing through P from the mean sea level
to a point Q on the plumb line where the normal potential U at Q due to a reference ellipsoid is equal to the

actual potential W at P.

C
H*  (2.50)


In other words, if Q is a point on the plumb line of P such that the normal potential at Q, U Q , due to a

*
reference ellipsoid is equal to the actual potential at P, WP , then the normal height H of P is the geometric

height of Q above that reference ellipsoid. Normal heights are dependent on the reference ellipsoid chosen.

Plumb line of P

Earth’s surface, S
P

 Telluroid, Σ

 - height anomaly
h
H* - normal height H*
h - geometric height

Ellipsoid, E
Fig. 8. The telluroid, the normal height, and the height anomaly

The telluroid is defined as a surface whose normal potential U at every point Q is equal to the actual potential
W at the corresponding P on the surface of the Earth, where P and Q lie on the same ellipsoidal normal. Thus

20
 *
the normal height H of a point P on the Earth’s surface is equal to the geometric height of its corresponding
point Q on the telluroid whereas the geometric height h of point P is the vertical distance from the ellipsoid to
the Earth surface measured along the ellipsoidal normal. The difference between these two heights is called
the height anomaly, 

  hH * (2.51)

The normal correction required to convert measured height difference to difference in dynamic height is given
by

B
g   45  A   45  B   45 *
NC AB   h  H *
 H (2.52)
A  45  A
 45 B

45

so that

H AB
*
 H B*  H A*  hAB  NC AB (2.53)

2.6 Poincaré-Prey’s Gravity Reduction

Is a process of converting measured gravity values at the surface of the Earth to gravity values which would
have been measured at points inside the Earth. Gravity values inside the Earth are needed to convert the
results of levelling into orthometric heights. If P is a point on the surface of the Earth and Q is a point inside
the Earth but situated on the same plumb line passing through P, then the computed value of gravity at point

Q, gQ , is given by

P g
gQ  g P   dH (2.54)
Q h

g
where  0.0848 gal/km, is the actual gravity gradient inside the Earth. Equation (2.54) therefore
h
becomes

P
gQ  g P   0.0848dH
Q
P
 g P   0.0848dH
Q (2.55)
P
 g P  0.0848 dH
Q

 g P  0.0848[ H P  H Q ]

21
 Fig. 9: Poincaré-Prey reduction

The mean value of the gravity g along the plumb line between the geoid point Po , and the ground point P is
computed as follows:

1 H
g
H 
o
g ( z )dz (2.56)

where g ( z ) is the actual gravity at the variable point Q which has the height z. If g is the gravity measured at
the ground point P, then from Prey’s reduction [Equation (2.55)], g ( z ) is given by

g ( z )  g  0.0848( H  z ) (2.57)

Substituting Equation (2.57) into Equation (2.56), we have

1 H
g
H 
o
g  [0.0848( H  z )]dz
H
1  z2 
 g  (0.0848)  Hz   (2.58)
H  2 0
 g  0.0424 H

where g is in gals and H in km.

22
3. TIDES

Tides are the regular rise and fall of the sea level (or surface of the ocean) that are caused, predominantly, by
the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon, occurring unequally on different parts of the Earth. The sun
and moon are massive bodies, and so contribute to the gravitational attraction at a point on the Earth's
surface just as Earth materials do. The gravitational force is the predominant force which raises the ocean
tides, so it is easy to see that it would vary with time, as the positions of the sun and moon vary with time as
seen from a point on the Earth's surface.

Tides are, conventionally, measured by using tide gauges. Tide gauges measure, with a certain sampling rate,
the variation of the instantaneous sea level usually freed from high frequency fluctuations. The tide gauge
measurements or records refer to the solid ground of the instrument site. Tidal datum is the reference by
which tides are measured.

Regional or global changes of sea level are derived from a connection of tide gauges into one network. Tidal
records are affected by a long list of local and regional disturbances ranging from errors in the registration
itself, via local meteorological effects, to regional land subsidence. Hence, supplementary measurements (e.g.
meteorological data) and correction models are required.

In gravimetry, tidal effect refers to the variations in gravity observations resulting from the attraction of the
moon and sun and the distortion of the earth so produced. It represents real changes in the gravitational
acceleration. Since tidal effects do not relate to local geology, they are considered as forms of noise in gravity
observations, which must be corrected.

Just as the gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon distorts the shape of the ocean surface, it also
distorts the shape of the earth. Because rocks yield to external forces much less readily than water, the
amount the earth distorts under these external forces is far less than the amount the oceans distort. The size
of the ocean tides, the name given to the distortion of the ocean caused by the sun and moon, is measured in
terms of meters. The size of the solid earth tide, the name given to the distortion of the earth caused by the
sun and moon, is measured in terms of centimeters.

This distortion of the solid earth produces measurable changes in the gravitational acceleration because as the
shape of the earth changes, the distance of the gravimeter to the center of the earth changes (recall that
gravitational acceleration is proportional to one over distance squared). The direct effect of the sun's and
moon's gravity, and the distortion of the earth varies from location to location, but they can be large enough
to produce variations in gravitational acceleration as large as 0.2 mGals.

Tides deform the Earth’s hydrosphere, influence its shape and its layers, and thus cause variation in the
gravity potential/field of the Earth with time. Variations in the intensity of gravity which are caused by tides
can be measured by gravimeters.

23
TYPES OF TIDES
There are three main types of tidal waves – diurnal, semidiurnal, and mixed tides.
Diurnal tides are those with one high and low tide per day. Diurnal tides primarily reflect lunar, solar, and
lunar-solar partial tides. Generally, diurnal tides have a small tidal range (less than 2 m), and are found in
parts of Australia, the Gulf of Mexico, and Antarctica.

Semidiurnal tides are semi-daily tides with two equal high and low tides per day. Semi-diurnal tides are
primarily influenced by the relative positions of the moon and the sun. They have tidal ranges from 2 to 4 m,
sometimes as high as 6 m, and are common in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins.

Mixed tides are those with two unequal high and low tides per day. Mixed tides reflect local effects (such as
basin geometry) as well as the declination of the moon. Generally, they have relatively high tidal ranges of 2
to 6 m, and are common along he Pacific coastlines.

Low tide is the farthest ebb of the tide. High tide is the greatest elevation of the tide. Spring tide is a tide of
greater-than-average range around the times of new and full moon. Neap tide is a tide of minimum range
occurring at the first and the third quarters of the moon. Tidal range is the difference between the high and
low tides at a point.
24
EFFECTS OF TIDES
1. Navigation to and from harbours depends on tidal phase.
2. Changes in water level and the movement of water via tidal currents have major effects on different marine
environments.
3. Larvae growing in an estuary may be transported oceanward by an ebbing current.
4. Tides are considered to be noise in satellite altimetry data and are therefore modeled and removed from
altimeter measurements.

Question
What are solid Earth tide, elastic ocean tide, and pole tide?

25
 KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
B. Sc. (Geomatic Engineering) First Semester Examination, 2006
Second Year
November, 2006 GE 281 MARINE AND GEODETIC SCIENCE Three (3) Hours

ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS SECTION A

1. An equipotential surface is defined as

(a) a surface on which the work done by the Earth’s gravity field is constant.
(b) a surface on which the work done by the Earth’s gravity field varies.
(c) a surface parallel to the direction of the plumb line at a point on the Earth’s surface.
(d) a surface on which the gravity potential of the Earth is constant.

2. If g is the gravity force on a unit mass placed at a point on an equipotential surface W , then the work

done by the Earth’s gravity field in moving the unit mass radially through a short distance dr from
equipotential surface W to equipotential surface W  dW is

(a) W  dW =  gdr

(b) dW   gdr

(c) dW   g dr
2

(d) W   gdr

3. The magnitude of gravity on the Earth’s surface depends on:

I. Latitude II. Elevation III. Topography of the surrounding terrain
IV. Tides V. Variations in density in the subsurface
Which of the above is/are correct?
(a) I, II, and III only
(b) I, II, and III IV only
(c) I, II, III, and V only
(d) All of the above

4. Given that W ( x, y, z ) is a function that expresses the value of the Earth’s gravity potential at a point

P( x, y, z ) on the Earth’s surface, which of the following statements is not correct?

W
(a) The component of the total gravity vector at P ( x, y, z ) in the x-direction, gx 
x
 2W
(b) The component of the total gravity vector at P ( x, y, z ) in the x-direction, gx 
x 2

26
 1/ 2
 W  2  W  2  W  2 
(c) The total gravity vector at P ( x, y, z ) , g         
 x   y   z  

(d) W ( x, y, z ) is produced by the Earth’s mass and its rotation.

11
5. Newton’s universal gravitational constant is G  6.67 x10 Nm 2 kg 2 . This means that
11
(a) the Earth exerts a force of magnitude 6.67 x10 N on a unit mass placed on its surface.
11
(b) the total gravity potential at the surface of the Earth is 6.67 x10 Jkg 1 .
11
(c) two unit masses at unit distance apart attract each other with a force of magnitude 6.67 x10 N .
11
(d) the magnitude of the attractive force between any two masses is 6.67 x10 N.

6. A 30,000-kg point mass generates a gravitational field around itself. Taking Newton’s universal gravitational
11
constant to be 6.67 x10 Nm 2 kg 2 , what is the potential at a point 20 km from the point mass?
7 1
(a) 1.0005 x10 Jkg
10
(b) 1.0005 x10 Jkg 1
9 1
(c) 1.0005 x10 Jkg
8 1
(d) 1.0005 x10 Jkg

7. 1 milligal (mgal) is equal to acceleration due to gravity of

(a) 1x10-3 cm/s².
(b) 1x10-3 m/s².
(c) 1 cm/s².
(d) 1 m/s².

8. Which of the following statements is not correct?

(a) The potential of a point mass is a scalar quantity.
(b) The potential of a point mass is singular at infinity.
(c) The potential of a point mass vanishes at infinity.
(d) The potential of a point mass is not a vector quantity.

27
9. If R and  are the mean radius and angular speed of the Earth respectively, then the magnitude of the

centrifugal force on a body of mass m situated at co-latitude  on the Earth’s surface is

(a) m cos 
2

(b) m R
2

(c) m R cos 
2

(d) m R sin 
2

10. The direction of centrifugal force on a body situated at the Earth’s surface is always perpendicular to
(a) the meridian passing through the point.
(b) the equatorial plane of the Earth.
(c) the instantaneous spin axis of the Earth.
(d) the deviation of the vertical at the point.

11. Which of the following statements is not wrong?

(a) Centrifugal force attains its maximum value at the equator.
(b) Centrifugal force attains its minimum value at the equator.
(c) Centrifugal force attains its maximum value at the poles.
(d) Centrifugal force is not zero at the poles.

3x 2 2z5
12. If the gravitational potential at a point P(x,y,z) in a gravity field is given by V  7 y3  , then
5 3
the x-component of the gravitational force at that point is

6x 2z5
(a) Fx   7 y3 
5 3
6x 10 z 4
(b) Fx   21y 2 
5 3
6x
(c) Fx 
5
6
(d) Fx 
5

13. Which of the following statements is not correct?

(a) Gravitational potential satisfies Laplace’s equation at points outside the attracting mass of the Earth.
(b) Gravitational potential does not satisfy Poisson’s equation at points inside the Earth.
(c) Gravitational potential does not satisfy Laplace’s equation at points inside the Earth.
(d) Gravitational potential satisfies Poisson’s equation at points inside the Earth.

28
14. The orthometric height of a point on the Earth’s surface is
(a) the height of the point above sea level measured along the ellipsoidal normal through the point.
(b) the height that closely approximates the height of the geoid.
(c) the height of the point above sea level measured along the plumb line through the point.
(d) the point’s geopotential number divided by the mean normal gravity.

15. The telluroid is a surface whose normal potential U at every point Q is equal to the actual potential W at
the corresponding point P on the surface of the Earth,
(a) where P and Q lie on the same ellipsoidal normal.
(b) where P and Q lie on the same plumb line.
(c) where P and Q lie on the same reference ellipsoid.
(d) where P and Q lie on the same vertical.

16. Which of the following statements is correct?

(a) Geopotential number at a point in the Earth’s gravity field is the difference between the potential at
the ellipsoid and the potential at that point.
(b) Geopotential number at a point in the Earth’s gravity field is the difference between the potential at
the geoid and the potential at that point.
(c) Mean sea level is the surface defined by squaring the average sea level over time.
(d) The dynamic height of a point in the Earth’s gravity field is its geopotential number divided by geoid
undulation at that point.

17. Dynamic correction is added to

(a) measured gravity difference between two points to obtain difference of dynamic height.
(b) measured height difference between two points to obtain difference of orthometric height.
(c) measured gravity difference between two points to obtain difference of orthometric height.
(d) measured height difference between two points to obtain difference of dynamic height.

18. The geometric height of a point P, situated on the Earth’s surface, is 1200 m. If the height anomaly at that
point is 0.5 m, calculate the normal height of P.
(a) 2400 m.
(b) 600 m
(c) 1199.5 m
(d) 1205 m

19. Identify the incorrect statement. When the Earth ceases to spin about its axis,
(a) centrifugal force on every body on the earth’s surface would cease not to exit.
(b) centrifugal force on every body on the earth’s surface would be zero.
(c) centripetal force on every body on the earth’s surface would cease to exit.
(d) the total gravity potential of the Earth would be equal to the Earth’s gravitational potential.
29
20. The curvature of a plumb line is needed
(a) for the reductions of astronomical observations to the geoid.
(b) in Poincare-Preys gravity reduction.
(c) for the computation of ellipsoidal surfaces.
(d) for the computation of ellipsoidal heights.

21. Calculate the potential at a point which is 20 m from an 80-kg point mass, 25 m from a 150-kg point mass
and 8 m from a 40-kg point mass.
11
(Take Newton’s universal gravitational constant, G  6.67 x10 Nm 2 kg 2 )
9 1
(a) 8.0005 x10 Nmkg
9 1
(b) 1.0005 x10 Nmkg
15
(c) 3.7819 x10 Nmkg 1
11
(d) 1.0005 x10 Nmkg 1

22. Which of the following statements is not incorrect?

(a) Oceanic tides are non-periodic rise and fall of the sea level caused predominantly by the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon.
(b) Oceanic tides occur equally at different parts of the world.
(c) The gravitational force is not the predominant force which raises the ocean tides.
(d) Oceanic tides are periodic rise and fall of the sea level caused predominantly by the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon.

23. Tide gauge records at a particular location may be affected by

I. errors in the instrument itself
II. local meteorological effects
III. regional land subsidence
Which of the following is correct?
(a) I and III only
(b) II and III only
(c) I and II only
(d) All of the above

30
24.

What type of tidal profile is shown in the diagram above?

(a) Diurnal tide
(b) Semi-diurnal tide
(c) Mixed tide
(d) None of the above

25. _ _ _ _ _ _ is a tide of greater-than-average range around the times of new and full moon.
(a) Tidal range
(b) Neap tide
(c) Spring tide
(d) High tide

26. Which of the following is not a linear functional of the Earth’s gravity field?
(a) geoid undulation
(b) gravity anomaly
(c) deflection of the vertical
(d) None of the above

27. The geoid is defined as

(a) the equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field that is closely perpendicular to the mean sea level.
(b) the equipotential surface of the earth’s centrifugal force that best approximates the mean sea level.
(c) the equipotential surface of the earth’s gravity field that best approximates the mean sea level.
(d) the surface obtained by averaging sea level at a point over time.

31
28. In gravimetry, tidal effect refers to
(a) the variations in height observations resulting from the attraction of the moon and sun and the
distortion of the earth so produced.
(b) the variations in gravity observations resulting from the attraction of the moon and sun and the
distortion of the earth so produced.
(c) the variations in height observations resulting from the rotation of the Earth.
(d) the variations in geoidal undulation resulting from the rotation of the Earth.

29. Identify the incorrect statement.

(a) Solid earth tide is the distortion of the earth caused by the sun and moon.
(b) Ocean tide is the distortion of the ocean caused by the sun and moon.
(c) Tidal range is the distance between two successive high tides.
(d) Distortion of the solid earth produces measurable changes in the gravitational acceleration.

30. Geoid undulation at a point is the

(a) the separation between the geoid and the referenced ellipsoid measured along the ellipsoidal normal
passing through the point.
(b) the separation between the geoid and the referenced ellipsoid measured along the plumb line passing
through the point.
(c) the spatial angle between the vertical to the geoid and the normal to the ellipsoid at that point.
(d) the separation between the geoid and physical surface of the Earth measured along the plumb line
passing through the point.

32
 ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS SECTION B

1. (a) What is Poincaré-Prey’s gravity reduction?

(b) In a terrestrial gravimetric survey, a gravity value of 0.987 gals was measured at a point P on the
Earth’s surface, which has an orthometric height of 3 km. Using Poincaré-Prey’s gravity reduction
approach, compute the value of gravity at a point Q situated 800 m inside the Earth but lying on the
plumb line passing through P.

2. (a) Explain the term potential at a point in a gravity field.

(b) A body Q of mass 80.000 kg is situated on the Earth’s surface at latitude 30° N. Assuming the Earth to
be a sphere of radius 6374.000 km and has an angular speed of 7292115 X 10-11 rad/s, compute:
(i) the centrifugal potential at the point where Q is situated;
(ii) the centrifugal force on Q.
11
(Take Newton’s universal gravitational constant, G  6.67 x10 Nm 2 kg 2 )

3. (a) State Laplace’s equation for gravity potential of the Earth in terms of Cartesian coordinates.

(b) Show that the centrifugal potential at a point P(x, y) on the Earth’s surface does not satisfy Laplace’s
equation

4. (a) State Newton’s law of universal gravitation.

(b) If the density of the Earth is  and Newton’s universal gravitational constant is G , show that the y-

component of the Earth’s force of attraction on a unit mass placed at a point P ( x, y , z ) from an

( y  yo )
attracting mass element dm of coordinates ( xo , yo , zo ) and volume dv is Fy  G   dv ,
v r3
where r is the distance between point P and the mass element.

Dr. Isaac Dadzie

Dr-Ing Collins Fosu

33