7 The Land Builds Up rie EARTH'S RUGGED SURFACE As you travel on land or fly by plane, you see th: land surface. You see plains, mountains hills, deep vans ott landforms. Some mountains are single peaks; others have mony ogy ‘A peak is the pointed top of a hill or mountain, Y peaks. Notice the land surface of the Philippines in Fi igure 7.1. Y probably know some of the landforms on its surface. Let's see how well you can identify them. Figure 7.1. Landforms in the PhilippinesActivity 7.1 and identify the numbered surface features _ ‘and volcanoes. If you cannot identify the, bout them, read Self-Help 7.1 at the to Activity 7.1 and finish it, Study Figure 7.1 mountain ranges, plains, but would like to know more al end of this chapter; then return i i th and south, most of our mountain ranges run nor! Th weit and have many peaks. These landforms on the earth’s su, are important. They affect the flow of air and, therefore, the clima Many of these mountains are known sources of copper, nickel, chro.” mium, aluminum, and other minerals. ‘The mountains in the Philippines are much smaller than those jn some other parts of the world. Mt. Apo, the highest peak in the Phi. ippines, is 2964 m. The highest peak in the world, Mt. Everest in the Himalayas between Nepal and Tibet, is 8748 m. Figure 7.2 shows some of the earth’s mountain ranges. These mountain ranges on lang are found to be made up mostly of sedimentary rocks. Oo Pe ~ ICELAND oma RE Be fon * PHILIPPINES By me Avo arian \ PACIFIC OCEAN e IC OCEAN moran ocean SS" SS Great ie AUSTRALIA, ding Frew zatano Fig igure 7.2. Mountain ranges and Peaks in different parts of the world belt ane ponntain ranges lie along two main belts, the circum-Pacific ‘iurasian-Melanesian belt, The circum-Pacific belt, of e earthquake and voleanic belts of the earth, Mountain ranj ges oor. They are called are also found underwater as part of the ocean Jand throu, d the mid-oceanic ridges, ‘th the entire length of the Atlantie Ceerend from I -ocean, south of Australia, and into the eastern Pacifi ofthe ridges extend into the continents, as that botwosn Sanat Aree pia and northeastern Africa. Unlike the mountain ranges on land, the mid-oceanic ridges are made mostly of volcanic rocks. Mountain Formation You have learned how weathering, erosion, and deposition affect the earth’s surface. ‘These processes have been going on for millions of years. If this is so, why have not all the mountains changed to plains? Why are remains of plants and animals, known to have been deposi- . ted on sea bottoms, found in many mountains thousands of meters high? Corals and sea shells are found in some rocks in Baguio. Leaf imprints of trees known to grow in the lowlands are found in Sagada, Bontoc. Could these mountains have been lowlands and sea bottoms millions of years ago? Road cuts on the sides of some mountains have shown crumpled layers of rocks. Look at Figure 7.3. What causes layers of rocks in the earth’s crust to crum- ple? Activity 7.2 will help you to know. Figure 7.3Wit pou wus ww several directions act on the crust, causing it to roe is usually so slow that we can hardly detect it, But sometimes the movement is so sudden that we feel a shaking of the earth’s surface known to us as an earthquake. You will learn more about earthquakes in the next chapter. How do these forces affect the crust? Although solid, the earth’: crust may be pushed or pulled out of shape by great forces exerted on it over long periods of time. In short, the earth’s crust is an elastic solid. When a part of the crust is pushed from opposite directions it crumples, bending upward and downward. This process is called fold- ing. The upward curves form mountains. The downward curves form valleys. A valley is the low land lying between hills or mountains. Mountain ranges are formed by folding. The Sierra Madre and the may bonnie een Pushes on the crust from different directions may form. Continued pun’ elastic limit of the rocks, Large cracks cracks, forming faults, Rock layers oon e lengthen and widen theFigure 7.8. A sunken area between two faults in Manila faults. A block of rock between sink, forming a graben. In time, Seton y smooth out the vertical walls of the sunken and make itlook like avalley. A recent suvey nade after a strong earthquake showed that @ part of Manila between two faults i sinking (Figure 7.8). The Dead Sea, now filled with very salty water, is the best known example of a sunken area between two faults, The ring or sinking of rock masses along a fault is described as vertical movement. A block of rock between two faults may rise forming a horst. ‘Sometimes the rock layers / N / l / move horizon- tally alonga \ fault, with lit- tle or no sink- ing or rising on either side. Ho! zontal movements in the Phil- ppine fault zone are known t0 have occurred, Sudden hori- zontal and vertical movements continents arid islands as well ts at the ocean bottom has racks and faults, The Philippines has many faults. ‘One of them is a major fault that runs northwest to south- east across the country. The tide west of the major fault shows a southward movement, while the east side shows & northward movement. The ‘minor faults run from north- east to southeast. Th Figure 7.9 faults in the Pi ippines. e the Phil: pines. THE solid line represents the mele fault and the Broke tines, the minor faults. 241—_~ i # |i; Scientis crustal moveen! mountain ranges cories to explain where these forces that cau, ve aye one from. These theories also try to explain how along the edges of-continents are formed. The latest i regepted is tho plate tectonics theory. This theory combines and most rev continental drift and sea-floor spreading. Let us recall tet you have Jeammed about the earth’s crust to help you understand wi these theorist or solid outer covering of the earth extends from the ce eto the ocean floor. It floats on a denser molten material continems the mantle. The continental crust is made up of less dense ‘ite. Granitic rocks are composed mainly of silicon rock anus The oceanic crust is made up of basaltic rocks com- pored mostly of silicon and the heavier magnesium. Since the conti- nental crust is composed of less dense rocks, it piles up on the mantle ‘gher than the denser oceanic crust. There is no continental crust at the ocean bottom (Figure 7.10). Figure 7.10. The continental crust is thicker and floats higher on the mantle. Continental Drift Theory In 1915, Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, suggested that about 200 million years ago the world had one large landmass, one conti- nent. He called it Pangaea, a Greek word meaning “all the world,” and placed its center near the equator. Figure 7.11. The single supercontinent, PangaeaPangaea, accord Wegener, broke up ine Pieces which moved very slowly away from one another. The large pieces formed the continents of today. This is called the continental drift theory, Activity 7.3 looks into 135 million yeors ago continental drift theory.” Figure 7.12. Pangaea broke up into the seven major continents, Activity 7.3 Materials sheet of old newspaper white e Paper pair of scissors world map or globe Draw Figure 7.11 on the newspaper. Cut out the seven major continents from the figure. Place the cut-outs on the white paper. Fit them back into Fi, ‘igre 7.11. From the cut-outs you can infer that India was once a separate continent. 1. How can you tell if the pieces are back to their original positions? Study the world map. Move each newspaper cut-out to its place according to the map. Notice and record the direction each piece is moved. 2. In what direction did you move each of the following continents in relation to the others? ‘ a. South America d. North America £, Antarctica b. Africa e. India g. Australia c. Eurasia (Europe and Asia) i jon of modem scientists. cwers with the observation o inti They belive that North America drifted toward tho norhwes Burasia turned 20° clockwise before it moved norcart South America broke apart, forming the Atlantic Oc ae turned counterclockwise and moved estas tes i ara sia, causit moved weeetand. Thee ‘India collided with Asia, i 3 along formation of the Himalayan mountain ranges7 elf. Australia, on, continent arctica, broke oft ay yenen eastward. Figure 7.18 show, Ait present position of the conti, Since the continents are still atitting 3 their position will be differen, as of years from now. millicvne drifting apart of continens, to be one caute of moun, : tion. As the continents tain ey rubbed against the many, below. The leading edge of the moving continent humped up, forming moy, g the eastern coastal regions of ntains, and the Andes is believed Figure 7.13, The earth as it appears today ranges alont the Rocky vo Figure 7.2)- / ann anit theory, South America was once joined to Aftica, The eastern coastline of South America easily fits into the western coastline of Africa. Study the other continental margins closely. You will find a few others that fit, although not as well as Africa and South America. This theory was not accepted in Wegener's time. Neither he nor anyone in his time could think of a great enough force to move continents. tain ranges. The mountain Australia and New Zealand, Mountains are typical examp ‘According to the contin Sea-floor Spreading The discovery of mid-oceanic ridges several years later (1920) sup- ported the theory of continental drift. The mid-oceanic ridges are thought to be the remains of the continents that parted and drifted away. At the middle of the ridge, running along its length, is a break or rift from which magma flows out to the surface of the crust, Mag- ma that reaches the surface is called lava, ‘mid-Attantic ridge (ZT eceanievel ment of the crustal rock, spread This movers Atlantic ocean f1 ayear. The drifting panto found to be widening by about 2.5 cm caused the formation of une Teall Arabia from Africa in like mannet ea, ‘eW Ocean floor. The move- awe ci h ch ny, from the ridge causes the sea floor to s ihe cause of continental drift, TheAfrica Red Sea, a relativ ; Arabia pulled apart end the see oss eo formed as Africa and ‘The fact that the edges of continents fit well together is not 9 The Fock samples taken from about oth sides of the mid-oceanic ridge were compared. They were found to be of the same age and rock type. ‘The rocks taken near the ridge were younger; farther from the ridge were der ee Another piece of evidence is the change in the arrangement of magnetized iron in the rock samples. Tron particles in molten magma arranged themselves according to the earth's magnetic poles. When iron is magnetized, one end of it becomes the north pole and the opposite end becomes the south pole. The earth is a giant magnet, It magnetizes iron particles in molten magma and arranges them according to its own mag- netic poles, When the magma cools and hardens, the poles of the earth's magnet are recorded in the rocks. {if you do not understand this, turn to Self-Help 7.2). «change in the direction of the earth's magnetic poles cases a change in the arrangement of the iron parti sles in the newly deposited magma, forming bands of hanging direction of magnetic poles. The bands on Shiite sides of the xidge match, This shows that the opp iy formed seafloor pushes the old seafloor vay Thom the ridge. ‘The sea floor is spreading. Z f Z Z = As newly formed ocean floor spreads, the jection of the earth’s Jhanges in the direction oF f ‘rapretle field are recorded in narrow bands. ta 741. _ Figure 7. 148. Glomar Challenger drill: ing through the crustIf the oceanic crust is continually produced ° in the mid-oceanic ridges, ff then the earth must be ex- panding, Its diameter é must be getting bigger. € But this is not so. Scien- |, tists explain that, as new crust is formed at the mid- oceanic ridges, old crust is destroyed elsewhere. ‘This and the shortening of the crust during the process of folding make up for the expansion at ou purist Figure 7.18, Diagrammatic cross-section of the mid-oceanic ridges. ‘the earth. In which areas are olg crust destroyed? Where is new Plate Tectonics crust formed? Source: Uyeda, Seiys. The New View of the Earth, he movement of the Moving Continents and Moin Gone 1. H. Fr and Co., 1978, p, 63, better understood if you WH Freeman » think of the crust as divided into six plates (Figure 7.19). Each plate consists of a conti- nental crust on top of an oceanic crust, or of an oceanic crust alone, (The term continental crust is also used to refer to the plate with a continental crust resting on an oceanic crust.) The plates move very slowly, The movement of these plates is called tectonics, The theory of moving crustal plates is called plate tectonics, The possible effects of the moving crustal plates are shown in Figure 7.20. ANTARCTIC PLATE Po pK Figure 7.19, Six major plates and their ‘alative motion, The Philippine Plate Is a minor plst® between the Eurasian and the Pacific Plates. 246a pushing pulling A folding sinking srenching thinning Qs wting inten gigre 7.20, Moverents ofthe plates, Push forces at opposite ends of a plate deform it and result in folding, trenching or thickening. Pull forces at opposite ends of a plate re- sult in sinking, thinning or faulting. Crustal movements m a by convection clrent phe mantle (Figure 7.218). 1 may difficult to imagine convection Currents taking place in the mantle, which is often thought of the layers above and the very high tempera- ture at great depths enable the mantle to flow very slowly, just as molten glass does. The magma from the lower mantle rises and pushes the earth’s crust, Sometimes the crust. breaks to form faults. Magma comes out through the broken crust, solid- ifies, and becomes part of the crust. Most of the rising magma in the mantle does not enter the crust; in- stead it turns and moves sideways. As it moves, it pulls the part of the crust resting on it in much the same way as a conveyor belt carries along objects placed on it. The convection currents in the mantle act like conveyor belts (Figure 7.21b). 7 convection eurcent yy yantle: if ™ magma ‘The convection current in the mantle causes the movernent of the crust. collide or where one PI that sinks with a convec' ‘The sunken edge of the ante at great depths and becomes part 0 Activity 7.4 ~~) OAL PO ope) Figure 7.21. A conveyor belt a the mantle forms a trench. plate dipping into the mantle event f the mantle. i e Study Figures 7.22 to 7.24. The figures snot ven are take place when two plates move relative to eacl dy {ngs show a cross-section of the plates. St answer the questions that follow. 247+ Which plate has a continenta, crust? How can you tell? . Which plate is made of oe crust only? How ean youn Where is the new crust form, A or at B? at . Where does the material of the new crust come from? .. Which plate pushes? . What gives it the force to pushy In what direction does it push? GY iii d . In Figure 7.24, what happens to ] the leading edge of Plate 1 as Plate 2 pushes it harder? What Figure 7.24 is formed in this process? ‘The plates move in the direction indicated by the thin What do calla ofa plate arrows and the magma in the mantle move in the direc- 9. that: see abo S thee ‘ind foe tion indicated by the big arrows, comes surrounded by water? Plate tectonics and the Philippines. The movements of the China Plate and the Philippine Plate may have created the Philippine archi- elago and the trench alongside it. The China Plate includes a large part of the Asian mainland, Japan, Taiwan, the China Sea, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Borneo, and the Philippines. The Philip pine Plate includes the Philippine sea, a part of the western Pacific Ocean, and the islands of Palau, Yap, Marianas, Volcano, and Bonin (Figure 7.25). sage th? middle of the Philippine Plate is an undersea mountain 7idge that extends from north to south. Many scientists believe that from this ridge molten materials continuously pour out and solidify. ve Philippine Plate is moving westward due te convection carrents the thicker and more stable China Plate. The wes e . The western edge of the Philippine Plate was pushed down under the China Plate, forming the sea ie Jtench. This trench is located east of the Philippines and extends the full length of the archipelago, ‘The less dense continental crust of the fr China Plate floated over Plate a ee of the Philippine Plate, The pressure of the Philippine its rove abone castern edge of the China Pinte to crumple. Some at th _ imma 28 level and became the islands of the Philippines. © beginning, many small islands were formed, These meremenAsia Mainland /~ EURASIANPLATE —/ CHINA PLATE PACIFIC PLATE Bonin Wend yu aurdge §\ Voeano Wand Marignas Island oN oun N Palau Islands 1 that the Philippines '§ part 1 China Plate, Not Figure 7.25. The Philippine Plots & ie Philippine Plate. of the China Plate a! -faults. Magma also caused some parts of the crumpled plate to form spilled out of the faults, solidified, and became part of the islands, ‘The islands grew in size and number, forming the Philippines. At pre. sent the archipelago has about 7100 islands. ASIAN CONTINENT pp Figure 7.26. Tho Philippine Plate moves under the China Plate forming the Philippine Trench, Activity 7.5 cae ie ett that may take place when two plates of the te 1.27 to age Answer the following questions based on Fig,1, What kind of plates form Plate 1? Plate 29 2. In which plate is new Oceanic crust formed? 3. In what direction is Plate 1 moving? How about Plate 2? , ‘ 4. What happens to the leading edges of the colliding plates? The Himalayas were formed in the manner shown in Figures 7.27- 7.29. As the Indian Plate moved northeastward, it collided with the Eurasian Plate. The low densities of these continental plates kept them floating over the denser mantle. The pressure of the advancing Indian Plate caused the southern edge of the Eurasian Plate to crumple, forming the Himalayas. Not all mountains, however, are formed as a result of move- ments of the crust. Some mountains are formed when magma flows out of a small fault in the crust in the process called volcanism. The lava piles up on the surface around the hole, cools, and solidifies, forming a peak called a volcano. The surface opening on the pile of lava connected to the small fault or vent is the crater.TYPES OF FAULTS Faults can be divided into several different types depending on the direction of relative displacement. Since faults are planar features, the concept of strike and dip also applies, and thus the strike and dip of a fault plane can be ~ measured. One division of faults is between dip-slip faults, where the displacement is measured along the dip direction of the fault, and strike-slip faults where the displacement is horizontal, parallel to the strike of the fault. Dip Slip Faults Dip slip faults are faults that have an inclined fault plane and along which the relative displacement or offset has occurred along the dip direction. Note that in looking at the displacement on any fault we don’t know which side actually moved or if both sides moved,pock Deformation 135 Nse of motion. For a "i in lock above the fault 7 ck below the fault as all we can determine is the Telati inclined fault plane we define the bi the hanging wall block and the blo. the footwall block. Normal Faults Are faults that result from hori \ zontal i in brittle rocks and where the hanging wall heer he moved down relative to the footwall block. nhs a [2S rvot Wall Block Normal Fault Extensional Stress Horsts and Gabens Due to the tensional stress responsible for normal faults, they often occur in a series, with adjacent faults dipping in opposite directions. In sucha case the down-dropped blocks form grabens and the uplifted blocks form horsts. In areas where tensional stress has recently affected the crust, the grabens may form rift valleysand the uplifted horst blocks may form linear mountain anges, The East African Rift Valley is an example of an area where continental extension has created such a rift. The basin and range province of the western US. (Nevada, Utah, and Idaho) is also an area that has recently undergone crustal extension, In the basin and range, the basins are elongated 8tabens that now form valleys; and the ranges are uplifted horst blocks, A normal fault that has a curved faul “creasing with depth can cause the down-drop| Totate, Jt plane with the dip ped block toe a half-graben is produced, called such In such a casi i because it is bounded by only one fault instead of the two that form a normal graben. Reverse Faults Are faults that result from horizontal compressional stresses in brittle rocks, where the hanging-wall block has moved up relative the footwall block. Reverse Fault Compressional Stress re A Thrust Fault is a special case of a reverse fault vi the dip of the fault is less than 15°. Thrust faults ca" |poe” . = able displacement, measurin, result in older strata overly; sider ig hundreds of ki “ af ‘eds of kilometres, iN younger strata, eas 4 . Thrust Fault Comprssional Stress strike Slip Faults * Are faults where the relative motion on the fault has taken place along a horizontal direction. Such faults result from shear stresses acting in the crust. Strike slip faults can be of two varieties, depending on the sense of displacement. To'an observer standing on one side of the fault and looking across the fault, if the block on the other side has moved to the left, we say that the fault is a left-lateral strike-slip fault. If the block on the other side has moved to the right, we say that the fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault. The famous San Andreas Fault in California is an example of a right-lateral strike-slip fault. Displacements on the San Andreas fault are estimated at over 600 km. Right-Lateral stile Slip Fault Left-Li stike Si Fault Shear Stress ; Tke-alip faults. Transform-Faults are a special class of strike side past *, tes sli ese are plate boundaries along which two PlaoO. ; Engineering and Genera Cri 13! it rizontal manner. The most common, ore facie occur where oceanic ridges are Offset, te that the transform fault only occurs between the two Segments of the ridge. Outside of this area there is no relative ™Movemen, because blocks are moving in the same direction, These ateas are called fracture zones. The San Andreas fault in Califomia is also a transform fault. y No Fracturs Zone Oceanic Ridges—> . (Spreading Centers) EVIDENCE OF MOVEMENT ON FAULTS * Slikensides are scratch marks that are left on the fault ‘k moves relative to the other. used to determine the direction ona fault. umbled up rocks consisting of that. were formed as a result of ing movement along a fault. FOLD and sense of motion Fault Breccias are cr angular fragments grinding and crushi INTRODUCTION Folds are amongst the most common tectonic structures found in rocks ” and cari make some of t spectacular features, They Ci the most sp\ ‘aN occur on all scales and in all environments.. 1 In areas of active mountain buildin, ° in the front ranges of the Himalayas in Tala for example here bulge UP the landscape, The upward mone (right), folds antiforms) create hills while the areas that hi Wve gone dows relative to the hills (called synforms) collect det gone down from the surrounding countryside, Statue eroded Acommon misconception is that ro cks can only f they are nearly molten. These outcrops tell a different vo . Rocks like these limestone’s can fold even‘ at the Earth’s surface - provided ‘they are given enough time. A fold like this could take a hundred thcusand years to grow. But if the rocks were pushed together more quickly - th - makingfaults. y ey could break Folds can occur on all scales. These folds from the island of Syros only have a wavelength of a few millimetres. To make folds the rocks must have a mechanical layering. If they are homogeneous they will just squash together without folding. A stiff layer (more viscous) will fold if embedded in weaker (less viscous) material. You can try this yourself, - using different types of plasticene. DESCRIVING FOLDS Folds are wonderful things and highly variable. There's More usefully, there 4 plethora of j ibing them. jargon for describing ee many ways of measuring them so that we can quantify their shape and orientation. From these careful descriptions Wecan learn more about how folds form and what they might ® telling us about the larger-scale tectonics.140 Engineering an ee RY Basic geometry of folds as wav! axial surfaces f00. What to measur i e ae amplitude. on folds - orientations, wavelength androck Deformation FOLDING OF DUCTILE ROCKS When rocks deform in a i i fracturing to form faults, they may earn ‘or sds and the resulting structures are called folds. Folds secure yt compressional stresses acting over considerable time, Bessose the strain rate is low, rocks that we normally consider brittle can behave in a ductile manner resulting in such fold: We recognize several différent kinds of folds. “ 141 Monoclines They are the simplest types of folds. Monoclines occur when horizontal strata are bent upward so that the two limbs of the fold are still horizontal. . Anticlines are folds where the originally horizontal strata has been folded upward, and the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold. ‘Anticline Synclines fe Are folds where the originally horiz: olded downward, and the two limbs of toward the hinge of the fold. Synelines an ontal strata have been the fold dip inward d anticlines usually| we Engineering and General Geigy occur together such that the limb of a syncline is also the limb of an anticline. Geometry of Folds Folds are described by their form and orientation. The sides of a fold are called limbs. The limbs intersect at the tightest part of the fold, called the hinge. A line connecting all points on the hinge is called the fold axis. In the diagrams above, the fold axes are horizontal, but if the fold axis is not horizontal the fold is called a plunging fold and the angle that the fold axis makes with a horizontal line is called the plunge of the fold. An imaginary plane that includes the fold axis and divides the fold as symmetrically as possible is called the axial plane of the fold. : Axial Plane < Apiale of Ng? | Fold Axisrock Deformation Note that ifa plunging fold inte, wwe will see the pattern of the fold onthe en e, 143, tal surface, Plunging Anticline Horizontal Sutace Classification of Folds Folds can be classified based on their appearance: * If the two limbs of the fold dip away from the axis, with the same angle, the fold is said to be a symmetrical fold. + If the limbs dip at different angles, the folds are said to be asymmetrical folds. + If the compressional stresses that cause the folding are intense, the fold can close up and have limbs that are parallel to each other. Such a fold is called an isoclinal fold (iso means same, and cline means angle, so isoclinal means the limbs have the same angle). Note the isoclinal fold depicted in the diagram below is also a symmetrical fold. * If the folding is so intense that the strata on one limb of the fold becomes nearly * upside down, the fold is called an overturned fold. * An overturned fold with an axial plane that is nearly horizontal is called a recumbant fold. * A fold that has no curvature in its hin sided limbs that form a zigzag pal a chevron fold. ge and straight- tern is calledEngineering and Generel Getoy 144 rical Fold: ‘Symmetrical Folds Asymmetrical Folds | Overturned Folds Relationship Between Folding and Faulting Because different rocks behave differently under stress, we expect that some rocks when subjected to the same stress will fracture or fault, while others will fold. When such contrasting rocks occur in the same area, such as ductile rocks overlying brittle rocks, the brittle rocks may fault and the ductile rocks may bend or fold over the fault. a Monocline Ductile Rocks Brittle Rocks Also since even ductile . 0 rock: fractl under high stress, rocks Ee cee may fol i int then fracture to form a fault, Y fold up to a certain peinRock Deformation 145 FOLDS AND TOPOGRAPHY Since different rocks have different resistance to erosion and weathering, erosion of folded areas can lead toa topography that reflects the folding. Resistant strata would form ridges that have the same form as the folds, while less resistant strata will form valleys (see figure). MOUNTAIN RANGES One of the most spectacular results of deformation acting within the crust of the Earth is the formation of mountain tanges. Mountains originate by three processes, two of which are directly related to deformation. Thus, there are three types of mountains Fault Block Mountains As the name implies, fault block mountains originate by faulting. As discussed previously, both normal and reverse faults can cause the uplift of blocks of crustal rocks. The Sierra Nevada mountains of California, and the mountains in the Basin and Range province of the western US., as discussed Previously, were formed by faulting processes and are thus fault block mountains. Fold and Thrust Mountains Large compressional stresses can be generated in the crust by tectonic forces that cause continental crustal areas to collide.ON 6 Engineering and Generel eon, When this occurs the rocks between the two continental blog become folded and faulted under compressional stresses and are pushed upward to form fold and thrust mountains, The Himalayan Mountains (currently the highest on Earth) arg mountains of this type and were formed as a result of the Indian Plate colliding with the Eurasian plate. Similarly the Appalachian Mountains of North America and the Alps of Europe were formed by such processes. Volcanic Mountains The third type of mountains, volcanic mountains, are not formed by deformational processes, but instead by the outpouring of magma onto the surface of the Earth. The Cascade Mountains of the western U.S., and of course the mountains of the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland are volcanic mountains. ‘ JOINTS UNCONFORMITY AND CLASSIFICATION JOINTS joint, in geology, fracture in rocks ich no specie nbreney een ae ong wn joints that result from shrinkage during cooling ate commonly found in igneous rocks, Similar joints occur in thick beds of . Stone and gneiss, with the sheets resembling the structure of a sliced onion. The prismatic joints of the Palisades of New| ck Deformation Rock Defor aw ersey and Devil's Tower, Wyomin joi Jered by contraction during the Goollig oF rine nbined jgneous rock masses. Deep-seated igneous rocks often have joints approximately parallel to the surface, suggesting that they formed by expansion of the rock mass as overlying rocks were eroded away. 8 Some joints in sedimentary rocks may have formed as the result of contraction during compaction and drying of the sediment. In some cases, jointing of the rock may result from the action of the same forces that cause folds and faults. In relatively undisturbed sedimentary rocks, such joints are often jn two vertical sets perpendicular to one another. Commonly, streams develop along zones of weakness caused by joints in rocks, and thus the regional pattern of joint orientation often exerts a strong control on the development of drainage patterns. Cause Of Joints (Rocks) With regard to the manner of their production, joints may be classified into two series: those which are due to tension, the rock usually parting in planes normal to the directions of tension; those which are due to compression, the cracks forming in the shearing-planes. Tension Joints In igneous rocks joints are caused by the cooling and consequent contraction of the highly heated mass. This shrinkage sets up tensile stresses in the mass to which the rock yields by cracking and parting, the shape of the blocks being largely controlled by the coarseness Or fineness of the mass. Igneous rocks are subject to all the vicissitudes which affect other kinds of rocks; they are faulted, compressed, exposed to tension, etc, Hence, systems of joints may Occur inthem, which were formed subsequently to the shrinkage-joints due to the jointing ofsedimentary Systems of joints.148 Er ECL, he convex sides of anticlinal and synclinal folg, stretched, and (provided they are not foo deeply, buried a stretching may result in a system of ree radial to the cy, ‘s which follow the strike of the beds. Folds are not horizon, but pitch in the direction of their axes. This complex folq) : may produce two sets of tensile stresses perpendicular to ea, other, and thus cause two series of joints, one following the strike and the other the dip of the beds. otk Complex folding must produce a twisting and warpiy of the strata, and it has been experimentally shown thata brittle substance, when twisted, cracks in two: sets of fractures which intersect nearly at right angles. How slight is the twisting ang warping needful to produce joints is shown by the fact that strata which are perfectly horizontal, so far as can be detected, are jointed. The modern limestones which are formed in coral-reefs are jointed, even in cases where the movements resulting in fracture must have been minimal. Tension joints produce either rough, or smooth and sharply cut surfaces, which is determined by the character of the rock. In sandstones which are weakly cemented the cracks pass between the grains, while inhard and firm rocks the fractures are clean. Fig. Jointing in Limestone, Black Hills, Compression Joints Compression Joints are caused when the rocks yield alons the shearing-planes. In simply folded strata are produced tw sets of strike joints which are inclined toward each other, but whether dip joints will be made by complex folding is: Deformation Rock 149 tain. In some conglomerates the joi ne pard quartz pebbles and leave a smoath ewe pranipls qension would pull such a pebble out of its socket and ly by Cogent it be cleanly cut. ne The whole subject of joints in sedim i difficult one and the explanations ee a pr altogether satisfactory, for several other agencies may be involved in their production. It is, however, highly probable that the master joints which roughly follow the strike and dip of the strata, have been caused by the forces which produce folding. Fig. Joints Dying away Downward, Joints cannot occur in the shell of flowage, and are best developed in the shell of fracture, being of less importance in the transition belt between the two.