Primary

motor cortex
- The predominant
role of the primary
motor cortex in motor
execution is well
acknowledged.
However, additional
roles of primary motor
cortex are getting
evident in humans
owing to advances in
noninvasive brain
stimulation techniques.
This review collates
such studies in humans
and proposes that
primary motor cortex
also plays a key role in
higher cognitive
processes. The review
commences with the
studies that have
investigated the nature
of connectivity of
primary motor cortex
with other cortical
regions in light of
studies based on
noninvasive brain
stimulation. The review
then moves on to
discuss the studies that
have demonstrated the
role of primary motor
cortex in higher
cognitive processes
such as attention,
motor learning, motor
consolidation,
movement inhibition,
somatomotor
response, and
movement imagery.
Overall, the purpose of
the review is to
highlight the additional
role of primary motor
cortex in motor
cognition besides
motor control, which
remains unexplored.

Frontal lobe -
As a whole, the
frontal lobe is
responsible for higher
cognitive functions
such as memory,
emotions, impulse
control, problem
solving, social
interaction, and
motor function.
Damage to the
neurons or tissue of
the frontal lobe can
lead to personality
changes, difficulty
concentrating or
planning, and
impulsivity.

Broca's area -
The Broca area lies
specifically in the
third frontal
convolution, just
anterior to the face
area of the motor
cortex and just above
the Sylvian fissure. It
is made up of two
areas: the pars
triangularis
(Brodmann area 45)
and the pars
opercularis
(Brodmann area 44).
The Broca area is
connected to other
regions of the brain,
including
the Wernicke area, by
a neuronal tract
known as the arcuate
fasciculus. In
addition to serving a
role in speech
production, the Broca
area also is involved
in language comprehe
nsion, in motor-
related activities
associated with hand
movements, and in
sensorimotor
learning
and integration.

Primary
auditory
cortex - The
auditory cortex has
been viewed as the
ultimate step in
processing the rich
acoustic stream
constantly reaching
our ears and also
as a key structure in
cognitive tasks
involving auditory
stimuli.
Temporal
lobe - The main
functions of the
temporal lobes
include understandi
ng language,
memory acquisition,
face recognition,
object recognition,
perception and
processing auditory
information. Alike to
the other lobes of the
brain, there are left
and right temporal
lobes, situated in both
hemispheres of the
cerebrum.
Brain stem -
Researchers
considered that the
brainstem influences
cognition and
causes affect via
the cerebello-
cerebral network,
and that isolated
brainstem impairment
can cause symptoms
that are similar to the
dysfunction of limbic-
associated or higher
cortical areas.

Spinal cord -
Cognitive functions
such as attention,
memory, decision
making, and problem-
solving are regulated
by the brain, not the
spinal cord.
Rather, the spinal
cord is the
communication
pathway that
transmits motor and
sensory signals
between the brain,
peripheral nerves,
and muscles.

Cerebellum -
The cerebellum has
traditionally been
seen primarily to
coordinate voluntary
movement,
but evidence is
accumulating that it
may play a role in
cognition and
behavior as well.
This is a selective
review of studies
assessing potential
cognitive deficits and
personality changes
associated with
cerebellar disease.

Primary visual
cortex - Neurons
in the primary visual
cortex have small
receptive fields and
respond to basic
elements of the visual
scene. Recent
findings, however,
show that the primary
visual cortex is also
involved in cognitive
processes, such
as visual perception
and working
memory.

Occipital
lobe - The
occipital lobe is the
visual processing
area of the brain. It is
associated
with visuospatial
processing,
distance and depth
perception, color
determination,
object and face
recognition, and
memory formation.
Wernicke's
area - This
localization of brain
function suggests that
certain abilities, such
as producing and
understanding
language, are
controlled by certain
parts of the brain.
This region of the
brain is now known
as Wernicke's area
and is associated
with the
understanding of
spoken and written
language.
Parietal lobe
- The parietal lobes
can be divided into
two functional
regions. One involves
sensation and
perception and the
other is concerned
with integrating
sensory input,
primarily with the
visual system. The
first
function integrates
sensory information
to form a single
perception (cognition
).
Somatic
sensory
cortex - The
somatic sensory
cortex, also referred
to as the primary
somatosensory
cortex, is localized to
the postcentral gyrus
of the parietal lobes,
just posterior of the
central sulcus, and is
vested with the job
of processing
information being
transmitted from the
periphery.