CYTOSOL
CELL
CELL DIFFERENTIATION
Zygote- single cell formed by the
merger of spermatozoon with an oocyte
at federalization.
Blastomere- cell produce by the first
zygotic cellular division.
Inner cell mass- give rise to all types of
the fetus.
THE CYTOPLASM
PLASMA MEMBRANE (PLASMALEMMA)
 INTEGRINS- proteins that are linked
to both cytoplasmic protein
filaments and ECM components
ORGANELLES
 Membranous or non-membranous
CYTOSKELETON
INCLUSION
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Physical barrier
 Selective permeability
 Electrochemical gradients
 Communication
 Glycolipids
- oligosaccharide chain that extend
outward from the cell surface and
contribute to a delicate cell surface
coating called the glycocalyx (cell coat)
 Receptor
-which participate in important
interactions such as cell adhesion, cell
recognition, and the response to
protein hormones.
 Lipid raft
-localized regions within the plasma
membrane contain high concentration
of cholesterol and glycosphingolipids.

ENDOCYTOSIS
 Brings molecules and other
substances into the cell
 Associated with the formation and
budding of vesicles from the plasma
membrane.
EXOCYTOSIS
 Synthesized molecules and other
substances leave the cell.
 Associated with the fusion of
vesicles originating from
intracellular organelles with the
plasma membrane, and it is a
primary secretory modality.
 Signal Reception & Transduction
 Gap junctions
-channels for communication
between adjacent cells.
 Only cells with receptors for a
specific ligand are target cells for
that molecule.
Signal molecules can take different
routes:
 Endocrine signaling
-the signal molecule (called hormones)
are carried in the blood to target cells
throughout the body.
 Paracrine signaling
-the chemical mediators are rapidly
metabolized after release so that they
act only on local cells very close to the
source.
 Synaptic signaling
-a special kind of paracrine interaction,
neurotransmitters act only on adjacent
cells through special contact areas
called synapses.
 Autocrine signaling
-signals bind receptors on the same cell
type that produced the messenger
molecule.
 Juxtacrine signaling ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
-important in early embryonic tissue
interactions, signaling molecules such as
proteins remain part of the cell
membrane and bind surface receptors
of the target cell when the two cells
make direct physical contact.

Major types of membrane receptors

Channel-linked receptors
-bind ligands such as neurotransmitters FUNCTIONS
and open to allow influx of specific ions. 1. Synthesis: provides a place for
Enzymatic receptors chemical reaction
-usually protein kinases that are A. Smooth ER is the site of lipid
activated to phosphorylate (and usually synthesis and carbohydrate
activate) other proteins upon ligand metabolism.
binding. B. Rough ER synthesizes proteins for
G-protein-coupled receptors secretion, incorporation into the
-upon ligand binding, stimulates the plasma, membrane, and as enzymes
conformation of its G-protein subunit, within lysosomes.
allowing it to bind GTP, and activating 2. Transport: moves molecules through
and releasing this protein to in turn cisternal space from one part of the cell
activate other proteins such as ion to another, sequestered away from the
channels and adenyl cyclase. cytoplasm.
3. Storage: stores newly synthesized
RIBOSOMES molecules.
4. Detoxification: smooth ER detoxifies
 Found in the cytosol are composed both drugs and alcohol.
of four segments of rRNA and
approximately 80 different proteins. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Bound to mRNA, all ribosomes have  Prominent in the cell specialized for
two subunits of different sizes and protein secration, such as
act to catalyze the process of pancreatic acinar cells (making
protein translation. digestive enzymes), fibroblast
(collagen), and plasma cell
(immunoglobulins)
 Presence of polyribosomes on the
cytosolic surface of the RER confers
 Polyribosomes (or polysomes) basophilic standing properteis
-intensely basophilic because of the
numerous phosphate group of the
constituent RNAs that act as polyanions.
-cytoplasmic regions that stain intensely
with hematoxylin and basic dyes, such
as methylene and toluidine blue,
indicate sites of active protein synthesis.
 GOLGI APPARATUS

 Completes posttranslational
modifications of proteins
synthesized in the RER and then
packages and addresses these
proteins to proper destinations.
 In polarized secretory cells with
apical and basal ends tha Golgi
apparatus occupies a characteristic
position between the nucleus and
the apical plasma membrane.

SECRETORY GRANULES
 Found in cells that store a product
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
until its release by exocytosis is
 Regions of ER that lack bound
signaled by a metabolic, hormonal,
polyribosomes make up the smoo
or neural message.
endoplasmic reticulm
 Surrounded by a membrane and
 Phospholipid synthesis
contain a concentrated form of the
 Contains enzymes required for
secretory product.
steroid synthesis.
 Secretory granules with dense
 Sequester and release Ca
contents of digestive enzymes are
 Abundant in many liver cells,
also referred to as zymogen
where it contains enzymes
granules.
responsible for glycogen
metabolism, for processing
LYSOSOMES
endogenous molecules such a the
 sites of intacellular digestion and
components of bile, and for the
turnover of cellular components
oxidation, conjugation, and
 Abundant in cell with great
methylation reactions that
phagocytic activity
neutralize potentially toxic
 Nature and activity of lysosomal
exogenous molecules such as
enzymes vary depending on the cell
alcohol, barbiturates, and other
type
drugs.
 Lysosomal enzymes have optimal
activity at an acidic pH (-5.0)
  At each end of the cylinder is a
regulatory particle that contains
ATPase and recognizes proteins
with ubiquintin molecules attached.
 Ubiquitin
-an abundant cytosolic 76-amino acid
protein found in all cells.

MITOCHONDRIA
 Heterolysosomes
 Membrane-enclosed organelles
-composite active organelle formed by
with arrays of enzymes specialized
mixing the andocytosed material with
for aerobic respiration and
the lysosomal enzymes and activation
production of adenosine
of proton pumps in the lysosomal
triphosphate.
membrane that acidify the contents,
 Highly plastic, rapidly changing
allowing digestion.
shape, fusing with one another and
 Residual body
dividing, and are moved through
-a small vacuolar remnant containing
the cytoplasm along microtubules.
indigestible material.
 Number of mitochondria is related
 Autophagy
to the cell’s energy needs.
-process of removal of excess or
nonfunctional organelles and other
cytoplasmic structures fuses with a
lysosomes.
 Autophagosomes
-formed after nonfunctional or surplus
organelles become enclosed with
membrane and the resulting structure
fuses with a lysosome.
PEROXISOMES
PROTEASOMES  Spherical organelles enclosed by a
 Small abundant protein complexes single membrane and named for
not associated with membrane, their enzymes producing and
each approximately the size of the degrading hydrogen peroxide.
small ribosomal subunit.
 Oxidases
-oxidize substrates by removing
hydrogen atoms that are transferred to
molecular oxygen (o2), producing H202
 Catalase
-break down H202
CYTOSKELETON
(1) Microtubules
(2) Microfilaments
(3) Intermediate filaments
 MICROTUBULES
 Organized into large arrays called
axonemes in the cytoplasmic
extension called cilia and flagella
 Confers significant rigidity help
maintain cell shape
 Protein subunit of a microtubules is
a heterodimer of a and B tubulin.
 Microtubule Organizing Center
(MTOCs)
-containing tubulin assembkies that act
as nucleating sites for polymerization of
tubulin.
-dominant MTOC in most somatic cells
is the centrosomes, which is organized
around two cylindrical centrioles.
 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)
-composed of actin that allow cellular
motility and most contractile activity in
cells.
-composed of globular G-actin
monomers that assemble in the
presence of K+ and Mg2+ into a double-
stranded helix of filamentous F-actin.
 Intermediate filaments
-class of filaments intermediate in size
between the other and with a diameter
averaging 10nm
 Keratins
-intermediate filaments in all apithelial
cells
-cytokeratin accumulate in the
differentiation process termed
keratinization, which result in an outer
layer of nonloving skin cells that
reduces dehydration.
 Neurofilament
-proteins of three distinct sizes make
heterodimers that form the subunits of
the major intermediate filaments of
neurons.
 Lamins
-family of seven isoforms present in the
cell nucleus, where they form a
structural framework called the nuclear
lamina just inside the nuclear envelope.
INCLUSIONS
 Little or no metabolic activity but
contain accumulated metabolites
or other substances not enclosed
by membrane.
 Fat droplets
-accumulations of lipid molecules
prominent in adipocytes (fat cells),
adrenal cortex cells, liver and other cells.
 Glycogen granules  A highly organized meshwork of
-aggregates of the carbohydrate protein called the nuclear lamina
polymer in which glucose is stored, are stabilizes the nuclear envelope
visible in several cell types, mainly liver  Inner and outer nuclear
cells. membranes are bridged at nuclear
 Lipofuscin pore complexes made up of
-yellowish-brown pigment visualized by proteins called nucleoporins
H&E staining in many cells, specially in
stable nondividing cells
-”wear-and-tear pigment”
 Hemosiderin
-dense brown aggregate of denatured
ferritin proteins with may atoms of
bound iron.
-it occurs in phagocytic cells, especially
macrophages of the liver and spleen,
where it results from phagocytosis of
CHROMATIN
red blood cells.
 A complex of DNA and proteins, is
responsible for the characteristic
The Nucleus
basophilia of the nucleus.
 In nondividing nuclei, in a largely
 Containing the code for all of a
uncoiled state.
cell’s enzymes and other proteins
 Heterochromatin
thus considered the command
-appears as coarse, electron dense
center of the cell
material in the electron microscope and
 Typically the largest structure
as intensely basophilic clumps in the
within a cell
light microscope.
 Nuclear envelope
 Chromatin
 Nucleolus

 Histones
-basic proteins that packaged DNA in
chromatin
 nucleosomes
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE -the smallest units of chromatin
 Forms a selectively permeable structure are macromolecular
barrier between the nuclear and complexes of DNA and histones.
cytoplasmic compartments
 Has two concentric membranes
separated by a narrow (30-
50nm)perinuclear space
 Each long DNA double helix with its
associated proteins is a chromatid;
after DNA replication two
chromatids held together by
complexes of cohesin proteins
make up each chromosome joined
together at a point called the
centromere
MITOSIS
 Period of cell division
 Only cell cycle phase that can be
routinely observed with the light
microscope
 Mitosis produces two diploid cells
that are the same genetically
 Interphase
-long growth period between mitoses

NUCLEOLUS
 Generally spherical, highly
basophilic subdomain of nuclei in
cells, actively making proteins
 Intese basophilia of nucleoli is due
to the presence of densely
concentrated ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
that is transcribed, processed, and
complexed into robosomal subunits
in nucleoli.

The Cell Cycle

 Regular sequence of events that

result in new cells
 Cell cycle has four distinct phases:
 Mitosis and periods termed G1, S,
and G2
 G1
-A period in which cells accumulate the
enzymes and nucleotides required for
DNA replication
 S
-the period devoted promarily to DNA
replication
 G2
-short period of preparation for mitosis
 APOPTOSIS
 Process of cell suicide
 Rabid, highly regulated cellular
activity that shrinks and eliminates
defective and unneeded cells.
 Characterized by controlled
autodigestion, which maintains cell
membrane integrity.
 Small membrane-enclosed
apoptotic bodies, which quickly
undergo phagocytosis by neighbor
cells or cells specialized for debris
removal.
 Cells are the basis structural and
functional units of all multicellular
organism
 Cell can be divided into two major
compartment: the cytoplasm and
the nucleus.

MEISOS
 A specialized process involving two
unique and closely associated cell
division that occurs only in the cells
that will form sperm and egg cells
 Two homologous maternal and
paternal chromosomes physically
align in synapsis and regions are
exchanged during crossing over or
genetic recombination

The Cell Death

 Accidental cell death
 A pathologic process
 It occurs when cells are exposed to
an unfavorable physical or chemical
environment (e.g., hypothermia,
hypoxia, radiation, low pH, cell
trauma) that causes acute cellular
injury and damage to the plasma
 Cell swelling and lysis