RESIDUAL STRESSES

(FUNDAMENTALS)

REFERENCES :
1. MASUBUCHI, K. 1959. NEW APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM ON RESIDUAL STRESS AND
DEFORMATION DUE TO WELDING. TRANSPORTATION TECHNICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE REPORT
8(12)
2. SATOH, K., AND TERASAKI, T. 1976. EFFECT OF WELDING CONDITIONS ON RESIDUAL STRESS
DISTRIBUTIONS AND WELDING DEFORMATION IN WELDED STRUCTURES MATERIALS. J. JAPAN
WELD. SOC. 45(1): 42–53
3. OPTIMISING PLATE GIRDER DESIGN - R. ABSPOEL DIVISION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING,
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, DELFT, THE NETHERLANDS
4. WELDING DISTORTION OF A THIN-PLATE PANEL STRUCTURE BY C. L. TSAI, S. C. PARK AND W. T.
CHENG
5. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES BY PROF. S.R SATISH KUMAR, PROF A.R SANTHA KUMAR, IIT
CHENNAI
6. RESIDUAL STRESSES BY T. HÖGLUND, ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, STOCKHOLM
7. NEW FATIGUE PROVISIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF CRANE RUNWAY GIRDERS BY JAMES M. FISHER
AND JULIUS P. VAN DE PAS
8. ENHANCING FATIGUE STRENGTH BY ULTRASONIC IMPACT TREATMENT SOUGATA ROY* AND
JOHN W. FISHER
9. LIMITATIONS OF AVAILABLE INDIAN HOT-ROLLED I-SECTIONS FOR USE IN SEISMIC STEEL MRFS
BY RUPEN GOSWAMI, JASWANT N. ARLEKAR AND C.V.R. MURTY
10. STRESS CORROSION CRACKING BY NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY(NPL)

BY

SWARUP DAS
LII INDIA, GURGAON
 INTRODUCTION

It is generally assumed that the distribution of stresses in section of

members subjected to axial tensile force is uniform. However, there are
some parameters like residual stresses and connection which result in a
non-uniform distribution of stresses.
Residual stress developed when the member is formed and are due to the
production process. Their origin can be thermal, either developed during
the solidification of the steel or during welding parts of the member;
or they can be mechanically induced when trying to produce counter
deflection or when straightening the member. The induced stresses are
self equilibrated and although they do not affect the ultimate
resistance of member they induce non-linearities in the strain-stress
behavior and greater deformabilities. The ultimate limit state is
reached when the entire section has yielded. Although the behavior of
the section is non-linear, the ultimate limit state is identical for
both the cases with and without residual stress.
If a part of a member undergoes non-uniform, plastic deformation
stresses arise within the elastic area. The sum of negative and positive
stresses is always zero, if there are no external forces. The
inhomogeneous deformation field which generates residual stress is
caused by thermal processes such as cooling after extrusion and welding,
mechanical processes such as cold rolling and straightening by means of
traction.
For a welded T-profile the residual stresses may be formed as follows:
The weld is very warm in the beginning. The zone next to the weld is
also very warm. When the material cools down, the weld shrinks because
of differences in density between the hard and the soft material.
Further, the weld will shrink because of the thermal diffusion factor.
The surrounding cold and stiff metal prevent this shrinking. This part
of the cross section is subject to compressive stresses while the area
closest to the weld string is loaded with tensile stresses.

2. OPTIMISING PLATE GIRDER DESIGN

In the design of steel plate girders a high degree of optimisation is
possible. In the sight of rising steel demands from booming economies
and environmental aspects of material production, optimisation in terms
of material use is becoming more and more beneficial. Optimising a
girder for bending action is achieved by moving material away from the
neutral axis of the beam, in other words, by making the web of the plate
girder more slender. When lateral supports are used to prevent lateral
 torsion buckling, then flange induced buckling, torsion buckling of the
flange or yielding of the flange will become the critical failure
mechanism. The high slenderness causes that the deflection of the beam
is not governing. In this strength driven design it is possible to take
advantage of higher steel grades and thus to achieve even further
reduction of the section.
During the fabrication of plate girders undesirable stresses and
deformations develop mainly as a result of uneven temperature
distributions. These stresses and deformations (imperfections) may
significantly affect the performance (e.g. ultimate strength or fatigue
life) of the structure. In the research described in this paper an
effective numerical method to predict these imperfections is developed
with the objective of incorporating this knowledge into the design
procedures.

3. WELDING DISTORTION OF A THIN-PLATE PANEL STRUCTURE

Welding thin-plate panel structures often results in warping of the
panels. Several mitigation methods, including preheating and
prestressing the plates during assembly, have been investigated and used
by some fabricators.
Distortion behaviors, including local plate bending and buckling as well
as global girder bending, It is found that buckling doesn’t occur in
structures with a skin-plate thickness of more than 1.6 mm unless the
stiffening girder bends excessively. Warping is primarily caused by
angular bending of the plate itself. The joint rigidity method (JRM) is
found to be effective in determining the optimum welding sequence for
minimum panel warping.
Warping is a common problem experienced in the welding fabrication of
thin walled panel structures. Several factors that influence distortion
 control strategy may be categorized into design-related and process-
related variables. Significant design-related variables include weld
joint details, plate thickness, thickness transition if the joint
consists of plates of different thickness, stiffener spacing, number of
attachments, corrugated construction, mechanical restraint conditions,
assembly sequence and overall construction planning. Important variables
are welding process, heat input, travel speed and welding sequence.
These design practices include choosing plates with appropriate
thickness, reducing stiffener spacing, using a bevel T-stiffener web,
optimizing assembly sequencing, properly applying jigs and fixtures and
using the egg-crate construction technique. Better control of certain
welding variables will eliminate the conditions that promote distortion.
This includes reducing fillet weld size and length, including tack
welds; using high-speed welding; using a low heat input welding process;
using intermittent welds; using a back-step technique; and balancing
heat about the plate’s neutral axis in butt joint welding.
The implementation of distortion mitigation techniques during welding
counteracts the effects of shrinkage during cooling, which distorts the
fabricated structure. These mitigation techniques include controlled
preheating, mechanical tensioning, thermal tensioning, pre-bending
fillet joints, presetting butt joints and using appropriate heat sinking
arrangements. All these mitigation techniques are to balance weld
shrinkage forces. Heat sinking also balances welding heat about the
neutral axis of the joint. Some of the aforementioned distortion control
methods may increase fabrication costs due to requirements for more
energy, increased labor and potentially high-cost capital equipment.
Some methods may not be suitable for automated welding or may reduce the
assembly speed due to interruption from fixtures or stiffener
arrangements. Depending on circumstances of the fabrication environment
and type of structures, different distortion control methods may provide
more adequate solutions to certain problems than others. Understanding
their capability and limitation of all these distortion control methods
is critical to a successful welding fabrication project.ror

4. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

One of the various factors affecting the lateral-torsional buckling
strength is Magnitude and distribution of residual stresses.
The effect of residual stresses is to reduce the lateral buckling
capacity. If the compression flange is wider than tension flange lateral
buckling strength increases and if the tension flange is wider than
compression flange, lateral buckling strength decreases. The residual
 stresses and hence its effect is more in welded beams as compared to
that of rolled beams.

5. HOW TO MEASURE RESIDUAL STRESS

The most common method is the destructive method, which is based upon
the technique of cutting the specimen in a number of strips. The
residual stresses are calculated from measurements on each strip. There
are two methods of measuring. The first is to measure the length of the
strip before and after the cutting it from the section. If Young's
modulus is known, it is easy to apply Hooke's law and determine the
residual stress. The second method is to mount electrical resistance
strain gauges on the strips and determine the residual stresses by
applying Hooke's law. The last method is that which is most commonly
used today. Note that Hooke's law can be applied since residual stress
is essentially an elastic process. With the methods stated here only
longitudinal residual stresses are determined. However, these are of
most interest from a structural point of view.
6. RESIDUAL STRESS IN EXTRUDED PROFILES
A number of experiments where residual stresses are determined for
different types of profiles have been made. These consist of different
alloys and were manufactured by various processes. Here, the results
from experiments on I-profiles are reviewed. Experiments conducted on I-
profiles consisting of different alloys show that the residual stresses
are randomly distributed over a cross section. It seems there is no
simple rule for stress distribution as there is for rolled steel
sections. Residual stresses are low, the compressive stresses almost
never exceed 20 MPa and tensile stresses are much lower. These values
are measured on the surface of the profiles. At the centre of the
material the values are probably lower since residual stresses usually
change sign from one side to the other. Different alloys do not affect
the intensity and distribution of residual stresses. The residual
stresses in extruded profiles have a negligible effect on the load-
bearing capacity.
7. RESIDUAL STRESSES IN WELDED PROFILES
In contrast to what has been said for extruded profiles, residual
stresses cannot be neglected in welded profiles. The welding produces a
concentrated heat input, which causes the remaining stresses. Large
tensile stresses in connection to the web and balancing compression
stresses in other parts are characteristic.
 8. NEW FATIGUE PROVISIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF CRANE RUNWAY GIRDERS
Abrupt changes in cross section, geometrical discontinuities such as
toes of welds, unintentional discontinuities from lack of perfection in
fabrication, effects of corrosion and residual stresses all have a
bearing on the localized range of tensile stress at details that lead to
crack initiation. These facts make it convenient and desirable to
structure fatigue design provisions on the basis of categories, which
reflect the increase in tensile stress range due to the severity of the
discontinuities introduced by typical details. Application of stress
concentration factors to stresses determined by usual analysis is not
appropriate. However, fluctuating compressive stresses in a region of
tensile residual stress may cause a net fluctuating tensile stress or
reversal of stress, which may cause cracks to initiate.

9. ENHANCING FATIGUE STRENGTH

The existence of localized tensile residual stresses to the order of
yield stress in the weldments and in the adjoining base metal produced
by shrinkage during the cooling process after welding. In the initial
stages of fatigue crack growth from inherent crack-like defects in an
as-welded detail, most of the fatigue life occurs in this region of high
tensile residual stress. Under cyclic loading the material around the
internal flaws in this area is always subjected to a fully effective
tensile stress cycle even in some cases of stress reversal. Residual
stresses can become tensile or compressive depending on their relative
magnitude. Particularly at the low stress range or in the high fatigue
cycle regime the treated details became unfavorably sensitive to factors
that were less significant to crack growth than to crack initiation, It
is anticipated that the benefits from improved joints will generally
increase with yield strength due to introduction of higher beneficial
compressive residual stress. It also introduced beneficial compressive
residual stress to the order of yield stress of the material at the
treated surface. Cumulatively these improvements enhanced fatigue
strength of the treated details by increasing the fatigue crack
initiation life and the fatigue crack growth threshold.

10. LIMITATIONS OF AVAILABLE INDIAN HOT-ROLLED I-SECTIONS FOR USE IN

SEISMIC STEEL MRFS
local buckling can occur in Indian hot-rolled I-sections at low post yield
strains due to presence of residual stresses. Material non-linearity was shown
to begin at about 70 to 43 percent of the plastic moment capacity for residual
stresses of 70MPa and 140MPa respectively. Consequently, flexural plastic
capacity is reached at extreme fibre strain of about 2.4 to 2.8 times the
yield strain. This high strain can cause local buckling [Paul et al., 1999].
All these aspects raise the concern on the stability of structures built using
the available Indian hot-rolled I-sections with tapered flanges for resisting
earthquake effects.

11. SEISMIC DESIGN OF STRONG-AXIS WELDED CONNECTIONS IN STEEL MOMENT

It’s well known fact that due to the presence of residual stresses in
rolled section, it yields at an early stage i.e., half of its yield
tress or so and also reaches to its full capacity when the extreme
fibres strain is much higher than the yield strain.

12. STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Stress corrosion cracking is cracking due to a process involving
conjoint corrosion and straining of a metal due to residual or applied
stresses. The cracking continues at low stresses and commonly occurs as
a result of residual stresses from welding or fabrication. The cracking
is normally transgranular, although it may switch to an intergranular
path as a result of sensitisation of the steel. Real components will
typically contain defects and design details, such as notches, sharp
changes in section, welds, corrosion pits etc, that will produce a
stress concentration, hence allowing the threshold stress to be exceeded
locally even though the nominal stress may be well below the threshold.
Furthermore, residual stresses produced by welding or deformation will
frequently be close to the yield stress.
As one of the requirements for stress corrosion cracking is the presence
of stress in the components, one method of control is to eliminate that
stress, or at least reduce it below the threshold stress for SCC. This
is not usually feasible for working stresses (the stress that the
component is intended to support), but it may be possible where the
stress causing cracking is a residual stress introduced during welding
or forming. Residual stresses can be relieved by stress-relief
annealing, and this is widely used for carbon steels. These have the
advantage of a relatively high threshold stress for most environments,
consequently it is relatively easy to reduce the residual stresses to a
low enough level. In contrast austenitic stainless steels have a very
low threshold stress for chloride SCC. This, combined with the high
annealing temperatures that are necessary to avoid other problems, such
 as sensitisation and sigma phase embrittlement, means that stress relief
is rarely successful as a method of controlling SCC for this system. For
large structures, for which full stress-relief annealing is difficult or
impossible, partial stress relief around welds and other critical areas
may be of value. However, this must be done in a controlled way to avoid
creating new regions of high residual stress, and expert advice is
advisable if this approach is adopted.
We can’t easily change the material or the temperature, and it is
virtually impossible to eliminate the residual stresses associated with
welding and forming of the stainless steel.

13. ULTRA HIGH-STRENGTH SEAMLESS, HOT ROLLED HOLLOW SECTIONS FROM

ISMT
UHS hollow sections do not contain any weld and are hot formed. As a
result, these have a fully normalized grain structure and uniform
hardness along the cross section. Unlike their welded counterparts,
these do not suffer from any weak spots, discontinuities in material
properties, or residual stresses along the perimeter of the section.

14. RESONANT VIBRATION METHOD FOR REDUCING RESIDUAL STRESSES IN WELDED

OR MACHINED FABRICATIONS
For many people involved in the metalworking trades, the subject of
stress relief is something they are not well versed in. As a result,
stress relief is a subject they would just as soon like to avoid. With a
little technical assistance, the average layman can get a basic
understanding of residual stresses and how to deal with them. With this
knowledge, he will be better prepared to evaluate shop problems and find
a |solution that is effective. The following information is designed to
answer some of the most frequently asked questions about stress
relieving. Residual stresses, by definition, are those stresses in an
elastic body that is free from external force or restraint and
temperature gradients. An incompatibility of regions in the metal
created by non-homogenous plastic deformation is the principal cause of
these internal stress systems, whether they are in an individual part or
in an assembly of parts. This mismatch or misfit between adjacent
regions of the same part distorts the neighboring regions. This
condition can be either extremely damaging or very beneficial to the
part depending on the magnitude and direction. Compressive stresses
created by shot peening can be good while tensile stresses created
during welding can be bad. Residual stresses are hard to visualise,
difficult to measure and extremely difficult to calculate or predict,
yet they are just as important in the function of a part as are
externally applied forces that are more easily measured and calculated.
Residual stresses are fundamentally introduced into the material in one
or more of the following ways: thermal, metallurgical, mechanical and
chemical. Since these are the processes that make up our metalworking
trades, it is only right to assume that, at some point in time, a stress
relief treatment may be required.
"Formula 62" is a resonance based method of vibratory stress relief
developed by Stress Relief Engineering Co. Workpieces are subjected to
low frequency, high amplitude vibrations for a short period of time
based on the weight of the workpiece. This allows the residual stresses
to be reduced to a much lower level where static equilibrium is
restored. The resonance method is used by researchers around the world
in stress relief studies using vibration and is currently considered an
industry standard.
Resonant vibrations have been found to be the most effective means for
reducing residual stresses by vibration. The resonant frequency
vibration method has a much more pronounced stress redistribution
compared to the subresonant (subharmonie) frequency methods. High
amplitude resonant vibrations are very efficient in significantly
reducing peak residual stresses in weldments.
Parts may be stress relieved virtually at any point in the manufacturing
process where the part is accessible. The most typical applications
allow for stress relief at key junctures in the manufacturing process,
i.e. after rough machining, boring, grinding, etc. For welded
fabrications, stress relieving can be performed during welding which is
very helpful in preventing residual stress build-up that can cause
weld cracking or distortion of some sections. Because the fusion process
produces large temperature gradients in a short period of time, residual
stresses are more dynamically active which can require stress relief
during welding, immediately after welding or in an ongoing program of
routine stress relief on a daily basis. As the time to completion
increases for a fabrication, so does the risk of distortion related
problems. Since large magnitude tensile residual stresses can reduce the
fatigue life of welded assemblies, ample thought should be given to
stress relieving all welded assemblies.
 In assembling and joining parts of a structure or of built-up members,
the procedure and sequence of welding shall be such as will avoid
needless distortion and minimize shrinkage stresses. Where it is
impossible to avoid high residual stresses in the closing welds of a
rigid assembly, such closing welds shall be made in compression
elements.
15. FACTORS INFLUENCING FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
The fatigue behavior of various types of structures, members and
connections is affected by a large number of factors, many of which may
produce interrelated effects. The parameters that influence fatigue
behavior are: stress range, material, stress concentration, rate of
cyclic loading, residual stresses, size, geometry, environment,
temperature, and previous stress history.
The effect of residual stress varies considerably, depending upon the
material, state and magnitude of residual and applied stresses. The
effect of compressive residual stress generally is to increase the
fatigue resistance for lower levels of stress. But for higher levels of
stress close to yielding, its effect is negligible. The residual tensile
stresses do not affect fatigue resistance except in cases where residual
tension reduces the stress range in cyclic loading.
Welds invariably contain small crack-like defects; hence crack
initiation stage does not exist. Only the number of cycles for the crack
to grow to the point of unstable fracture constitutes the fatigue life.
Residual stresses of yield stress level are always present in the
vicinity of welds. Therefore stress cycling is always from the yield
stress downwards and fatigue life is a function of stress range only.
Fatigue life varies with the type of weld details due to the varying
nature of the defects in the different details.
Much of the current information on weld improvements has been derived
from tests on small-scale specimens. In real structures, there will be
large residual stresses that may affect fatigue life. Whereas peak
stresses develop at the weld toe of a small joint, in a large multi-pass
joint, peak stress may occur in any of the several beads and cracks
initiate anywhere in this region.
Peening is the application of repeated hammering, often with a round-
headed punch or hammer, to produce local yielding of the material. The
hammering is applied to the weld toe or other locations, where fatigue
cracks are likely to initiate. It has the effect of reducing the local
residual stresses.
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ARE LISTED BELOW FOR GUIDANCE WHILE DESIGNING


A WELDED STRUCTURE WITH RESPECT TO FATIGUE STRENGTH.

· Adopt butt or single and double bevel butt welds in preference to
fillet welds.
· Use double-sided in preference to single sided fillet welds.
· Aim to place weld, particularly toe, root and weld end in area of low
stress.
· Avoid details that produce severe stress concentration or poor stress
distribution.
· Provide gradual transitions in sections and avoid reentrant notch
like corners.
· Avoid abrupt changes of section or stiffness of members or
components.
· Avoid points so as to eliminate eccentricities or reduce them to a
minimum.
· Avoid making attachments on parts subjected to severe fatigue
loading. If attachments in such locations are unavoidable, the weld
profile should merge smoothly into the parent metal.
· Use continuous rather than intermittent welds.
· Avoid details that introduce localized constraints.
· During fabrication, carry out necessary inspection to ensure proper
deposition of welds.
· Provide suitable inspection during the fabrication and erection of
structures.
· Intersection of welds should be avoided.
· Edge preparation for butt welding should be designed with a view of
using minimum weld metal so as to minimize warping and residual stress
build up.
· Ask for pre and post heating, if necessary, to relieve the build up
residual stresses.
· Fillet welds carrying longitudinal shear should not be larger in size
than necessary from design consideration.
· Deep penetration fillet welds should be used in preference to normal
fillet welds.
· Structures subjected to fatigue loading especially in critical
locations should be regularly inspected for the presence of fatigue
cracks and when such cracks are discovered, immediate steps should be
taken to prevent their further propagation into the structure.
· Any repair measures taken should be designed to avoid introduction of
more severe fatigue condition.
· Provide multiple load path and / or structural redundancy in the
structure to avoid overall collapse of the structure due to failure of
one element in the structure in fatigue.
· Provide crack arresting features in the design at critical locations
to avoid propagation of cracks into the entire structure.

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