Unit II- Society, Human Behavior and Communities-

Sociological Concepts: Social Structure, Social Institutions and Social Groups,

Socialization, Social Control and Social Change-

Social structure-

The term structure refers to some sort of ordered arrangement of parts or components. A musical
composition has a structure; a sentence has a structure etc. In all these we find an ordered
arrangement of different parts. A structure can be called a building only when these parts or
components are arranged in relationship with the other. In the same manner society has its own
structure called social structure. The components or units of social structure are persons. A
person is a human being that occupies position in a social structure. Even though the persons are
subject to change the structure as such maintains its continuity.

Social Structure Definition-

The concept of social structure has been defined in different ways by different thinkers and
sociologists. Herbert Spencer was the first thinker who wrote about structure of a society. He
came up with biological analogies (organic structure and evolution) to define the social structure.

According to Radcliff-Brown social structure is a part of the social structure of all social
relations of person to person. In the study of social structure the concrete reality with which we
are concerned is the set of actually existing relations at a given moment of time that link together
certain human beings.

A more general definition of social structure is that social structure refers to the enduring orderly
and patterned relationships between the elements of a society. According to Raymond Firth it
makes no distinction between the ephemeral and the most enduring elements in social activity
and it makes it almost impossible to distinguish the idea of the structure of society from that of
the totality of the society itself.

According to S.F Nadal structure refers to a definable articulation and ordered arrangement of
parts. It is related to the outer aspect or the framework of society and is totally unconcerned with
the functional aspect of society

According to Ginsberg the study of social structure is concerned with the principal form of
social organization that is types of groups, associations and institutions and the complex of these
that constitute societies.

According to Karl Mannheim social structure refers to the web of interacting social forces from
which have arisen the various modes of observing and thinking.

According to Talcott Parsons, the term social structure applies to the particular arrangement of
the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as the statuses and roles which
each person assumes in the group. Parsons has tried to explain the concept of social structure in
abstract form.

Perspectives on Social Structure-

Levi Straus

Levi-Strauss conceived of social structure as logic behind reality. He insisted that the term social
structure has nothing to do with empirical reality but with models which are built up after it.
While social relations constitute the raw materials out of which the models making up the social
structure are built, the structure itself cannot be reduced to an ensemble of social relations rather
such relations themselves result from such re-existing structures. The structures exhibit the
characteristics of a system and are made up of several elements none of which can undergo
change without effecting changes in all other elements.
Nadel-

Nadel views social structure as reality itself. He regards the role system of any society with its
given coherence as the matrix of the social structure. He outlines two specific advantages of
structural analysis. These are lending a higher degree of comparability to social data and
rendering such data more readily quantifiable.Nadel contends that a particular social structure as
described at a given moment is accurate only for a particular period of time. Structure and
variance are not inherently contradictory rather the former is defined or built up through taking
account of the latter. If variance is unlimited there would be absolute chaos and no order in social
life.

Murdock-

In defining social structure Murdock's principle concern are the ethnographic facts and the
taxonomic classification of societies on the basis of manifest readily discernible characteristics.
The taxonomy established by Murdock depends primarily on varieties of kinship organization.
The taxonomy is based on statistical correlation rather than the functional analysis.

Elements of Social Structure-

Normative system presents the society with the ideals and values. The people attach emotional
importance to these norms. The institutions and associations are inter-related according to these
norms. The individuals perform their roles in accordance with the accepted norms of society.

Position system refers to the statuses and roles of the individuals. The desires, aspirations and
expectations of the individuals are varied, multiple and unlimited. So these can be fulfilled only
if the members of the society are assigned different roles according to their capacities and
capabilities. Actually the proper functioning of social structure depends upon proper assignments
of roles and statues.
The anticipated response system calls upon the individuals to participate in the social system.
His preparation sets the social structure in motion. The successful working of social structure
depends upon the realisation of his duties by the individuals and his efforts to fulfil these duties.

It is object of the goal to be arrived at by the social structure. The whole social structure revolves
around it. The action is the root cause which weaves the web of social relationships and sets the
social structure in motion.

Structuralism-

Structuralism as a school of thought emphasizes the view that society is prior to

individuals. It employs the nature of social interaction as patterned behaviour and uses it
as a tool in all sociological analysis. Claude Levi-Strauss in his analysis of myth used this
method by providing necessary analysis. The elements which are basic to human mind and
universally applicable determine the possible varieties of social structure.

Marxist sociologist Louis Althusser has adopted a structuralist framework in explaining social
phenomena by referring to the structure of mode of production. He criticised Berger and
Luckman in their view that the dialectical processes of human interaction in which meaning
given by individuals when institutionalized becomes social structure. Instead he argued that the
human agency is only the agents of the structure of social relation. It is the social relations which
should form the basis of analysing the social structure.

Anthony Giddens used the term struturation to express mutual dependency of human agency
and social structure. Social structure should be viewed as associated with social action. Social
institutions as organized patterns of social behaviour are proposed as the elements of social
structure by the functionalists.

Karl Marx analysed how social relations are structured to sustain inequalities in the society.
Marx used the concept of structure to denote the distribution of resources. Thus structure is the
symbolic, material and political resources that the actors employ in their interactions and produce
the structure of their social relations. Marx used the concept of dialectics in the interaction
process which in turn tend to change and transform the nature of social relations thereby
changing the social structure.
Formal and Informal Structure-

Social structure can be both formal and informal. In the words of Maclver and Page the factors
that give rise to primary groups in industrial organization are present in all formalized social
structures. Thus in govt agencies, political parties, schools, labour unions the complete
organisational picture includes the formal blue-print arrangements on the one hand and informal
spontaneous grouping on the other.

Types of Social Structure-

Talcott Parsons has described 4 principal types of social structure. His classifications is based
on four social values – universalistic social values, particularistic social values, achieved
social values and ascribed social values. Universalistic social values are those which are found
almost in every society and are applicable to everybody. Particularistic social values are the
features of particular societies and these differ from society to society. When the statuses are
achieved on the basis of efforts it means that such societies attach importance to achieved social
values. When the statuses are hereditary even the society gives importance to ascribed social
statuses.

Universalistic –achievement pattern-This is the combination of the value patterns which

sometimes opposed to the values of a social structure built mostly around
kinship,community,class and race. Under this type of social structure, the choice of goal by the
individual must be in accord with the universalistic values.

Universalistic ascriptions pattern-under this type of social structure the elements of value-
orientation are dominated by the elements of ascription. Therefore in such a social structure
strong emphasis is laid on the status of the individual rather than on his specific achievements.
The emphasis is on what an individual is rather than on what he has done. Status is ascribed to
the group rather than to the individuals. The individual derives his status from his group. In this
type of social structure all resources are mobilized in the interest of the collective ideal.

Particularistic-Achievement Pattern-This type combines achievement values with

particularim.The primary criterion of valued achievement is found not in universalistic terms
such as conformity to a generalized ideal or efficiency but these are focussed on certain points of
reference within the relational system itself or are inherent in the situation.

Particularistic-ascriptive pattern- In this type also the social structure is organized around the
relational reference points notably those of kinship and local community but it differs from the
particularistic achievement type in as much as the relational values are taken as given and
passively adapted to rather than make for an actively organized system. The structure tends to be
traditionalistic and emphasis is laid on its stability.

Social Structure and Role-

In a social structure roles are more important than role occupants. Role occupants in turn divide
themselves into sub-groups. According to Johnson it will be manifestly untrue to say that all the
stability, regularity and recurrence that can be observed in social interaction are due to normative
patterning, roles and sub-groups of various types are the parts of social structure to the extent
that stability, regularity and recurrence in social interaction are due to the social norms that
define roles and obligation of sub-groups.

Sub-groups and roles are closely linked with each other because all those who are required to
perform certain roles have some duties and obligations towards the group to which they belong.
The responsibilities of role occupant are of different types and can be broadly divided into
obligatory and permissive. Each social structure has also quasi-structural aspect. In complex
society there can be standardised or institutionalized norms. Every rigid social structure is bound
to result in social disharmony. In a human society its structure must go on changing.

Social Institutions-

A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around the
preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not define institutions in
the same way, as does the person on the street. Laypersons are likely to use the term "institution"
very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails, and many other things as institutions. According to
Sumner and Keller institution is a vital interest or activity that is surrounded by a cluster of
mores and folkways. Sumner conceived of the institution not only of the concept, idea or interest
but of a institution as well. By structure he meant an apparatus or a group of functionaries. Lester
F Ward regarded an institution as the means for the control and utilization of the social
energy.L.T Hobhouse describe institution as the whole or any part of the established and
recognized apparatus of social life. Robert Maclver regarded institution as established forms or
conditions of procedure characteristic of group activity.

Primary Instituitions-

Sociologists often reserve the term "institution" to describe normative systems that operate in
five basic areas of life, which may be designated as the primary institutions.

(1) In determining Kinship;

(2) in providing for the legitimate use of power;
(3) in regulating the distribution of goods and services;
(4) in transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next; and
(5) in regulating our relation to the supernatural.
In shorthand form, or as concepts, these five basic institutions are called the family, government,
economy, education and religion.
The five primary institutions are found among all human groups. They are not always as highly
elaborated or as distinct from one another but in rudimentary form at last, they exist everywhere.
Their universality indicates that they are deeply rooted in human nature and that they are
essential in the development and maintenance of orders.

The secondary institutions derived from Family would be

The secondary institutions of economics would be-

The secondary institutions of Religion would be-

Sociologists operating in terms of the functionalist model society have provided the clearest
explanation of the functions served by social institutions. Apparently there are certain minimum
tasks that must be performed in all human groups. Unless these tasks are performed adequately,
the group will cease to exist. An analogy may help to make the point. We might hypothesize that
cost accounting department is essential to the operation of a large corporation. A company might
procure a superior product and distribute it then at the price that is assigned to it; the company
will soon go out of business. Perhaps the only way to avoid this is to have a careful accounting of
the cost of each step in the production and distribution process.

An important feature that we find in the growth of institutions is the extension of the power of
the state over the other four primary institutions. The state now exercises more authority by laws
and regulations. The state has taken over the traditional functions of the family like making laws
regulating marriage, divorce, adoption and inheritance. The authority of state has similarly been
extended to economics, to education and to religion. New institutional norms may replace the old
norms but the institution goes on. The modern family has replaced the norms of patriarchal
family yet the family as an institution continues. Sumner and Keller has classified institutions in
nine major categories .He referred to them as pivotal institutional fields and classified them as
follows:
Definitions of Social Institution-

Malinowski defines institution as "a group of people united by common interest, endowed by
material equipment, following rules of their tradition or agreement (charter) and contributing to
the work of culture as a whole."

According to Bertrand "institutions are system of social relationships for meeting various felt
human needs."

Another definition given by Maciver and Page they consider institution as "an established forms
or the condition of a procedure."'

Another person Merrill defines institution as "the interrelated system of norms."

According to another's point of view "It is an interrelated set of norms", or an established

machinery to satisfy needs of human beings.
Following are the Basic Functions of Social Institution-

1. Replacement of members in society

2. Recruiting and guiding new member
3. Production, disbursement and consumption of goods and services
4. Preservation and
5. Awareness and establishing a sense of purpose

We can Classify Institution as-

1. Family
2. Education
3. Religion
4. Economy
5. Politics and Government

Social Groups-

Social groups and organizations comprise a basic part of virtually every arena of modern life.
Thus, in the last 50 years or so, sociologists have taken a special interest in studying these
scientific phenomena from a scientific point of view.

A social group is a collection of people who interact with each other and share similar
characteristics and a sense of unity. A social category is a collection of people who do not
interact but who share similar characteristics.

In contrast, a social aggregate is a collection of people who are in the same place, but who do
not interact or share characteristics.

Psychologists Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif, in a classic experiment in the 1950s, divided a
group of 12‐year‐old white, middle‐class boys at a summer camp into the “Eagles” and the
“Rattlers.” At first, when the boys did not know one another, they formed a common social
category as summer campers. But as time passed and they began to consider themselves to be
either Eagles or Rattlers, these 12‐year‐old boys formed two distinct social groups.

Characteristics of Social Groups-

The basis of grouping may be numerous but the division of population on the basis of age, sex,
income, profession and other gave them various types of social groups. Following are the

1. Given number of Individual two or more

2. Reciprocal Relations exists among the its members
3. These are formed for Common Goals and Objectives
4. Having Sense of unity and solidarity which results loyalty and sympathy
5. A strong sense of awe-feeling which develop cooperation
6. Group Norms and regulations (written or unwritten) must be followed for group
control
7. Similar Behavior to achieve common goals
8. Awareness about its membership to differentiate them from other groups
9. These are dynamic instead static
10. Group Control (direct or indirect control) for members activities

Characteristics of Social Groups-

1. Mutual Awareness-

The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A more aggregate of
individuals cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exist among them.
Mutual attachment, is therefore, regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It forms an
essential feature of a group.

2. One or more Common Interests-

Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. The individuals who form a
group should possess one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for the realization
of common interests that they meet together. Groups always originates, starts and proceed with a
common interests.

3. Sense of Unity-

Each social group requires sense of unity and a feeling of sympathy for the development of a
feeling or sense of belongingness. The members of a social group develop common loyalty or
feeling of sympathy among themselves in all matters because of this sense of unity.

4. We-feeling-

A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves
with the group. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the members belonging
to other groups as outsiders. They cooperate with those who belong to their groups and all of
them protect their interests unitedly. We-feeling generates sympathy, loyalty and fosters
cooperation among members.

5. Similarity of Behaviour-

For the fulfillment of common interest, the members of a group behave in a similar way. Social
group represents collective behaviour. The-modes of behaviour of the members on a group are
more or less similar.

6. Group Norms-

Each and every group has its own ideals and norms and the members are supposed to follow
these. He who deviates from the existing group-norms is severely punished. These norms may be
in the form of customs, folk ways, mores, traditions, laws etc. They may be written or unwritten.
The group exercises some control over its members through the prevailing rules or norms.
Classification of Groups-

Different sociologists have classified groups in different ways. Social groups are not only
innumerable but also diverse. It is not possible to study all the groups. A systematic study of
groups needs a classification. Various thinkers have chosen many criteria or bases for the
classification of social groups such as size, kind of contact, nature of interests, degree of
organisation and degree of permanence etc. Some of these bases have received more attention
than others.

1. Dwight Sanderson has classified groups into three types on the bases of structure such as
involuntary, voluntary and delegate groups. An involuntary group is that to which man has
no choice, which is based on kinship such as the family, tribe or clan. A voluntary group is one
which a man joins of his volition or wishes.

At any time he is free to withdraw his membership from this group. A delegate group is one to
which a man joins as a representative of a number of people either elected or nominated by them.
Parliament or Assembly is a delegate group.

2. P.A. Sorokin, an American sociologist, has divided groups into two major types – the vertical
and the horizontal. The vertical group includes persons of different strata or statuses. But the
horizontal group includes persons of the same status. A nation, for instance, is a vertical group,
while a class represents horizontal grouping.

3. F.H. Giddings classifies groups into genetic and congregate. The genetic group is the
family in which a man is born involuntarily. The congregate group is the voluntary group to
which he joins voluntarily.

4. George Hasen has classified groups into four types on the basis of their relations to other
groups. They are unsocial, pseudo-social, antisocial and pro-social groups. An unsocial
group is one which largely lives to itself and for itself and does not participate in the larger
society of which it is a part. It does not mix-up with other groups and remains aloof from them.

But it never goes against the interests of the larger group. A pseudo-social group participates in
the larger group of which it is a part but mainly for its own gain and not for the greater good. An
antisocial group is one, which acts against the interest of the larger group of which it is a part. A
pro-social group is the reverse of the antisocial group. It works for the larger interest of the
society of which it is a part.

5. C.H. Cooley classified groups on the basis of kind of contact into primary and secondary
groups. In primary group, there is face-to-face, close and intimate relationship among the
members such as in the family. But in a secondary group the relationship among the members
are indirect, impersonal and superficial such as the political party, a city and trade union etc.

6. W.G. Sumner made a division of groups into in-group and out-group. The groups with
which the individual identifies himself are his in-groups such as his family, tribe, college,
occupation etc. All other groups to which he does not belong are his out-groups.

In-group and Out-group-

William Graham Sumner, an American Sociologist in his book “Folkways” made distinction
between in-group and out-group from the individual point of view and it is based on
preferential bonds (ethnocentrism) among the members of the groups. According to Sumner,
“The groups with which the individual identifies himself are his in-groups, his family or tribe or
sex or college or occupation or religion, by virtue of his awareness of likeness or consciousness
of kind”. The individual belongs to a number of groups which are his in-groups; all other groups
to which he does not belong are his out-groups.

In-groupness produces among the members the sense of belonging together which is the core of
the group life. In-group attitudes contain some element of sympathy and a sense of attachment to
the other members of the group. It embodies the collective pronoun ‘we’. The members of the in-
group display cooperation, goodwill, mutual help and respect for one another’s rights.
An out-group, on the other hand, is defined by an individual with reference to his in-group. He
uses the word ‘they’ or ‘other’ with reference to his out-group. Toward the members of out-
group we feel a sense of indifference, avoidance, disgust, hostility, competition or outright
conflict. The relationship of an individual to his out-group is marked by a sense of remoteness or
detachment and sometimes even of hostility.

Socialization-

Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each child born
into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behaviour can be relied
upon. He must acquire the group norms. The society must socialise each member so that his
behaviour will be meaningful in terms of the group norms. In the process of socialisation the
individual learns the reciprocal responses of the society.

Socialisation stands for the development of the human brain, body, attitude, behaviour and so
forth. Socialisation is known as the process of inducting the individual into the social world. The
term socialisation refers to the process of interaction through which the growing individual
learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social group into which he has been born.

According to Lundberg, socialisation consists of the “complex processes of interaction through

which the individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and standard of judgement that are necessary
for his effective participation in social groups and communities”.

Peter Worsley explains socialisation “as the process of “transmission of culture, the process
whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups”.

H.M. Johnson defines socialisation as “learning that enables the learner to perform social roles”.
He further says that it is a “process by which individuals acquire the already existing culture of
groups they come into”.
The heart of socialisation”, to quote kingsley Davis.” is the emergence and gradual development
of the self or ego. It is in terms of the self that personality takes shape and the mind comes to
function”. It is the process by which the newborn individual, as he grows up, acquires the values
of the group and is moulded into a social being.

Features of Socialisation-

Socialisation not only helps in the maintenance and preservation of social values and norms but
it is the process through which values and norms are transmitted from one generation to another
generation.

Features of socialisation may be discussed as under:

1. Inculcates basic discipline:

Socialisation inculcates basic discipline. A person learns to control his impulses. He may show a
disciplined behaviour to gain social approval.

2. Helps to control human behavior-

It helps to control human behaviour. An individual from birth to death undergoes training and
his, behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. In order to maintain the social order, there are
definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of the man’s/life and
man gets adjusted to the society. Through socialisation, society intends to control the behaviour
of its-members unconsciously.

3. Socialisation is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of socialization-

Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialisation are more unanimous in their
ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in
home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialisation of the individual tends to be slower
and ineffective.
4. Socialisation takes place formally and informally-
Formal socialisation takes through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges.
Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their
language, customs, norms and values in the family.

5. Socialisation is continuous process-

Socialisation is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. As
socialisation does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalisation of culture continues
from generation to generation.

Types of Socialisation:
Although socialisation occurs during childhood and adolescence, it also continues in middle and
adult age. Orville F. Brim (Jr) described socialisation as a life-long process. He maintains that
socialisation of adults differ from childhood socialisation. In this context it can be said that there
are various types of socilisation.

1. Primary Socialisation:
Primary socialisation refers to socialisation of the infant in the primary or earliest years of his
life. It is a process by which the infant learns language and cognitive skills, internalises norms
and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping and is moulded into an effective
social participant of that group.

The norms of society become part of the personality of the individual. The child does not have a
sense of wrong and right. By direct and indirect observation and experience, he gradually learns
the norms relating to wrong and right things. The primary socialisation takes place in the family.

2. Secondary Socialisation:
The process can be seen at work outside the immediate family, in the ‘peer group’. The growing
child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also learns lessons in the
school. Hence, socialisation continues beyond and outside the family environment. Secondary
socialisation generally refers to the social training received by the child in institutional or formal
settings and continues throughout the rest of his life.
3. Adult Socialisation:
In the adult socialisation, actors enter roles (for example, becoming an employee, a husband or
wife) for which primary and secondary socialisation may not have prepared them fully. Adult
socialisation teaches people to take on new duties. The aim of adult socialisation is to bring
change in the views of the individual. Adult socialisation is more likely to change overt
behaviour, whereas child socialisation moulds basic values.

4. Anticipatory Socialisation:
Anticipatory socialisation refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the
anticipation of joining that group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a
status or group to which he aspires, he is learning how to act in his new role.

5. Re-socialisation:
Re-Socialisation refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new
ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialisation takes place mostly when a social
role is radically changed. It involves abandonment of one way of life for another which is not
only different from the former but incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal is
rehabilitated, he has to change his role radically.

Theories of Socialization-

Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to
perform as a functioning member of their society and is the most influential learning process one
can experience. Unlike other living species, whose behavior is biologically set, humans need
social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in
the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups, the most fundamental expression of
culture is found at the individual level. This expression can only occur after an individual has
been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended family, and extended social networks.

The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by Charles Horton Cooley in
1902, stating that a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the
perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping themselves based on other people’s
perception, which leads people to reinforce other people’s perspectives on themselves. People
shape themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people’s opinion on
themselves.

There are three main components of the looking-glass self:

 First, we imagine how we must appear to others.

 Second, we imagine the judgment of that appearance.

 Finally, we develop our self through the judgments of others.

In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, “the mind is mental”
because “the human mind is social. ” In other words, the mind’s mental ability is a direct result
of human social interaction. Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within
the context of their socializations

George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social
experience develops an individual’s personality. Mead’s central concept is the self: the part of an
individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self
is not there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience.

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis, a
clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst. In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into
three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. The id is the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like
portion of the psyche that operates on the “pleasure principle” and is the source of basic impulses
and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification. The ego acts according to the reality
principle (i.e., it seeks to please the id’s drive in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term
rather than bringing grief). Finally, the super-ego aims for perfection. It comprises that organized
part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious that includes the
individual’s ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits his or
her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.

he Basic Tenets of Psychoanalysis

The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include the following:

 First, human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational
drives.

 Those drives are largely unconscious.

 Attempts to bring those drives into awareness meet psychological resistance in the form of
defense mechanisms.

 Besides the inherited constitution of personality, one’s development is determined by

events in early childhood.

 Conflicts between conscious view of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can
result in mental disturbances, such as neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, depression etc.

 The liberation from the effects of the unconscious material is achieved through bringing
this material into the consciousness.

Psychoanalysis as Treatment

Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specific type of treatment in which the “analysand” (the
analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from
which the analyst induces the unconscious conflicts. This causes the patient’s symptoms and
character problems, and interprets them for the patient to create insight for resolution of the
problems. The specifics of the analyst’s interventions typically include confronting and
clarifying the patient’s pathological defenses, wishes, and guilt. Through the analysis of
conflicts, including those contributing to resistance and those involving transference onto the
analyst of distorted reactions, psychoanalytic treatment can hypothesize how patients
unconsciously are their own worst enemies: how unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been
stimulated by experience are causing symptoms.
The Id, The Ego, Super-Ego

Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology
and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the
Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. The Oedipus
conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. In his later work,
Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego.
The id is the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on
the “pleasure principle” and is the source of basic impulses and drives; it seeks immediate
pleasure and gratification. The ego acts according to the reality principle (i.e., it seeks to please
the id’s drive in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term rather than bringing grief).
Finally, the super-ego aims for perfection. It comprises that organized part of the personality
structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious, that includes the individual’s ego, ideals, spiritual
goals, and the psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings,
and actions.

Piaget-

Jean Piaget was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known
for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called “genetic epistemology. ” He believed answers for the
epistemological questions at his time could be better addressed by looking at their genetic
components. This led to his experiments with children and adolescents in which he explored the
thinking and logic processes used by children of different ages.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and
development of human intelligence.

Piaget explains the growth of characteristics and types of thinking as the result of four stages of
development. The stages are as follows:
  The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages in cognitive development that
“extends from birth to the acquisition of language. ” In this stage, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating experiences with physical actions–in other
words, infants gain knowledge of the word from the physical actions they perform. The
development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments of this
stage.

 The pre-operational stage is the second stage of cognitive development. It begins around
the end of the second year. During this stage, the child learns to use and to represent
objects by images, words, and drawings. The child is able to form stable concepts, as well
as mental reasoning and magical beliefs.

 The third stage is called the “concrete operational stage” and occurs approximately
between the ages of 7 and 11 years. In this stage, children develop the appropriate use of
logic and are able to think abstractly, make rational judgments about concrete phenomena,
and systematically manipulate symbols related to concrete objects.

 The final stage is known as the “formal operational stage” (adolescence and into
adulthood). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to
abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive
reasoning.

Agencies of Socialization-

The Family:

The family gets the baby first. Hence the process of socialisation begins in the family. A child is
born with some basic abilities that are genetically transmitted through germplasm. These abilities
and capacities are shaped in ways determined by culture.

The Peer Group:

As the child grows older, his contemporaries begin to influence him. He spends most of his spare
hours outside his work and study schedule with his peers in the playground and places outside
his home. The attraction of peers is virtually irresistible to him.

He learns from them and they also learn from him. With the passage of time, the peer group
influence surpasses at of parents significantly. It is not surprising that teen age is the age of
parent-child misunderstanding.

The School:

When the child comes to the school, his formal indoctrination into the culture of the society
begins. He is exposed to a wider background than hitherto known to him. He is formally
introduced to the lore and the learning, the arts and the sciences, the values and the beliefs, the
customs and taboos of the society from a wider circle, his teachers play a very significant role.

The Books:

In literate societies another important agency of socialisation is the printed word in books and
magazines. Our cultural world—experiences and knowledge, values and beliefs, superstitions
and prejudices—is expressed in words.

The Mass Media:

Apart from newspapers which carry printed words, the two other mass media, viz., the radio and
television, exercise tremendous influence in the socialisation process. They “assault our ears”
and communicate directly their messages and these messages also “contain in capsule form the
premises of our culture, its attitudes and ideologies”.

Social Control-
Social control which implies the social intercourse is regulated in accordance with established
and recognised standards, is comprehensive, omnipotent and effective to stimulate order,
discipline and mutuality; and to discourage, and if need be, to punish the deviance.

Generally speaking, social control is nothing but control of the society over individuals. In order
to maintain the organisation and the order of the society, man has to be kept under some sort of
control. This control is necessary in order to have desired behaviour from the individual and
enable him to develop social qualities.

According to E.A. Ross, the individual has deep-rooted sentiments that help him to cooperate
with other fellow members to work for social welfare. These sentiments are sympathy,
sociability and a sense of justice. But these sentiments by themselves are not enough to suppress
the self-seeking impulses of the individual.

Ogburn and Nimkoff have said that social control refers to the patterns of pressure which
society exerts to maintain order and established rules”.

As Gillin and Gillin say, “Social control is the system of measures, suggestions, persuasion,
restrain and coercion by whatever means including physical force by which society brings into
conformity to the approved pattern of behaviour, a subgroup or by which a group moulds into
conformity its members”.

According to Maclver,” Social control is the way in which entire social order coheres and
maintains itself – how it operates as a whole, as a changing equilibrium.”

Need for Social Control-

Social solidarity is essential for the existence of society.No two persons is alike in their na-ture,
ideas, attitudes and interests. Every individual is a separate personality. There are cul-tural
differences among the individuals. As a matter of fact society is a heterogeneous or-ganization. If
every individual is allowed unrestricted freedom to act and behave, it may cre-ate social disorder.
For an orderly social life social control is necessary. The aims of social control are to bring out
conformity, solidarity and continuity of a particular group or society.

Social control is necessary for maintaining order in the society. It is necessary for every soci-ety
or group to maintain its social order and this is possible only when its members behave in
accordance with that social order. An important objective of social control is to maintain the old
order. Although enforcement of the old order in a changing society may hinder so-cial progress,
yet it is necessary to maintain continuity and uniformity in society.

Types or Forms of Social Control:

Different social thinkers have categorised social control in different ways. A few
classifications in regard to types and forms of social control are as follows:

(1) Forms of social control as given by Karl Mannheim:

Karl Mannheim, the famous social thinker, has categorised social control under the
following two heads:

(a)Direct social control,

(b) Indirect social control.

(a) Direct social control:

That type of social control which directly regulates and controls the behaviour of the individual
is called Direct Social Control. This type of control is to be found in family, neighbourhood,
play-groups and other types of primary groups. In these institutions, parents, neighbours,
teachers, classmates etc., keep control over the behaviour of the individuals.

(b) Indirect social control:

In this type of social control distant factors keep control over the behaviour of the individual.
Such a type of control is exercised by secondary groups through customs; traditions, rationalised
behaviour etc. and public opinion are important forms of indirect social control.

(2) Forms of social control as given by Gurvitch:

According to Gurvitch social control is of the following four types:
(a) Organised social control:
In this type of social control, the behaviour of the individual is regulated either through voluntary
means or through democratic ways. This is done through natural ways of social control.

(b) Unorganised social control:

This social control is exercised by values of culture and usages, traditions, fashion, symbol etc.
This is an elastic type of social control and is related to day-to-day life.

(c) Spontaneous social control:

This type of social control is exercised by ideas, rules and regulations, values, norms etc.

(d) More spontaneous social control:

Social control that is exercised by direct social and group experience, such as, aspirations,
decisions, desires, etc., is called more spontaneous social control.

(3) Forms of social control as given by Kimball Young:

Well-known social thinker Kimball Young has categorised social control under the following
two heads:

(a) Positive social control, (b) Negative social control

(a) Positive social control:

In this type of social control positive steps such as reward, the policy of appreciation etc. are
used for keeping the person under control. As a result of these steps man tries to behave in the
best possible manner in the society.

(b) Negative social control:

This is just reverse of the positive form of social control. In this form of social control individual
on the fear of punishment and derecognition by the society is made to behave in conformity with
the values of the society.

(4) Hayes’s classification of social control:

He has classified social control under the following two heads:
(a) Control by sanction, (b) Control by socialisation and education.

(a) Control by sanction:

In this type of social control, those who act according to the values of the’ society are rewarded,
while to those who act against the norms of the society are punished.

(b) Control by socialisation and education:

Through education and socialisation, the child is taught to act according to the norms of the
society.

(5) Forms of social control as given by Lumbey:

The well-known social thinker Lumbey has classified social control under the following two
categories:
(a) Physical force method, (b) Human symbol method

Under the first form, man is made to behave in a particular manner by application of physical
force, but in the second form, he is made to behave in conformity with the values of the society
through language, traditions, customs, religion, rituals, etc.

(6) Forms of social control according to Cooley:

According to Cooley there are two forms of social control:
(a) Conscious. (b) Unconscious.

Through conscious form or social control, society compels an individual to act according to its
accepted objectives. Law, Propaganda, Education are such forms. Through unconscious method,
social institutions such as religion, customs, traditions, etc. keep control over the behaviour of
the individual.
General views about forms of social control:
Generally social control is classified under the following two forms:
(a) Formal social control, (b) Informal social control

(a) Formal social control:

This type of social control is exercised by known and deliberate agencies of social control, such
as law, punishment, army, Constitution etc. Man is forced to accept these forms of social control.
Generally these forms are exercised by secondary groups.

(b) Informal social control:

These agencies of Social Control have grown according to the needs of the society. Folk ways,
mores, customs, social norms etc. fall under this category of social control. Generally primary
institutions exercise this type of social control.

Means of social control-

The means by which individuals are induced or compelled to conform to the usages and life
values of the group are so numerous and varied that a classification is not possible.E.A Ross has
described a number of means that have been used by social groups throughout the hu-man
history to keep individuals under control. The important among them are public opin-ion, law,
custom, religion, morality, personality, folkways and mores. E.C Hayes distinguished between
control by sanctions and control by suggestion and imita-tion. According to him, education is the
most effective means of control and the family is the most significant agency.

Karl Mannheim distinguished between direct means of social control and indirect means of
social control.

Luther L Bernard distinguished between unconscious and conscious means of control.The most
important among the unconscious means of control are custom, tradition and conven-tion. The
conscious means of control are those which have been consciously developed and employed by
leaders of all types.
Some sociologists have classified the social control into informal and formal means.Sympathy,
sociability, resentment, the sense of justice, public opinion, folkways and mores are some of the
informal means of social control. They are very powerful in primary social groups where
interaction is on a personal basis. The effectiveness of the informal means of control though
somewhat lessened in modern large communities wherein con-tacts tend to be impersonal may
still be observed in small villages. In modern times the in-formal methods have given place to
formal ones such as laws, education, coercion and codes.

Social control theory-

Social control theory gained prominence during the 1960s as sociologists sought differing
conceptions of crime. It was during this period that Travis Hirschi put forth his innovative
rendering of control theory, a theory built upon existing concepts of social control. Hirschi’s
social control theory asserts that ties to family, school and other aspects of society serve to
diminish one’s propensity for deviant behaviour. As such, social control theory posits that crime
occurs when such bonds are weakened or are not well established. Control theorists argue that
without such bonds, crime is an inevitable outcome (Lilly et al., 1995).

Parental Attachment-

Social control theory is situated amongst other sociological theories that focus on the role of
social and familial bonds as constraints on offending. It is proposed that for young people, a key
aspect of social control is found within the family, particularly through interactions with and
feelings towards parents. Of the studies that have examined the impact of social control on
delinquency, a large proportion has found a negative relationship between parental attachment
and delinquency. As such, it has been found that the greater the attachment to parents, the lower
the likelihood of involvement in delinquent behaviour.
School Attachment-

In conjunction with parental attachment, adolescent attachment to school is seen by Hirschi’s

social control theory as a fundamental means of establishing social control. A significant number
of studies pertaining to social control theory include measures of the role of school attachment
and school support in the lives of young people.

Self-Control Theory-

The general theory of crime, also known as self-control theory, emerged through the evolution of
social control theory. Just as Hirschi had built upon previous control theories with his
introduction of social control theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi further developed their conception
of the causes of crime and encapsulated it within a new theory: the general theory of crime.

Gottfredson and Hirschi shifted their focus away from an emphasis on the role of social control
as protecting people from participating in criminal activities towards the conception that self-
control, or lack thereof, could be used to explain criminal behaviour. For Gottfredson and
Hisrchi, crime is thought to occur through the following process: “(1) an impulsive personality to
(2) lack of self-control to (3) the withering of social bonds to (4) the opportunity to commit
crime and delinquency to (5) deviant behaviour”

Social Change-

The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and
interrelations. Society is a web of social relationships and hence social change means change in
the system of social relationships. These are understood in terms of social processes and social
interactions and social organization.

Auguste Comte the father of Sociology has posed two problems- the question of social statics
and the question of social dynamics, what is and how it changes. The sociologists not only
outline the structure of the society but also seek to know its causes also.
Evolutionary Theories-

Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually change from simple
beginnings into even more complex forms. Early sociologists beginning with Auguste Comte
believed that human societies evolve in a unilinear way- that is in one line of development.
According to them social change meant progress toward something better.

They saw change as positive and beneficial. To them the evolutionary process implied that
societies would necessarily reach new and higher levels of civilization L.H Morgan believed
that there were three basic stages in the process: savagery, barbarism and civilization.Auguste
Comte's ideas relating to the three stages in the development of human thought and also of
society namely-the theological, the metaphysical and the positive in a way represent the three
basic stages of social change. This evolutionary view of social change was highly influenced by
Charles Darwin's theory of Organic Evolution.

Cyclical theories:
Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilizations attempting to
discover and account for these patterns of growth and decay.Spengler, Toynbee and Sorokin can
be regarded as the champions of this theory.Spengler pointed out that the fate of civilizations was
a matter of destiny. Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar life-cycle,
birth, maturity, old-age and death. After making a study of eight major civilizations including the
west he said that the modern western society is in the last stage i.e. old age. He concluded that
the western societies were entering a period of decay as evidenced by wars, conflicts and social
breakdown that heralded their doom.

Toynbee:
Arnold Toynbee's famous book 'A study of History' (1946) focus on the key concepts of
challenge and response. Every society faces challenges at first, challenges posed by the
environment and later challenges from internal and external enemies. The nature of responses
determines the society's fate. The achievements of a civilization consist of its successful
responses to the challenges; if cannot mount an effective response it dies. He does not believe
that all civilizations will inevitably decay. He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of
decay and growth. But each new civilization is able to learn from the mistakes and to borrow
from cultures of others. It is therefore possible for each new cycle to offer higher level of
achievement.

Sorokin:
Pitirin Sorokin in his book Social and Culture Dynamics - 1938 has offered another explanation
of social change. Instead of viewing civilization into the terms of development and decline he
proposed that they alternate of fluctuate between two cultural extremes: the sensate and the
ideational. The sensate culture stresses those things which can be perceived directly by the
senses. It is practical, hedonistic, sensual and materialistic. Ideational culture emphasizes those
things which can be perceived only by the mind. It is abstract, religious concerned with faith and
ultimate truth. It is the opposite of the sensate culture. Both represent pure types of culture.
Hence no society ever fully conforms to either type. As the culture of a society develops towards
one pure type, it is countered by the opposing cultural force. Cultural development is then
reversed moving towards the opposite type of culture. Too much emphasis on one type of culture
leads to a reaction towards the other. Societies contain both these impulses in varying degrees
and the tension between them creates long-term instability. Between these types lies a third type
'idealistic' culture. This is a desirable blend of other two but no society ever seems to have
achieved it as a stable condition.

Functionalist or Dynamic theories:

In the middle decades of the 20th century a number of American sociologists shifted their
attention from social dynamics to social static or from social change to social stability.Talcott
Parsons stressed the importance of cultural patterns in controlling the stability of a society.
According to him society has the ability to absorb disruptive forces while maintaining overall
stability. Change is not as something that disturbs the social equilibrium but as something that
alters the state of equilibrium so that a qualitatively new equilibrium results. He has stated that
changes may arise from two sources. They may come from outside the society through contact
with other societies.
Factors of Change-

PhysicalEnvironment:

Major changes in the physical environment are very compelling when they happen. The desert
wastes of North Africa were once green and well populated.

Climates change, soil erodes and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is
greatly affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so slowly that they are
largely unnoticed.

Population changes:
A population change is itself a social change but also becomes a casual factor in further social
and cultural changes. When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hospitality pattern
fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures grow more elaborate and
many other changes follow.

Isolation and Contact:

Societies located at world crossroads have always been centers of change. Since most new traits
come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies are likely to change
most rapidly. In ancient times of overland transport, the land bridge connecting Asia, Africa and
Europe was the centre of civilizing change.

Social Structure:
The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle and not immediately apparent ways.
A society which vests great authority in the very old people as classical China did for centuries is
likely to be conservative and stable. According to Ottenberg a society which stresses conformity
and trains the individual to be highly responsive to the group such as the Zunis is less receptive
to the change than a society like the Ileo who are highly individualistic and tolerate considerable
cultural variability.

Attitudes and Values:

To people in developed nations and societies change is normal. Children there are socialized to
anticipate and appreciate change. By contrast the Trobriand Islanders off the coast of New
Guinea had no concept of change and did not even have any words in their language to express
or describe change.

Social Movements Types-

Reform Movements:
Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some specific areas. The reformers
endeavor to change elements of the system for better. For example: Civil Rights Movement,
Women's Liberation Movement, Arya Samaj Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement etc.

Revolutionary Movements:
The revolutionary movements deny that the system will even work. These movements are deeply
dissatisfied with the social order and work for radical change. They advocate replacing the entire
existing structure. Their objective is the reorganization of society in accordance with their own
ideological blueprint. Revolutionary movements generally become violent as they progress.
Example: The Protestant Reformation Movement, the Socialist Movement, the Communist
Revolution of China.

Reactionary or Revivalist Movement:

Some movements are known as reactionary or regressive movements. These aims to reverse the
social change .They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional values, ideologies and
institutional arrangements. They strongly criticize the fast moving changes of the present.

Resistance Movement:
These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society. These can
be directed against social and cultural changes which are already happening in the country.

Utopian Movement:
These are attempts to take the society or a section of it towards a state of perfection. These are
loosely structured collectivities that envision a radically changed and blissful state, either on a
large scale at some time in the future or on a smaller scale in the present. The Utopian ideal and
the means of it are often vague, but many utopian movements have quite specific programmes
for social change. The Hare Krishna Movement of the seventies, the movement towards the
establishment of Ram Rajya and the Sangh Parivar, the Communists and Socialists
pronouncement of a movement towards the classless, casteless society free from all kinds of
exploitation etc.

Peasant Movement:
Peasant movement is defined by Kathleen Gough as an attempt of a group to effect change in the
face of resistance and the peasant are people who are engaged in an agricultural or related
production with primitive means who surrender part of their or its equivalent to landlords or to
agents of change.

Approaches to the study of Society: Functionalist, Conflict/Dialectical , Structuralism and

Post Modernism-

Functionalist Perspective-

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert Spencer, Emile
Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to functionalism, society is a
system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and
social equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions contributes
important functions for society: Family provides a context for reproducing, nurturing, and
socializing children; education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture
to its youth; politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics provides for
the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral
guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.

The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society by focusing on how

each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example, the increase in singleparent
and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of children who are failing in school
because parents have become less available to supervise their children’s homework.

Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968).
Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent
functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest
function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public
elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place for
young adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate-selection functions are not the
intended or commonly recognized functions of education; hence they are latent functions.

Conflict Perspective-

The functionalist perspective views society as composed of different parts working together. In
contrast, the conflict perspective views society as composed of different groups and interest
competing for power and resources. The conflict perspective explains various aspects of our
social world by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social
arrangement. For example, feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a
hierarchical system of organization controlled by men. Although there are many varieties of
feminist theory, most would hold that feminism “demands that existing economic, political, and
social structures be changed”
The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx. Marx
suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies evolve from
agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by concern over
making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the development of
two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of production (e.g., factories,
farms, businesses); and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages. The division of society
into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “havenots”—is beneficial to the owners of
the means of production. The workers, who may earn only subsistence wages, are denied access
to the many resources available to the wealthy owners. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use
their power to control the institutions of society to their advantage.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective-

Both the functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad aspects of
society, such as institutions and large social groups, influence the social world. This level of
sociological analysis is called macro sociology: It looks at the big picture of society and suggests
how social problems are affected at the institutional level.

Micro sociology, another level of sociological analysis, is concerned with the social
psychological dynamics of individuals interacting in small groups. Symbolic interactionism
reflects the micro-sociological perspective, and was largely influenced by the work of early
sociologists and philosophers, such as George Simmel, Charles Cooley, George Herbert
Mead, and Erving Goffman. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes that human behavior is
influenced by definitions and meanings that are created and maintained through symbolic
interaction with others.

Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) emphasized the importance of definitions and meanings in
social behavior and its consequences. He suggested that humans respond to their definition of a
situation rather than to the objective situation itself. Hence Thomas noted that situations that we
define as real become real in their consequences. Symbolic interactionism also suggests that our
identity or sense of self is shaped by social interaction. We develop our self-concept by
observing how others interact with us a label us. By observing how others view us, we see a
reflection ourselves that Cooley calls the “looking glass self.”

Structuralism:

Structuralism as a school of thought emphasizes the view that society is prior to individuals. It
employs the nature of social interaction as patterned behaviour and uses it as a tool in all
sociological analysis. Claude Levi-Strauss in his analysis of myth used this method by
providing necessary analysis. The elements which are basic to human mind and universally
applicable determine the possible varieties of social structure.

Marxist sociologist Louis Althusser has adopted a structuralist framework in explaining social
phenomena by referring to the structure of mode of production. He criticised Berger and
Luckman in their view that the dialectical processes of human interaction in which meaning
given by individuals when institutionalized becomes social structure. Instead he argued that the
human agency is only the agents of the structure of social relation. It is the social relations which
should form the basis of analysing the social structure.

Anthony Giddens used the term struturation to express mutual dependency of human agency
and social structure. Social structure should be viewed as associated with social action. Social
institutions as organized patterns of social behaviour are proposed as the elements of social
structure by the functionalists.

Karl Marx analysed how social relations are structured to sustain inequalities in the society.
Marx used the concept of structure to denote the distribution of resources. Thus structure is the
symbolic, material and political resources that the actors employ in their interactions and produce
the structure of their social relations. Marx used the concept of dialectics in the interaction
process which in turn tend to change and transform the nature of social relations thereby
changing the social structure.

Post Modernism:

Postmodernism is an intellectual movement that became popular in the 1980s, and the ideas
associated with it can be seen as a response to the social changes occurring with the shift from
modernity to postmodernity.

Postmodernists claim that the classic social thinkers took their inspiration from the idea that
history has a shape – it ‘goes somewhere’ and is progressive. Jean Francois Lyotard argues that
this idea has now collapsed and there are no longer any ‘metanarratives’ – overall conceptions of
history or society – that make any sense.

The postmodern world is not destined, as Marx hoped, to be a harmonious socialist one, and thus
Marxism (along with Functionalism and Feminism) and its promise of a better future are no
longer relevant to the more complex and less predictable post-modern age.

Similarly, Lyotard argues that scientific research is no longer done purely to uncover knowledge
to make the world a better place (like the original Enlightenment thinkers thought was the case),
but simply to empower those with the money who fund it. This could explain why we have
nuclear weapons but no cure for cancer.

For Jean Baudrillard (1929 – 2007), the post-modern age is a world where people respond to
media images rather than to real persons or places. Thus when Diana, princes of Wales, died in
1997, there was an enormous outpouring of grief all over the world. But were people mourning a
real person? Princes Diana existed for most people only through the mass media, and her death
was presented like an event in a soap opera rather than an event in real life. Separating out reality
from representation has become impossible when all that exists is ‘hyperreality – the mixing of
the two.

Zygmunt Bauman (1992) offers a helpful distinction between two ways of thinking about the
postmodern. Do we need a sociology of postmodernity, or a postmodern sociology.

Social System and Stratification: Major Social Systems (Family and Religion), Social
Stratification : Marxist, Functionalist and Weberian approach-

Social System:

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in modern sociology. Social
system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of parts. In the arrangement,
every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction. System
signifies, thus, patterned relationship among constituent parts of a structure which is based on
functional relations and which makes these parts active and binds them into reality.

Society is a system of usages, authority and mutuality based on “We” felling and likeness.
Differences within the society are not excluded.

The social system, according to Charles P. Loomis, is composed of the patterned interaction of
visual actors whose’ relation to each other are mutually oriented through the definition of the
mediation of pattern of structured and shared symbols and expectations.
Elements of Social System:

The elements of social system are described as under:

1. Faiths and Knowledge:
The faiths and knowledge brings about the uniformity in the behaviour. They act as controlling
agency of different types of human societies. The faiths or the faith is the result of the prevalent
customs and beliefs. They enjoy the force of the individual are guided towards a particular
direction.

2. Sentiment:
Man does not live by reason alone. Sentiments – filial, social, notional etc. have played immense
role in investing society with continuity. It is directly linked with the culture of the people.

3. End Goal or object:

Man is born social and dependent. He has to meet his requirements and fulfill his obligations.
Man and society exist between needs and satisfactions, end and goal. These determine the nature
of social system. They provided the pathway of progress, and the receding horizons.

4. Ideals and Norms:

The society lays down certain norms and ideals for keeping the social system intact and for
determining the various functions of different units. These norms prescribe the rules and
regulations on the basis of which individuals or persons may acquire their cultural goals and
aims.
5. Status-Role:
Every individual in society is functional. He goes by status-role relation. It may come to the
individual by virtue of his birth, sex, caste, or age. One may achieve it on the basis of service
rendered.

6. Role:
Like the status, society has prescribed different roles to different individuals. Sometimes we find
that there is a role attached to every status. Role is the external expression of the status. While
discharging certain jobs or doing certain things, every individual keeps in his mind his status.
This thing leads to social integration, organization and unity in the social system. In fact statuses
and roles go together. It is not possible to separate them completely from one another.

7. Power:
Conflict is a part of social system, and order is its aim. It is implicit, therefore, that some should
be invested with the power to punish the guilty and reward those who set an example. The
authority exercising power will differ from group to group; while the authority of father may be
supreme in the family, in the state it is that of the ruler.

8. Sanction:
It implies confirmation by the superior in authority, of the acts done be the subordinate or the
imposition of penalty for the infringement of the command. The acts done or not done according
to norms may bring reward and punishment.

Types of Social System:

Parsons presents a classification of four major types in terms of pattern variable. These are
as follows:

1. The Particularistic Ascriptive Type:

According to Parsons, this type of social system tends to be organized around kinship and
sociality. The normative patterns of such a system are traditional and thoroughly dominated by
the elements of ascription. This type of system is mostly represented by preliterate societies in
which needs are limited to biological survival.

2. The Particularistic Achievement Type:

There is a significant role of religious ideas as differentiating element in social life. When these
religious ideas are rationally systematized that possibility of new religious concepts emerge. As a
result of this nature of prophecy and secondly it may depend on non-empirical realm to which
the porphyry is connected.

3. The Universalistic Achievement Type:

When ethical prophecy and non-empirical conceptions are combined, a new set of ethical norms
arise. It is because the traditional order is challenged by the ethical prophet in the name of
supernatural. Such norms are derived from the existing relations of social member; therefore they
are universalistic in nature. Besides, they are related with empirical or non-empirical goals,
therefore they are achievement oriented.

4. The Universalistic Ascription Type:

Under this social type, elements of value orientation are dominated by the elements of ascription.
Therefore emphasis is placed on status of the actor, rather than his performance. In such a
system, actor’s achievements are almost values to a collective goal. Therefore such a system
becomes politicized and aggressive. An authoritarian State example of this types.

Maintenance of Social System:

A social system is maintained by the various mechanisms of social control. These mechanisms
maintain the equilibrium between the various processes of social interaction.

In brief, these mechanisms may be classified in the following categories:

1. Socialization.

2. Social control.
(1) Socialization:
It is process by which an individual is adjusted with the conventional pattern of social behaviour.
A child by birth is neither social nor unsocial. But the process of socialization develops him into
a functioning member of society. He adjusts himself with the social situations conforming with
social norms, values and standards.

(2) Social Control:

Like socialisation, social control is also a system of measures by which society moulds its
members to conform with the approved pattern of social behaviour. According to Parsons, there
are two types of elements which exist in every system. These are integrative and disintegrative
and create obstacles in the advancement of integration.

Functions of Social System:

Social system is a functional arrangement. It would not exist if it were not so. Its functional
character ensures social stability and continuity. The functional character of society, Parsons has
discussed in depth. Other sociologists such as Robert F. Bales too have discussed it.

It is generally agreed that the social system has four primary functional problems to
attend. These are:
1. Adaptation,

2. Goal attainment,

3. Integration,

4. Latent Pattern-Maintenance.

1. Adaptation:
Adaptability of social system to the changing environment is essential. No doubt, a social system
is the result of geographical environment and a long drawn historical process which by necessity
gives it permanence and rigidity. Yet, that should not make it wooden and inelastic. It need be a
flexible and functional phenomenon.
Economy for its maintenance, division of labour for better production of goods and effective
services, and role differentiation for job opportunity is essential. Durkheim in Division of Labour
in society has given great attention to the role of division of labour and role differentiation as
these make possible a higher average degree of skill than would otherwise be possible.

Lack of adaptability, very often has caused the social system to be challenged. It has caused
revolution resulting in the overhauling of the system. The British system, in the nineteenth
century, when the continent was in the inferno of revolution, showed remarkable adaptability. It
responded well to the mounting demands of change. Over the time our system has demonstrated
the excellent sense of adaptability.

2. Goal Attainment:
Goal attainment and adaptability are deeply interconnected. Both contribute to the maintenance
of social order.

3. Integration:
Social system is essentially an integration system. In the general routine of life, it is not the
society but the group or the subgroup in which one feels more involved and interested. Society,
on the whole does not come into one’s calculations. Yet, we know as indicated by Durkheim,
that individual is the product of society. Emotions, sentiments and historical forces are so strong
that one cannot cut oneself from his moorings.

4. Latent Pattern-maintenance:
Pattern maintenance and tension management is the primary function of social system. In
absence of appropriate effort in this direction maintenance and continuity of social order is not
possible. In fact within every social system there is the in built mechanism for the purpose.

Notable theorists-
Talcott Parsons[edit]

Talcott Parsons was the first to formulate a systematic theory of social systems, which he did as a
part of his AGIL paradigm. He defined a social system as only a segment (or a "subsystem") of
what he called action theory. Parsons organized social systems in terms of action units, where
one action executed by an individual is one unit. He defines a social system as a network of
interactions between actors. According to Parsons, social systems rely on a system of language,
and culture must exist in a society in order for it to qualify as a social system. Parsons' work laid
the foundations for the rest of the study of social systems theory and ignited the debate over what
framework social systems should be built around, such as actions, communication, or other
relationships.

Niklas Luhmann:

Niklas Luhmann was a prominent sociologist and social systems theorist who laid the
foundations of modern social system thought. He based his definition of a "social system" on the
mass network of communication between people and defined society itself as an "autopoietic"
system, meaning a self-referential and self-reliant system that is distinct from its environment.
Luhmann considered social systems as belonging to three categories: societal systems,
organizations, and interaction systems. Luhmann considered societal systems, such as religion,
law, art, education, science, etc., to be closed systems consisting of different fields of interaction.
Organizations were defined as a network of decisions which reproduce themselves; his
definition is difficult to apply in terms of finding a real-world example. Finally, interaction
systems are systems that reproduce themselves on the basis of communication rather than
decision making.

Jay Wright Forrester:

Jay Wright Forrester founded the field of system dynamics, which deals with the simulation of
interactions in dynamic systems. In his work on social systems, he discusses the possibilities of
social system dynamics, or modeling social systems using computers with the aim of testing the
possible effects of passing new public policies or laws. In his paper he recognized the difficulty
of producing a reliable computer model system, but argued that an imperfect model was better
than none and simply implementing new policy.

Social Stratification : Marxist, Functionalist and Weberian approach:

Karl Marx:
Karl Marx based his conflict theory on the idea that modern society has only two classes of
people: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The Bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of
production: the factories, businesses, and equipment needed to produce wealth.
The Proletariat are the workers.
According to Marx, the bourgeoisie in capitalist societies exploit workers. The owners pay them
enough to afford food and a place to live, and the workers, who do not realize they are being
exploited, have a false consciousness, or a mistaken sense, that they are well off. They think they
can count on their capitalist bosses to do what was best for them.

Marx foresaw a workers’ revolution. As the rich grew richer, Marx hypothesized that workers
would develop a true class consciousness, or a sense of shared identity based on their common
experience of exploitation by the bourgeoisie. The workers would unite and rise up in a global
revolution. Once the dust settled after the revolution, the workers would then own the means of
production, and the world would become communist. No one stratum would control the access to
wealth. Everything would be owned equally by everyone.

Marx’s vision did not come true. As societies modernized and grew larger, the working classes
became more educated, acquiring specific job skills and achieving the kind of financial well-
being that Marx never thought possible. Instead of increased exploitation, they came under the
protection of unions and labor laws. Skilled factory workers and tradespeople eventually began
to earn salaries that were similar to, or in some instances greater than, their middle-class
counterparts.
Max Weber:
Max Weber took issue with Marx’s seemingly simplistic view of stratification. Weber argued
that owning property, such as factories or equipment, is only part of what determines a person’s
social class. Social class for Weber included power and prestige, in addition to property or
wealth. People who run corporations without owning them still benefit from increased
production and greater profits.

Prestige and Property:

Weber argued that property can bring prestige, since people tend to hold rich people in high
regard. Prestige can also come from other sources, such as athletic or intellectual ability. In those
instances, prestige can lead to property, if people are willing to pay for access to prestige. For
Weber, wealth and prestige are intertwined.

Power and Wealth:

Weber believed that social class is also a result of power, which is merely the ability of an
individual to get his or her way, despite opposition. Wealthy people tend to be more powerful
than poor people, and power can come from an individual’s prestige.

Davis and Moore: The Functionalist Perspective:

Sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore believed that stratification serves an important
function in society. In any society, a number of tasks must be accomplished. Some tasks, such as
cleaning streets or serving coffee in a restaurant, are relatively simple. Other tasks, such as
performing brain surgery or designing skyscrapers, are complicated and require more
intelligence and training than the simple tasks. Those who perform the difficult tasks are
therefore entitled to more power, prestige, and money. Davis and Moore believed that an unequal
distribution of society’s rewards is necessary to encourage people to take on the more
complicated and important work that required many years of training. They believed that the
rewards attached to a particular job reflect its importance to society.
Human Behavior : Normal and Abnormal Behaviour Determinants and Life span
perspective of Human Development, Development Tasks and Hazards during Pre Natal
Period, Infancy, Babyhood, Childhood, Puberty, Adolescence and Adulthood-

Normal and Abnormal Behavior Determinants:

Abnormal behavior is any behavior that deviates from what is considered normal. There are
four general criteria that psychologists use to identify abnormal behavior: violation of social
norms, statistical rarity, personal distress, and maladaptive behavior.

Abnormal behavior may be defined as behavior that is disturbing (socially unacceptable),

distressing, maladaptive (or self‐defeating), and often the result of distorted thoughts
(cognitions).

Several perspectives (models, approaches derived from data) and theories attempt to explain the
causes of abnormal behavior.

The medical perspective.Those who hold a medical perspectivefocus on biological and

physiological factors as causes of abnormal behavior, which is treated as a disease, or mental
illness, and is diagnosed through symptoms and cured through treatment. Hospitalization and
drugs are often preferred methods of treatment rather than psychological investigation. (Recent
research linking biochemical disorders with some abnormal behaviors has provided some
support for this approach.)

The psychodynamic perspective. The psychodynamic perspective, proposed as an alternative

to the medical model, evolved from Freudian psychoanalytic theory, which contends that
psychological disorders are the consequence of anxiety produced by unresolved, unconscious
conflicts. Treatment focuses on identification and resolution of the conflicts.
The behavioral perspective. Those espousing a behavioral perspective contend that abnormal
behavior results from faulty or ineffective learning and conditioning. Treatments are designed to
reshape disordered behavior and, using traditional learning procedures, to teach new, more
appropriate, and more adaptive responses. For example, a behavioral analysis of a case of child
abuse might suggest that a father abuses his children because he learned the abusive behavior
from his father and must now learn more appropriate parenting tactics.

The cognitive perspective. According to the cognitive perspective, people engage in abnormal
behavior because of particular thoughts and behaviors that are often based upon their false
assumptions. Treatments are oriented toward helping the maladjusted individual develop new
thought processes and new values. Therapy is a process of unlearning maladaptive habits and
replacing them with more useful ones.

The social‐cultural perspective. From the social‐cultural perspective, abnormal behavior is

learned within a social context ranging from the family, to the community, to the culture.
Cultural variables, acquired through learning and cognitive processes, are believed to be
important in producing abnormal behavior. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia, for example, are
psychological disorders found mostly in Western cultures, which value the thin female body.

Perspectives

There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While

some psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental health
professionals use elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat
psychological disorders. These perspectives include:

 The psychoanalytic approach: This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund
Freud. The psychoanalytic approach suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from
unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories. While these feelings are outside of
awareness, they are still believed to influence conscious actions. Therapists who take this
approach believe that by analyzing memories, behaviors, thoughts, and even dreams,
people can uncover and deal with some of the feelings that have been leading to
maladaptive behaviors and distress.
  The behavioral approach: This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on
observable behaviors. In behavioral therapy, the focus is on reinforcing positive
behaviors and not reinforcing maladaptive behaviors. The behavioral approach targets
only the behavior itself, not the underlying causes. When dealing with an abnormal
behavior, a behavioral therapist might utilize strategies such as classical conditioning and
operant conditioning to help eliminate unwanted behaviors and teach new behaviors.

 The medical approach: This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological
causes of mental illness, emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders,
which might include genetic inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and
chemical imbalances. Medical treatments are often pharmacological in nature, although
medication is often used in conjunction with some type of psychotherapy.
 The cognitive approach: The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on
how internal thoughts, perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders.
Cognitive treatments typically focus on helping the individual change his or her thoughts
or reactions. Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral
methods in a technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Determinants of abnormal behavior-

 Statistical Rarity.
 Violation of Norms.
 Maladaptive Behavior.
 Personal Distress.
 Attention Biasness.
 Psychological illness.
 Brain Pathology.
 Faulty Genes.
Normal Behaviour:

Normality is a behavior that can be normal for an individual (intrapersonal normality) when it is
consistent with the most common behaviour for that person. Normal is also used to describe
individual behaviour that conforms to the most common behaviour in society (known
as conformity). Definitions of normality vary by person, time, place, and situation – it changes
along with changing societal standards and norms. Normal behavior is often only recognized in
contrast to abnormality. In its simplest form, normality is seen as good while abnormality is seen
as bad. Someone being seen as normal or not normal can have social ramifications, such as
being included, excluded or stigmatized by larger society.

A normal person can work with satisfaction, if it is decent work; and he can relax when he is not
working. He enjoys play. In fact he enjoys himself much of the time, even if he is only talking to
a friend or watching television. But probably the defining quality of a normal person is a kind of
flexibility that allows him to adapt to the different demands and stresses that life imposes upon
him. He can tolerate conflict and frustration and loneliness-to some extent. And he is able to
seize upon life, too. He is successful at work and with people and within his family-to some
extent.

Life span perspective of Human Development-

Lifespan can be defined as the period that extends from conception to death. Thus, lifespan
development is a process that begins at conception and continuous to death. Lifespan
development can therefore be defined as a methodical, intra-individual transformation that is
attributed to progressions corresponding to age. The development advances in a way that
implicates the level of functioning. As a child grows he exhibits transformations that progresses
with time. These may include physical growth, cognitive advancement, and psychological
advancement that may entail emotional and social development.
Physical development may directly refer to the increase in body and organ sizes, signs of ageing
and motor abilities. Cognitive development is mainly concerned with the manner in which a
child thinks or perceives the world. This is brought about by the changes in perception, language
knowledge, memory, and problem solving skills. Psychological development entails
transformations in personal and interpersonal advancements that are concerned with emotional
and social aspects. Emotional development subjects children to certain emotional feelings such
as guilt and pride. Social development is mainly concerned with the manner in which children
interact, share and relate as friends.

These are the main points of life span development.

Plasticity

Plasticity means that the ability to change is not restricted to any period of life but that people of
all ages are able to react and adapt to their environment (Boyd & Bee, 2009). People of any age
are able to learn. They can develop new habits or shed old ones.

Multi-Contextual Development

The multi-contextual view of development comes from the understanding that there are many
overlapping groups in people’s lives. There are as many contexts that changes occur in as there
are groups to which a person belongs. Family, friendships, work relations, neighborhoods and
cultures are a few of the interrelated context in which changes may be viewed (Boyd & Bee,
2009).

Periods of Development and Domains

Scientists divide the periods of development into eight roughly defined categories: prenatal,
infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and
late adulthood (Boyd & Bee, 2009). Scientists also divide the variety of changes into three
categories called domains (Boyd & Bee, 2009).

The Physical Domain

Changes which occur biologically are categorized in the physical domain (Boyd & Bee, 2009). A
thirty year-old man is obviously much taller and heavier than when he was a boy. Over the years
he has grown in size, he has acquired facial hair and his eyesight has slightly diminished to the
point where he now requires glasses. Each of these changes is biological in nature and is part of
the physical domain.

The Mental Domain

Mental functions have changed as well. His memory is not as sharp as it once had been but he
believes that his reasoning skills and his ability to solve problems has shown improvement with
age. Mental functions such as problem solving, and memory are considered part of the cognitive
domain (Boyd & Bee, 2009).

The Social Domain

As a boy I had few friends, most of whom were male Caucasians. As an adult I have a vast
network of friends. A greater amount of racial diversity can be seen among the friendships in my
adult life than there had been in my childhood and there is more of a balance between male and
female relationships.

Development Tasks-

Robert Havighurst emphasized that learning is basic and that it continues throughout life
span. Growth and Development occurs in six stages.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood:

1. Learning to walk.
2. Learning to take solid foods
3. Learning to talk
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
5. Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
6. Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality.
7. Getting ready to read

Middle Childhood:
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
3. Learning to get along with age-mates
4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
8. Achieving personal independence
9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence:

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career
6. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an
ideology
7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1. Selecting a mate
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
3. Learning to live with a marriage partner
4. Starting a family
5. Rearing children
6. Managing a home
7. Getting started in an occupation
8. Taking on civic responsibility
9. Finding a congenial social group

Developmental Tasks of Middle Age

 1. Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
2. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
3. Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
4. Developing adult leisure-time activities
5. Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
6. Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
7. Adjusting to aging parents.

Developmental Tasks of Later Maturity

1. Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

2. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
3. Adjusting to death of a spouse
4. Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
5. Meeting social and civil obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement

Hazards during Pre Natal Period, Infancy, Babyhood, Childhood, Puberty, Adolescence
and Adulthood -

Piaget’s Stages of Development-

Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist who studied children in the early 20th
century. His theory of intellectual or cognitive development, published in 1936, is still used
today in some branches of education and psychology. It focuses on children, from birth through
adolescence, and characterizes different stages of development, including:

 language

 morals
 memory

 reasoning

Piaget made several assumptions about children while developing his theory:

 Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.

 Children learn things on their own without influence from adults or older children.

 Children are motivated to learn by nature. They don’t need rewards as motivation.

There are four stages in all:

 sensorimotor stage

 preoperational stage

 concrete operational stage

 formal operational stage

The stages cover a range of ages from birth to 2 years old to young adulthood.

Piaget’s four stages

Piaget’s stages are age-specific and marked by important characteristics of thought processes.
They also include goals children should achieve as they move through a given stage.

Stage Age Characteristics Goal

Birth to 18–24 Motor activity without use of symbols. Object

Sensorimotor
months old All things learned are based on permanence
 experiences, or trial and error.

Development of language, memory, and

Symbolic
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old imagination. Intelligence is both
thought
egocentric and intuitive.

More logical and methodical

Concrete 7 to 11 years manipulation of symbols. Less Operational
operational old egocentric, and more aware of the thought
outside world and events.

Use of symbols to relate to abstract

Formal Adolescence to concepts. Able to make hypotheses and Abstract
operational adulthood grasp abstract concepts and concepts
relationships.

Sensorimotor

The sensorimotor stage covers children ages birth to 18–24 months old. Characteristics include
motor activity without use of symbols. All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and
error.

The main goal at this stage is establishing an understanding of object permanence — in other
words, knowing that an object still exists even if you can’t see it or it’s hidden.
Preoperational

The preoperational stage can be seen in children ages 2 through 7. Memory and imagination are
developing. Children at this age are egocentric, which means they have difficulty thinking
outside of their own viewpoints.

The main achievement of this stage is being able to attach meaning to objects with language. It’s
thinking about things symbolically. Symbolic thought is a type of thinking where a word or
object is used to represent something other than itself.

Concrete operational

Children are much less egocentric in the concrete operational stage. It falls between the ages of 7
to 11 years old and is marked by more logical and methodical manipulation of symbols.

The main goal at this stage is for a child to start working things out inside their head. This is
called operational thought, and it allows kids to solve problems without physically encountering
things in the real world.

Formal operational

Children 11 years old and older fall into Piaget’s formal operational stage. A milestone of this
period is using symbols to understand abstract concepts. Not only that, but older kids and adults
can also think about multiple variables and come up with hypotheses based on previous
knowledge.

Piaget believed that people of all ages developed intellectually. But he also believed that once a
person reaches the formal operational stage, it’s more about building upon knowledge, not
changing how it’s acquired or understood.
Schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration-

There are a variety of terms Piaget used in his theory to explain cognitive development and how
it’s achieved at different stages.

 Assimilation is using an existing schema and applying it to a new situation or object.

 Accommodation is changing approaches when an existing schema doesn’t work in a

particular situation.

 Equilibration is the driving force that moves all development forward. Piaget didn’t believe
that development progressed steadily. Instead, it moved in leaps and bounds according to
experience.

 Schema is a term he used to represent the building blocks of knowledge. You may think of
schemas as different index cards inside the brain. Each one informs the individual on how to
react to new information or situations.

5 Stages of Human Development by Sigmund Freud-

There are numerous theories on human development, especially the biologically based concepts.
But human development has many facets. It may include emotional, morality, etc. In this article,
I will only be focusing on the personality.

The assumptions of psychosexual stages-

According to Freud, a child is dominated by the id or the pleasure principle. Thus a child always
yearns to get whatever he/she wants but unaware of the possible result of the act. So a child is
preoccupied with the erogenous zone – a body part which is responsible for producing pleasure
through physical stimulation.
Sigmund Freud divided the personality development into five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent,
and genital. What makes these stages controversial is that each stage is, according to Freud,
associated with sexual pleasure.

Oral Stage
This stage of personality development starts from 0 to 1 year old. According to Freud, the
erogenous zone at this point is the mouth. The mouth becomes the source of pleasure. Thus, an
infant satisfies his gratification through eating and sucking.

Anal Stage
According to Freud, an anal stage happens between 1 to 3 years old. The erogenous zone of this
stage is the anus. The child finds pleasure in controlling and releasing the bladder and bowel
movements. If a child learns to control his bodily needs, he will develop the sense of
accomplishment.

Phallic Stage
Phallic stage happens between 3 to 6 years old. The erogenous zone at this stage is the genitals.
This means that the genital is the part of the body that gives pleasure through stimulation. It is in
this stage that children realize the biological difference male and female.

Freud believed that children may develop sexual attraction with their opposite-sex parents. Boys,
for instance, may develop a desire with their mother a tendency called The Oedipus Complex.
In contrast, female children may develop a desire toward their father a tendency called
the Electra Complex.
The Phallic stage is also characterized by penis envy among female children and castration
anxiety among male children. This assumption, however, is hard to prove in scientific studies.

Latent Stage
This stage happens from 6 years old to adolescence. Unlike the previous stages of psychosexual
development, the latent stage is characterized by the temporary cessation of sexual energy. At
this stage, children learn to channel their sexual fantasies to socially productive activities. They
learn to form a friendship and social connectedness.

Genital Stage

The genital stage happens during puberty to death. This stage is characterized by the awakening
of sexual interest in the opposite sex. The libido becomes active once again which result in the
sexual awareness and interest in sex. This stage, however, is the final stage of Freud’s
psychosexual development.

Erickson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development-

KEY POINTS

o Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s

controversial psychosexual theory and modified it into an eight-
stage psychosocial theory of development.

o During each of Erikson’s eight development stages, two conflicting ideas must be
resolved successfully in order for a person to become a confident, contributing
member of society. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

o Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs.

mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority,
identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and
integrity vs. despair.
 o Erikson also expanded upon Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications
of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways
based upon their cultural and survival needs.

TERMS

 autonomy: Self-government; freedom to act or function independently.

 psychosocial: Having both psychological and social aspects.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of

development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based
upon their cultural and survival needs.

 Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs
when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help
their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable
place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings
of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants
are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with
a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

 Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control
their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear
preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A
 toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working
to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a
budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and
dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in
such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity
to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to
low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

 Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children
will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at
this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

 Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with
others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.

 Identity vs. Role Confusion

 In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do
with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which
ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their
“adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of
identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problemsand
other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious
search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they
may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of
their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive
role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

 Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share
our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young
adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others.
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence
may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

 Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation,
often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this
 task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the
world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest
in productivity and self-improvement.

 Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of
failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they
can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at
this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,”
“should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of
bitterness, depression, and despair.

Prenatal Development-

Development happens quickly during the Prenatal Period, which is the time between
conception and birth. This period is generally divided into three stages: the germinal stage, the
embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.

Stage 1: The Germinal Stage-

The two-week period after conception is called the Germinal Stage. Conception occurs when a
sperm cell combines with an egg cell to form a Zygote. About thirty-six hours after conception,
the zygote begins to divide quickly. The resulting ball of cells moves along the mother’s
fallopian tube to the uterus.
Around seven days after conception, the ball of cells starts to become embedded in the wall of
the uterus. This process is called Implantation and takes about a week to complete. If
implantation fails, as is quite common, the pregnancy terminates. One key feature of the
 germinal stage is the formation of a tissue called the Placenta. The placenta has two important
functions:

 Passing oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the embryo or fetus
 Removing waste materials from the embryo or fetus

Stage 2: The Embryonic Stage-

The Embryonic Stage lasts from the end of the germinal stage to two months after conception.
The developing ball of cells is now called an Embryo. In this stage, all the major organs form,
and the embryo becomes very fragile. The biggest dangers are teratogens, which are agents such
as viruses, drugs, or radiation that can cause deformities in an embryo or fetus. At the end of the
embryonic period, the embryo is only about an inch long.

Stage 3: The Fetal Stage-

The last stage of prenatal development is the Fetal Stage, which lasts from two months after
conception until birth. About one month into this stage, the sex organs of the fetus begin to form.
The fetus quickly grows as bones and muscles form, and it begins to move inside the uterus.
Organ systems develop further and start to function. During the last three months, the brain
increases rapidly in size, an insulating layer of fat forms under the skin, and the respiratory and
digestive systems start to work independently.
Fetal Viability-
Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks after conception, the fetus reaches the age of viability,
after which it has some chance of surviving out-side the womb if it is born prematurely. The
chances of a premature baby’s survival increase significantly with each additional week it
remains in the mother’s uterus.

Theories of Personality: Psycho Analytic Theory of Personality, Behavioral theories and

Humanistic theories-
Psycho Analytic Theory of Personality-

Defining Personality

While personality is something that we talk about all the time ("He has such a great personality!"
or "Her personality is perfect for this job!"), you might be surprised to learn that psychologists
do not necessarily agree on a single definition of what exactly constitutes personality.

Personality is broadly described as the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and

behaviors that make a person unique. In plain English, it is what makes you you.

Characteristics of Personality

In order to understand the psychology of personality, it is important to learn some of the key
characteristics of how personality works.

 Personality is organized and consistent. We tend to express certain aspects of our

personality in different situations and our responses are generally stable.
 Although personality is generally stable, it can be influenced by the
environment. For example, while your personality might lead you to be shy in social
situations, an emergency might lead you to take on a more outspoken and take-charge
approach.
 Personality causes behaviors to happen. You react to the people and objects in your
environment based on your personality. From your personal preferences to your choice of
a career, every aspect of your life is affected by your personality.

Key Points

 Sigmund Freud ‘s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the
result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and
superego.

 This “structural theory” of personality places great importance on how conflicts among the
parts of the mind shape behavior and personality. These conflicts are mostly unconscious.
  According to Freud, personality develops during childhood and is critically shaped through
a series of five psychosexual stages, which he called his psychosexual theory of
development.

 During each stage, a child is presented with a conflict between biological drives and social
expectations; successful navigation of these internal conflicts will lead to mastery of each
developmental stage, and ultimately to a fully mature personality.

 Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on
sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

Key Terms

 neurosis: A mental disorder marked by anxiety or fear; less severe than psychosis because
it does not involve detachment from reality (e.g., hallucination).
 psychosexual: Of or relating to both psychological and sexual aspects.
 Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the
result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id,
ego, and superego. This theory, known as Freud’s structural theory of personality, places
great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior
and personality. Dynamic interactions among these fundamental parts of the mind are
thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of development. Over the
last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been met with criticism, in part because
of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

 Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he
proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and
superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find balance among
what each of them “desires,” determines how we behave and approach the world. What
balance we strike in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict
between two overarching behavioral tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-
seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.
 

 Conflict within the mind: According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the
aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

 The Id

 The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification
of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of
conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger eating ice cream, it
would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to
take something belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice
cream.

 The Superego

 The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to what many people
call their ” conscience ” or their “moral compass.” It develops as a child learns what their
culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked past the same stranger, it
would not take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However,
if both your id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to
override your superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you
would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.
 The Ego

 In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic
part of our personality. It is less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly
unconscious. It’s what Freud considered to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the
demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past
the stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between
your id (“I want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take someone
else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While this may mean you
have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make
that sacrifice as part of the compromise– satisfying your desire for ice cream while also
avoiding an unpleasant social situation and potential feelings of shame.

 Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult
personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout
childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and
that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and
depression) and unhealthy behaviors.
 

 The id, ego, and superego: According to Freud’s structural model, the personality is
divided into the id, ego, and superego. On this diagram, the smaller portion above the
water signifies the conscious mind, while the much larger portion below the water
illustrates the unconscious mind.

 Psychosexual Stages of Development

 Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego change
over time as a person grows from child to adult. Specifically, he maintained that these
conflicts progress through a series of five basic stages, each with a different focus: oral,
anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of
development, with each psychosexual stage directly related to a different physical center
of pleasure.
 Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts between their
biological drives (id) and their social and moral conscience (supereg0) because their
biological pleasure-seeking urges focus on different areas of the body (what Freud called
“erogenous zones”). The child’s ability to resolve these internal conflicts determines their
future ability to cope and function as an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to
 become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits; successful resolution
of the stages leads to a healthy adult.

 Criticism of Freud’s Theories

Although Freud’s theories have many advantages that helped to expand our
psychological understanding of personality, they are not without limits.

 Narrow Focus

In his singular emphasis on the structure of the human mind, Freud paid little to no
attention to the impact of environment, sociology, or culture. His theories were highly
focused on pathology and largely ignored “normal,” healthy functioning. He has also
been criticized for his myopic view of human sexuality to the exclusion of other
important factors.

 No Scientific Basis

Many critics point out that Freud’s theories are not supported by any empirical
(experimental) data. In fact, as researchers began to take a more scientific look at his
ideas, they found that several were unable to be supported: in order for a theory to
be scientifically valid, it must be possible to disprove (“falsify”) it with experimental
evidence, and many of Freud’s notions are not falsifiable.

 Misogyny

Feminists and modern critics have been particularly critical of many of Freud’s theories,
pointing out that the assumptions and approaches of psychoanalytic theory are
profoundly patriarchal (male-dominated), anti-feminist, and misogynistic (anti-woman).
Karen Horney, a psychologist who followed Freud, saw the mainstream Freudian
approach as having a foundation of “masculine narcissism.” Feminist Betty Friedan
referred to Freud’s concept of “penis envy” as a purely social bias typical of the Victorian
 era and showed how the concept played a key role in discrediting alternative notions of
femininity in the early to mid-twentieth century.

Behaviorist Theories of Personality-

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea that
all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our actions.

According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable
manner regardless of internal mental states. Basically, only observable behavior should be
considered—cognitions, emotions, and moods are far too subjective.

Strict behaviorists believed that any person can potentially be trained to perform any task,
regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of
their physical capabilities). It only requires the right conditioning.

A Brief History of Behaviorism

Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's classic
paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." It is best summed up by the following quote
from Watson, who is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."

Theories-

There are two major types of conditioning:

 1. Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a
neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral
stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even
without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself. The associated stimulus is now
known as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned
response.
2. Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method
of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that
behavior. When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to
occur again in the future. Responses followed by adverse outcomes, on the other hand,
become less likely to happen again in the future.
3. The fundamental work on trait dimensions conducted by Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and
many others has led to contemporary trait models, the most important and well validated
of which is the Five-Factor (Big Five) Model of Personality. According to this
model, there are five fundamental underlying trait dimensions that are stable across time,
cross-culturally shared, and explain a substantial proportion of behavior.

The Five Factors of the Five-Factor Model of Personality.

Examples of behaviours
Dimension Sample items Description predicted by the trait

“I have a vivid A general appreciation Individuals who are highly

imagination”; “I for art, emotion, open to experience tend to
Openness to
have a rich adventure, unusual have distinctive and
experience
vocabulary”; “I ideas, imagination, unconventional decorations
have excellent curiosity, and variety of in their home. They are also
 The Five Factors of the Five-Factor Model of Personality.

Examples of behaviours
Dimension Sample items Description predicted by the trait

ideas.” experience likely to have books on a

wide variety of topics, a
diverse music collection,
and works of art on display.

“I am always Individuals who are

A tendency to show
prepared”; “I am conscientious have a
self-discipline, act
Conscientiousness exacting in my preference for planned
dutifully, and aim for
work”; “I follow a rather than spontaneous
achievement
schedule.” behaviour.

“I am the life of
the party”; “I feel The tendency to Extraverts enjoy being with
comfortable experience positive people. In groups they like
Extraversion around people”; “I emotions and to seek to talk, assert themselves,
talk to a lot of out stimulation and the and draw attention to
different people at company of others themselves.
parties.”

“I am interested in A tendency to be Agreeable individuals value

Agreeableness people”; “I feel compassionate and getting along with others.
others’ emotions”; cooperative rather than They are generally
 The Five Factors of the Five-Factor Model of Personality.

Examples of behaviours
Dimension Sample items Description predicted by the trait

“I make people suspicious and considerate, friendly,

feel at ease.” antagonistic toward generous, helpful, and
others; reflects willing to compromise their
individual differences interests with those of
in general concern for others.
social harmony

Those who score high in

neuroticism are more likely
The tendency to
to interpret ordinary
“I am not usually experience negative
situations as threatening and
relaxed”; “I get emotions, such as
minor frustrations as
Neuroticism upset easily”; “I anger, anxiety, or
hopelessly difficult. They
am easily depression; sometimes
may have trouble thinking
disturbed” called “emotional
clearly, making decisions,
instability”
and coping effectively with
stress.

The Barnum effect refers to the observation that people tend to believe in descriptions of their
personality that supposedly are descriptive of them but could in fact describe almost anyone. The
Barnum effect helps us understand why many people believe in astrology, horoscopes, fortune-
telling, palm reading, tarot card reading, and even some personality tests (Figure 12.4,
“Horoscope and Palm Reading”). People are likely to accept descriptions of their personality if
they think that they have been written for them, even though they cannot distinguish their own
tarot card or horoscope readings from those of others at better than chance levels (Hines,
2003). Again, people seem to believe in traits more than they should.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA)-

Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn from one another,
via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between
behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.

KEY CONCEPTS-

People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors [1].
“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one
forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human
behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences.

Social Psychology: Social Perception, Attitude formation, Change and Measurement,

Communication and Theories of Collective Behavior-

Social Perception,-

Social perception (or person perception) is the study of how people form impressions of and
make inferences about other people as sovereign personalities. People learn about others' feelings
and emotions by picking up information they gather from physical appearance, verbal,
and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body
position or movement are a few examples of ways people communicate without words. A real-
world example of social perception is understanding that others disagree with what one said
when one sees them roll their eyes. There are four main components of social
perception: observation, attribution, integration, and confirmation.

Perception is a process consisting of two major stages: sensation and interpretation

• Sensation
- Immediate response of our sensory receptors (eyes, ears, mouth, fingers) to basic stimuli like
light, colour, sound, smell, texture
• Perception
Perception is a process consisting of two major stages: sensation and interpretation
• Sensation
- Immediate response of our sensory receptors (eyes, ears, mouth, fingers) to basic stimuli like
light, colour, sound, smell, texture
• Perception

An attitude is a general and lasting positive or negative opinion or feeling about some person,
object, or issue. Attitude formation occurs through either direct experience or the persuasion of
others or the media. Attitudes have three foundations: affect or emotion, behavior, and
cognitions. In addition, evidence suggests that attitudes may develop out of psychological needs
(motivational foundations), social interactions (social foundations), and genetics (biological
foundations), although this last notion is new and controversial.

Emotional Foundations of Attitudes-

A key part of an attitude is the affect or emotion associated with the attitude. At a very basic
level, we know whether we like or dislike something or find an idea pleasant or unpleasant. For
instance, we may say that we know something “in our heart” or have a “gut feeling.” In such
cases our attitudes have been formed though our emotions rather than through logic or thinking.
This can happen through (a) sensory reactions, (b) values, (c) operant/instrumental conditioning,
(d) classical conditioning, (e) semantic generalization, (f) evaluative conditioning, or (g) mere
exposure.
Components of Attitudes:
Attitudes comprise of three basic components: emotional, informational and behavioural.

These three components are described below:

1. Informational or Cognitive Component:
The informational component consists of beliefs, values, ideas and other information a person
has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this information is empirically correct
or real.

2. Emotional or Affective Component:

The informational component sets the stage for the more critical part of an attitude, its affective
component. The emotional components involve the person’s feeling or affect-positive, neutral or
negative-about an object. This component can be explained by this statement.” I like this job
because the future prospects in this company are very good”.

3. Behavioural Component:
The behavioural component consists of the tendency of a person to behave in a particular manner
towards an object. For example, the concerned individual in the above case may decide to take
up the job because of good future prospects.

Communication and Theories of Collective Behavior-

Communication is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to another through
the use of mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules. The main steps inherent to all
communication are: The formation of communicative motivation or reason, Message,
composition.
Collective Behaviour:

Collective behaviour has been generally applied to these events and refers to group behaviour
which originates spontaneously, is entirely unorganized, fairly unpredictable and planless in
course of development, and which depends on interstimulation among participants. Examples of
collective behaviour include panics, revolutions, riots, lynching, manias, crazes, and fads.

Traditional approaches to the study of collective behaviour have emphasized the importance of
emotion, suggestibility and irrationality in the understanding of collective episodes.

Types and Examples of Collective Behaviour

The term collective behaviour has been applied to a broad range of group activities ranging from
a rather spontaneous and short lived actions of a crowd to the more organized, structured and
long-term experiences of a major social movement.

The Crowd-

We attend the theatre and game events with a large number of people. We join the political
demonstration to change the direction of domestic and foreign policy. Each of these actions
could be viewed as crowd behaviour. Crowd refers to a highly diverse conditions of human
assemblage: audience, mob, rally and panic all fall within the definition of crowd.

Communication in the Crowd: Rumours-

Most analysts of the crowd behaviour argue that the dispersal of information through rumours is
one of the most important and significant processes underlying the whole phenomenon. When a
mass of individuals joins together in a common course of action, such as riot, panic, or lynching,
they must usually develop something approximating a common definition of the situation. The
development of this common definition often occurs through the rumour-dissemination process.

The Role of Leadership in Crowd-

The acceleration of activity in many collective behaviours is attributed to the actions of the
leader. This emergent leadership acts first what the others will do subsequently. This leadership
is emergent and is not selected according to the traditional practice. The leadership emerges out
of the course of group interaction and often disappears back into the crowd after the action has
run its course.

Panic as a Type of Collective Behaviour-

Panics tend to emerge from crowd situation such as fire in a cinema hall, hotel etc., but in some
situations it emerges inspite of physical and psychological distance of the people involved in the
panic. For example, economic panic can occur among persons who are widely dispersed if they
come to apply a similar set of definitions to a common situation.

Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Collective Behaviour-

The major theoretical orientations of collective behaviour have been summarized under the
headings of contagion, convergence, emergent norms theories, and sociological theory of
Smelser.

Contagion Theory-

Theories of collective behaviour based on contagion “explain collective on the basis of some
process whereby moods, attitudes, and behaviours are communicated rapidly and accepted
uncritically”. Contagion theory grows out of the classic work of LeBon (1896) who sought to
understand how groups of individuals could come to present characteristics that were both
different and unpredictable from the characteristics of the individuals composing the group. His
explanation came to be referred to as the “law of the mental unity of crowd”.

Convergence Theory-
According to contagion theory, the individual in a crown situation loses himself/ herself to the
emotions of the crowd and does something that could not be predicted on the basis of individual
characteristics. Convergence theory, on the other hand, argues that participants, particularly in
violent collective episodes, were already predisposed to engage in such actions — the crowd
simply offers them the excuse. Thus, collective behaviour is explained on the basis of
simultaneous presence of a number of people who share the same predispositions, which are
activated by the event or object toward which their common attention is directed.

According to convergence theory, the presence of the crowd is not the casual factor n collective
outburst. Rather, it simply provides an excuse for people to do what they were already
predisposed to do anyway. Allport argues, nothing new is added by the crowd situation “except
an intensification of the feeling already present, and the possibility of concerted action”.

Emergent-Norm Theory-

The emergent-norm approach as initially developed by Turner and Killian (1957) argues that
observers of collective-behaviour episodes have tended to get so caught up i the emotion of the
situation that they fail to make important observations of what actually is happening. Thus, they
fail to notice the definitional process that is often securing.

Smelser’s Valued-Added Theory

Smelser combines ideas from economic with the work of sociologists in developing “value-
added” theory. Smelser’s theory seeks to provide answers to two basic questions: (i) what are the
factors that determine whether or not a collective-behaviour episode will occur? and (ii) what
determines whether one type (for example, panic as opposed to a riot) rather then another will
occur? Value-added notion implies that the development of a collective-behaviour episode,
involves a process and that each stage in that process adds its value to or influences in an
important way the final outcome. More specifically, he sees six stages as necessary before
collective actions of the nature discussed above will occur. These six stages occur in sequence,
and ail are necessary, otherwise the developing episode will not occur, these stages include:
– Structural Conduciveness: The concept of structural conduciveness implies conditions that
are permissive of a particular sort of collective behaviour. That is, general conditions in a given
society are such that they would enable or allow a particular form of collective behaviour.

– Structural Strain: More specifically, structural strain refers to certain aspects of a system
such as economic competition, unequal distribution of wealth, and sense of economic
deprivation.

– The Growth and Spread of a Generalized Belief: The third phase involves the development
among the potential participants of a generalized belief regarding the causes for the strain that
exists and some means by which it may be eliminated.

Type of Communities: Rural ,Urban, Tribal and Virtual Communities and various
Vulnerable Groups/ sections viz. Women , Child , Aged, Dalits etc; Caste and Class – Their
Characteristics-

Rural community-

A rural community is set outside of the city and towns. Rural communities are often farm lands.
However, a rural community can also be woodland forests, plains, deserts, and prairies. There
are few buildings, businesses, and people in rural communities. In these communities people live
far apart from one another. Rural communities are the farthest from urban communities or the
city.

Characteristics Rural Community-

Rural community is an area which is under development and not civilized, based on geographical
conditions. The characteristics of rural community are following:
 1. Rural area is sparsely populated because many people leaves rural areas and settles in
the urban areas for more facilities.
2. These society has homogeneity. in its profession that is their only source of earning is
agriculture and this is transmitted from generation to generation.
3. There is homogeneity in dress, language and customs. It means all these remain same
because their culture is same they belong to the same area.
4. These areas have got slow means of communication.
5. Rural areas have very slow rate of change because of lack of education and modern
technology.
6. Areas have got simple culture transmitted from generation to generation.
7. Rural areas have got informal social life that is they spent their life in a. simple way.
8. Rural communities have got strong relationships and interactions of the people. It
means that they help each other in distress and shares the happiness.
9. In such areas there is less rate of pollution because there are no factories and mills and
the number of automobiles is less.
10. In such areas people shows great hospitality to their guests and treat them as a member
of a family.

Urban community-

Urban community is something which an individual thought as, an area with high density of
population, an area with the availability of basic requirements, an area of good resources, the
area has lots of opportunity of employment and such an area which can be considered as life-
giving for luxurious desires of human or individual. The word urban community has many
meanings, the term ‘community’, only, denotes two conditions:

 Physical condition
 Social condition

Characteristics Urban Community-

Urban community is an area which is developed and civilized, based on geographical conditions.
The characteristics of urban community are following:

1. Urban society is thickly populated because many people comes from rural areas and
settles down here for better facilities of life.
2. This society has homogeneity in profession it means that there are many professions
through which people can earn.
3. In urban areas there is difference in dress, language and customs because there are a
variety of people having different backgrounds.
4. have got fast means of communication that is they Gets aware of what is happening
around the world rapidly.
5. The areas have got fast rate of change because of education and modern technology.
6. These areas have got complex culture because of mixing of other cultures in it.
7. Urban areas have got formal social life.
8. Urban areas have got weak interactions and ties on the basis of their complex.
9. In these areas there is high rate of pollution because of factories and automobiles.
10. In urban areas people are not much gracious to their guests because of their busy life.

Tribal Societies-

Tribal societies were absolutely different from those which existed in big cities. They did not follow
the social rules and rituals, prescribed by the Brahmanas because they divided societies into
numerous unequal classes. These societies were known as tribes. There was a unique bond of
kinship among the members of each tribe.

Their main source of livelihood was agriculture. However, hunter-gatherers or herders were also
there. Some tribes were nomadic and kept on moving from one place to another. Many large tribes
lived in forest, hills, deserts, and places difficult to reach.

T.B Naik has given the following features of tribes in Indian context :

 A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the community.

 It should be economically backward (i.e. primitive means of exploiting natural resources,
tribal economy should be at an underdeveloped stage and it should have multifarious
economic pursuits).
 There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its people.
 They should have a common dialect.
 Tribes should be politically organized and community panchayat should be influential.
 A tribe should have customary laws.

Virtual Communities-

A virtual community is a social network of individuals who interact through specific social
media, potentially crossing geographical and political boundaries in order to pursue mutual
interests or goals. Some of the most pervasive virtual communities are online
communities operating under social networking services.

Virtual community, a group of people, who may or may not meet one another face to face, who
exchange words and ideas through the mediation of digital networks.
Howard Rheingold discussed virtual communities in his book, The Virtual Community,
published in 1993. The book's discussion ranges from Rheingold's adventures on The
WELL, computer-mediated communication and social groups and information science.
Technologies cited include Usenet, MUDs (Multi-User Dungeon) and their
derivatives MUSHes and MOOs, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), chat rooms and electronic mailing
lists. Rheingold also points out the potential benefits for personal psychological well-being, as
well as for society at large, of belonging to a virtual community.

Various Vulnerable Groups/ sections viz. Women , Child , Aged, Dalits etc; Caste and
Class – Their Characteristics-

Women-

In India, members of gender, caste, class, and ethnic identity experience structural discrimination
that impact their health and access to healthcare. Women face double discrimination being
members of specific caste, class or ethnic group apart from experiencing gendered
vulnerabilities. Women have low status as compared to men in Indian society.

They have little control on the resources and on important decisions related to their lives. In
India, early marriage and childbearing affects women’s health adversely.

Women face violence and it has an impact on their health. During infancy and growing years a
girl child faces different forms of violence like infanticide, neglect of nutrition needs, education
and healthcare. As adults they face violence due to unwanted pregnancies, domestic violence,
sexual abuse at the workplace and sexual violence including marital rape and honor killings. The
experience of violence and its impact on health.

Dalits-

The term Dalit means ‘oppressed', ‘broken' or ‘crushed' to the extent of losing original identity.
However, this name has been adopted by the people otherwise referred to as Harijans,
untouchables, and has come to symbolize for them a movement for change and for the
eradication of the centuries-old oppression under the caste system.

The constitutionally guaranteed affirmative action policies have had some positive impact in
increasing the representation of the Dalit in educational institutions, governmental jobs and
elected position. Notwithstanding this improvement, Dalit continue to remain the most
underprivileged class of the India society: the stigma and unacceptability of Dalits in India
society remains evident to this day. Dalit continue to be discriminated against. They are
marginalised and socially ostracised.

Scheduled Caste-

Traditionally, caste relations were based on the hierarchy of occupations where work related to
leather, cleaning dead cattle from village grounds, work related to funeral ceremonies, etc were
placed at the bottom. People or castes who were performing the task of eliminating the polluted
elements from society were considered ‘untouchables’ vis-à-vis the Brahmins who were highest
in the order based on the purity-impurity principle. Structurally the lower castes were
economically dependent on the higher castes for existence. The Scheduled Caste (lower castes)
remained economically dependent, politically powerless and culturally subjugated to the upper
caste. This impacted their overall lifestyle and access to food, education and health.

Scheduled Tribes-

The Scheduled Tribes like the Scheduled Castes face structural discrimination within the Indian
society. Unlike the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled Tribes are a product of marginalization
based on ethnicity. In India, the Scheduled Tribes population is around 84.3 million and is
considered to be socially and economically disadvantaged. Their percentages in the population
and numbers however vary from State to State. They are mainly landless with little control over
resources such as land, forest and water. They constitute a large proportion of agricultural
labourers, casual labourers, plantation labourers, industrial labourers etc.

Vulnerability of Children and Aged-

Children and the elderly population face different kind of vulnerability. Mortality and morbidity
among children are caused and compounded by poverty, their sex and caste position in society.
All these have consequences on their nutrition intake, access to healthcare, environment and
education. These factors directly impacts food security, education of parents and their access to
correct health information and access to health care facilities. Malnutrition and chronic hunger
are the important causes of death among children from poor families. Diarrhoea, acute
respiratory diseases, malaria and measles are some of the main causes of death among children,
most of which are either preventable or treatable with low-cost interventions. In India, children’s
vulnerabilities and exposure to violations of their protection rights remain spread and multiple in
nature. The manifestations of these violations are various, ranging from child labour, child
trafficking, to commercial sexual exploitation and many other forms of violence and abuse

In India, children’s vulnerabilities and exposure to violations of their protection rights remain
spread and multiple in nature. The manifestations of these violations are various, ranging from
child labour, child trafficking, to commercial sexual exploitation and many other forms of
violence and abuse.

Infant morality is higher among the rural population (Rural-62, Urban 42 per one thousand live
births in the last five years, National Family Health Survey 3, Fact Sheets). The vaccination
coverage is very poor among children who live in rural India. Vaccination coverage among
children between 12-23 months who have received the recommended vaccines is only 39 per
cent in rural India as compared to 58 per cent in urban India (National Family Health Survey- 3,
Fact sheets).

Those children working in the brick kilns, stone quarries, mines, carpet and zari industry suffer
from occupation related diseases. In India, however there is a huge gap in the industry-specific
and exposure-specific epidemiological evidence. Most of the studies are small-scale and
community-based studies. There is a large proportion of children in India who are living with
HIV/AIDS. The most common sources of infection among children is the Mother-to-Child
Transmission (MCTC), sexual abuse, blood transfusion, unsterilised syringes, including
injectable drug use (NACO,2006).

Caste and Class – Their Characteristics-

Class System-

It is a system of stratification of society on the basis of education, property, business/work

etc. Karl Max - 'Man is a class animal' i.e. his status age, education etc are not same in the
society.

Common Basis For Division Of Class-

o Property – capitalist & the poor – the haves & the have nots.
o Education - Illiterate & literate
o Business or Occupation - farmers, clerk officers, industrialists etc.

In general, class consciousness is a must in the class system. There must be the we feeling.
Definition Of Class

P.Gisbert - "A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society
which permanently determines their relation to other group – feeling of superiority &
 inferiorities. The relative position of the class in the social scale arises from the degree of
prestige attached to the status.
Mac Iver & Page - "A social class is any portion of community marked off the from the rest by
social status 'Ongburn & Nimk off. A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially
the same social status in a given society." i.e. a class consciousness.

Max weber – held that "classes are aggregate of individuals who have the same opportunities of
acquiring goods. The same exhibited standard of lining.

Hoebal defines "A social class is a group within a society, whose members hold a no. of
distinctive status in common & who trough the operation of roles associated with these status,
develop are awareness of the life interest as against the unlike trait & interest of other groups”.

Characteristics of class system:

1. Class system is based on occupation, wealth, education, age, sex

2. Hierarchy of status group. In general there are 3 class – upper middle & tower. Status, prestige &
role is attached. Upper class are less in no in comparison to the other two whereas their status &
prestige is most. This is like a pyramid. Karl max (Rich & poor) preliterate &
3. Feeling of superiority & inferiority. In these 3 classes there are such feelings the upper class
people feel they are superior to the other two whereas the lower class feels it is inferior to the
upper class.
4. Class consciousness – wherever a class is formed this feeling a consciousness is a must. There
should be feeling of in group i.e. I belong class conflict is due to this the people of the preliterate
class feel the upper class exploits them their they unite revolt. The behavior action is determined
by this class consciousness.
5. Sub-classes, class is divided into different groups. Similar to caste system, the class system is
divided.
6. Class system is an open system.
7. There's social restriction in this too. In general there is endogamy in a class. To maintain their
status & position they mix among themselves & it is seldom that marriage between upper &
lower class is wished. Distinction between Caste & class.

Caste System in India:

Birth determines the caste. Mostly developed in ancient times but is still present in India. It is a
particular characteristic of Indian society & without understanding the caste system Indian
Society is not fully understood. The word caste comes from 'Casta' a portugese word & it means
difference in birth a race. It (syst.) is based on 'Varna system ? means colour syst. They are
mainly Four Brahmin, Kshastriyas, Vaishya & Sudra. But of course these have many sub-castes

Analog - marriage in the same caste and pratilog marriage but low & high caste Analog – home
of any & pratilog – hyper gamy.

Definition of Caste System:

According to Mazumdar & Madan – 'Caste is a closed class' i.e. class refers to people based on
property, business, occupation i.e. one can't change his own caste system by can change the class
system & can be a member of many classes at the same time. You belong to a caste by birth &
can't change it later & one has is follow the set rules & regulations & gets punishment on their
violation & one can even be thrown out of his caste.

The development of 4 castes in India took place from the Varnas. Varna was not strictly based
on birth & one could change his Varna. It was based on "Karma theory" Parashurama became
kshatriya by karma from a Brahmin Vishwamitra was a Kshatriya & became Brahmin. This is
not allowed in caste system.

According to Herbert Kisley – "Class is a collection of families or group of families bearing a

common name which usually denotes or is associated with specific occupation, claiming descent
from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same heredity callings &
regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogenous
communities."
 According to Charles Coole – "When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it a
caste."

Ketekar – in his book "History of caste in India' –'Caste is a social group having two
characteristics (a) membership is confined to those who are born of members & includes all
persons no born (b) the members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the
group."

E. Blunt - "Caste is an endogamous group bearing a common name, membership of which is

hereditary, imposing on its members certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either
following a common traditional occupation a claiming a common origin & generally regarded as
forming a single homogenous community.

Characteristics of the Caste System-

1. Based on birth, or birth is the determinant factor of caste system. Once born in a caste he has to
remain the same. Status, position prestige is fixed according to his caste. i.e. A scribed. The
castes are divided into sub-caste.
2. Endogamy & exogamy – In a caste syst. There is restriction on marriage. Westermarck-
"Restriction on marriage Endogamy & Exogamy are the essence of the caste system. "Endogamy
their one's own caste or sub-caste. Exogamy –same caste but not same clean i.e. Gotra.
3. Social Hierarchy is found in caste syst. Brahmin is high & sudra have the inferior position &
prestige. Prof. Bhurey – Sanskritisation in this the lower caste people can initiate the upper caste.
De-Sanskritisation – Upper caste can initiate the lower caste.
4. Occupational restriction & hereditary occupation – your occupation is fixed by your caste. A
black smith son will always be a black smith.
5. Economic disparity – The higher caste people are generally economically better off & the lower
caste people work harder & yet they get little benefit i.e. they are poorer.