Unit V- Research in Social Work: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches-

Section A: Quantitative Research-

Basics of Social Science Research : Meaning of Research, Social Science and

Social Work Research : Meaning, Nature and Scope.

Meaning of Research-

Research is defined as a careful consideration of study regarding a particular

concern or a problem using scientific methods. According to the American
sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves
inductive and deductive methods.”

Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data;

documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines.

Research is conducted to evaluate the validity of a hypothesis or an interpretive

framework; to assemble a body of substantive knowledge and findings for sharing
them in appropriate manners; and to generate questions for further inquiries.

Social Science and Social Work Research-

Meaning-

Social Science research is fueled by the desire to find out what makes people tick.
There are several diverse fields that comprise the Social Sciences including
anthropology, economics, sociology and psychology.

Social scientists use a range of methods in order to examine the phenomena that
relates to their field, and the different methods of carrying out social science
research often form the foundation for research in other linked disciplines as well,
such as political science, market research and media studies. Let’s have a look at
the variety of different methods and see how they can be best applied.

There are two broad primary categories that comprise social science research.
These are the Quantitative and Qualitative Design Methods.

The methods used in the Quantitative Design category most often rely on statistical
analysis such as the analysis of numerical data to establish a hypothesis that is
provable by mathematical or statistical means. Experiments use a standard format
to generate a hypothesis, provable by mathematical and statistical means.

Methods used in the Qualitative Design rely on direct observation or

communication with the participants or the analysis of words, objects or artifacts.
These are methods to study the behavior and habits of the participants.

In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods
to solve problems that social workers confront in the practice of social work. It
provides information that can be taken into consideration by social workers prior to
making decisions, that affect their clients, programmes or agencies such as use of
alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of
programme/client/objectives and so forth.

Social work research may be defined as systematic investigation into the problems
in the field of social work. The study of concepts, principles, theories underlying
social work methods and skills are the major areas of social work research.
It involves the study of the relationship of social workers with their clients;
individuals, groups or communities on various levels of interaction or therapy as
well as their natural relationships and functioning within the organizational
structure of social agencies.

Nature of Social Science-

The real nature of this discipline can be well understood by analyzing the above
definitions.

1. A unique combination of various disciplines.

2. A study of human relationships.
3. A study of man’s development through ages.
4. A realistic course of study.
5. It forms an important part of the core-curriculum.
6. It includes commitment to action.
7. Aims at preparing the learner for wholesome social living.

Scope of social science-

The social sciences have a wide scope when it comes to the fields of study and the
different subcategories they include. To name a few, the social sciences include
cultural anthropology, economics, political science, sociology, criminology and
psychology. When a person refers to a science or study’s scope, they are talking
about what someone can say and do in their field.

For example, biology is not one of the social sciences, so no matter how intelligent
a sociologist may be, they are not a reliable source of medical advice. Basically,
any science that focuses on the actions and interactions of people is a social
science. Because the social sciences deal with human behavior, some people
consider these sciences to be more of a discipline. The scope of these sciences
focuses on the observation of human behavior more than experimentation. Ethical
and moral aspects to the social sciences prevent radical experiments in these field.
Anything that has to do with human behavior and understanding falls under the
scope of the social sciences. The scope of the social sciences also includes the
collective knowledge of fields such as social work and welfare, archaeology and
linguistics. Someone always already knows from experience what the social
sciences seek to prove and explain.

 Study of human relation

 Study of man-made institutions
 Society related study
 Study of past based incidents
 Development of citizen related traits
 Study of natural Science and development
 Study of relations based o internationalism

Nature of Social Work Research-

Man has always been interested in the facts and events that have been taking
place around him. He has been exploring different sources of evidence
concerning the facts and events to acquire reliable knowledge about the various
aspects of human experience. However, it was observed that personal bias
influenced the selection of sources of evidences and that care was not exercised
to examine the authenticity of the evidence provided by these sources. The result
was inconsistency in the explanation of the same facts and events time and again.
Hence, to acquire reliable knowledge, scientists, thinkers and philosophers have
used various methods (Lal Das, 2000).

Among the various methods, the method of science is perhaps the most
commonly used method of knowing or fixing beliefs. This is because more
dependable knowledge is attained through science as it ultimately appeals and
evidence and propositions are subjected to empirical tests.

The method of science has one characteristic that no other method of attaining
knowledge has – objectivity. There is a well-conceived self-control mechanism
all along the way to the scientific and conclusions but it also keeps the scientist
away from his personal beliefs, perceptions, biases, values, attitudes and
emotions. Thus the approach helps the scientist to attain objectivity.knowledge.
This mechanism is so designed that it not only controls and verifies the
scientist’s activities

Scope of Social Work Research-

Social work profession has a scientific base, which consists of a special body of
knowledge; tested knowledge, hypothetical knowledge and assumptive
knowledge. Assumptive knowledge requires transformation into hypothetical
knowledge, which in turn needs transformation into tested knowledge. Social
work research has significant role in transforming the hypothetical and
assumptive knowledge to tested knowledge (Khinduka,1965).

Not all concepts or theories that are used by professional social workers have
been tested and validated. Concerted efforts through social work research are
very much required to conceptually articulate and validate the concepts and
theories, which will in turn strengthen the scientific base of professional social
work.

The areas of social work research may be broadly categorized as follows:

1) Studies to establish, identify and measure the need for service.

2) To measure the services offered as they relate to needs.

3) To test, gauge and evaluate results of social work intervention.

4) To list the efficacy of specific techniques of offering services.

5) Studies in methodology of social work.

Social work is a diverse profession, possible broad research areas could be:

i) Community Development

ii) Community Health (Including Mental Health) 12 Social Work Intervention

with Communities and Institutions
 iii) Child Welfare iv) Women Welfare v) Youth Welfare

vi) Aged Welfare

vii) Welfare of SC & ST Groups

viii) Poverty Alleviation ix) Physical and Mental Disabilities

x) Juvenile Delinquency

xi) Crime and Correction etc.

xii) Management of Social Welfare Department and Organisation

xiii) Disaster Management

xiv) Industrial Social Work

xv) Issues concerning Advocacy and Networking

Steps in Social Science Research : Identifications and Formulations of

Research Problem, Literature Review, Objectives and Hypothesis
Formulation, Research Design, Sample Design, Sources, Methods and Tools of
Data Collection, Processing and Analysis of Data and Writing Research
Reports including Presentations and Styles of References, Citing and
Paraphrasing.

Identifications and Formulations of Research Problem-

Identification & Formulation of research problem is a first step in the research
process. It is believed that most of the good research studies need lot of time for
selection of a research problem. The selection of one appropriate researchable
problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives
against certain criteria, which may be grouped into:

Internal Criteria-

Internal Criteria consists of:

1. Researcher’s interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a

challenge to him. Without interest and curiosity, he may not develop
sustained perseverance Interest in a problem depends upon the researcher’s
educational background, experience, outlook and sensitivity.
2. Researcher’s own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a
researcher on his own, consideration of his own financial resource is
pertinent. If it is beyond his means, he will not be able to complete the work,
unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is more
important than finance. Research is a time consuming process; hence it
should be properly utilized.
3. Researcher’s competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The
researcher must be competent to plan and carry out a study of the problem.
He must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-matter, relevant
methodology and statistical procedures.

External Criteria-

1. Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e.,

amendable for finding answers to the questions involved in it through the scientific
method.
2. Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of
wasting one’s time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others.

3. Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but

available research efforts are very much limited.

4. Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such, as wellequipped library

facility, suitable and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the
availability of the facilities relevant to the problem must be considered. Problems
for research, their relative importance and significance should be considered.

5. Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on
it is not feasible, it cannot be selected.

6. Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should
make a significant contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the
solution of some significant practical problem. It should be socially relevant.

7. Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research

organizations require the services of investigators and research officers. But in
India and other developing countries, research has not yet become a prospective
profession.

Hence talent persons are not attracted to research projects. Each identified
problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and
the most appropriate, one may be selected by a research scholar.

Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey-

After the selection of research problem, the second step is that of literature mostly
connected with the topics. The availability of the literature may bring ease in the
research. For this purpose academic journals, conference and govt. reports and
library must be studied.

Objectives-

The objective of research project summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.

The research objectives are the specific accomplishments the researcher hopes to
achieve by the study. A clearly defined research objective will help the researcher
to focus on the study.

Hypothesis Formulation-

The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the researcher

experience. The hypothesis is to draw the positive & negative cause and effect
aspects of a problem. Hypothesis narrows down the area of a research and keep a
researcher on the right path.

Preparing the Research Design-

After the formulation of the problem and creating hypothesis for it, research
Design is to prepare by the researcher. It may draw the conceptual structure of the
problem. Any type of research design may be made, depend on the nature and
 purpose of the study. Daring R. Design the information about sources, skill, time
and finance is taken into consideration.

Sample Design-

Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a

population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our
results back to the population from which they were chosen. Let's begin by
covering some of the key terms in sampling like "population" and
"sampling frame."

A good sample is one which satisfies all or few of the following conditions:

1. Representativeness: When sampling method is adopted by the researcher, the

basic assumption is that the samples so selected out of the population are the best
representative of the population under study. Thus good samples are those who
accurately represent the population. Probability sampling technique yield
representative samples. On measurement terms, the sample must be valid. The
validity of a sample depends upon its accuracy.
2. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the
sample. An accurate (unbiased) sample is one which exactly represents the
population. It is free from any influence that causes any differences between
sample value and population value.
3. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliable. The sample size should
be such that the inferences drawn from the sample are accurate to a given level of
confidence to represent the entire population under study.
Sources-

 Classroom
 School
 Community
 Own teaching experiences
 Classroom lectures
 Class discussions
 Seminars/workshops/paper
 presentations Internet
 Out-of-class exchange of ideas
 with fellow students and professors Reading assignment
 Textbook
 Special programme
 Research reports
 Term papers
 Consultation with
 Course instructor
 Advisor
 Faculty member

Methods and Tools of Data Collection-

Data collection techniques. Under the main three basic groups of research
methods (quantitative, qualitative and mixed), there are different tools that can be
used to collect data. Interviews can be done either face-to-face or over the phone.
Surveys/questionnaires can be paper or web based.

Data collection techniques:

 Interviews
 Questionnaires and Surveys
 Observations
 Focus Groups
 Ethnographies, Oral History, and Case Studies
 Documents and Records

Secondary Data Collection Methods-

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books,
newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc. There is an abundance of data
available in these sources about your research area in business studies, almost
regardless of the nature of the research area. Therefore, application of appropriate
set of criteria to select secondary data to be used in the study plays an important
role in terms of increasing the levels of research validity and reliability.
These criteria include, but not limited to date of publication, credential of the
author, reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent
of contribution of the text to the development of the research area etc.
Primary Data Collection Methods-

Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in

various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median and others.
Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within shorter
duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of
standardisation of quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.

Processing and Analysis of Data-

Acquiring data: Acquisition involves collecting or adding to the data holdings.

There are several methods of acquiring data:

 collecting new data

 using your own previously collected data
 reusing someone others data
 purchasing data
 acquired from Internet (texts, social media, photos)

Data processing: A series of actions or steps performed on data to verify,

organize, transform, integrate, and extract data in an appropriate output form for
subsequent use. Methods of processing must be rigorously documented to ensure
the utility and integrity of the data.

Data Analysis involves actions and methods performed on data that help describe
facts, detect patterns, develop explanations and test hypotheses. This includes data
quality assurance, statistical data analysis, modeling, and interpretation of results.

Results: The results of above mentioned actions are published as a research paper.
In case the research data is made accessible, one has to prepare the data set for
opening up.

Writing Research Reports-

Writing Research Reports including-

A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
5. List of Figures (if any)
6. Abstract

B. Main Body
1. Introduction
a. Statement of the Problem
b. Significance of the Problem (and historical background)
c. Purpose
d. Statement of Hypothesis
e. Assumptions
f. Limitations
g. Definition of Terms
h. Ethical Considerations
i. Budget (proposal only)
j. Proposed Timeline (proposal only)

2. Review of Related Literature (and analysis of previous research)

3. Design of the Study

a. Description of Research Design and Procedures Used

b. Sources of Data
c. Sampling Procedures
d. Methods and Instruments of Data Gathering
e. Statistical Treatment

4. Analysis of Data

contains:

a. text with appropriate

b. tables and
c. figures

5. Summary and Conclusions

a. Restatement of the Problem
b. Description of Procedures
c. Major Findings (reject or fail to reject Ho)
d. Conclusions
e. Recommendations for Further Investigation

C. Reference Section

1. End Notes (if in that format of citation)

2. Bibliography or Literature Cited

3. Appendix

Styles of References-

There are several different styles of referencing:

APA (American Psychological Association) Style originated in 1929, when a

group of psychologists, anthropologists, and business managers convened and
sought to establish a simple set of procedures, or style rules, that would codify the
many components of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading
comprehension.

As with other editorial styles, APA Style consists of rules or guidelines that a
publisher observes to ensure clear and consistent presentation of written material.
It concerns uniform use of such elements as selection of headings, tone, and length,
punctuation and abbreviations, presentation of numbers and statistics, construction
of tables and figures, citation of references, and many other elements that are a part
of a manuscriptIn-text Citation with APA

The APA style calls for three kinds of information to be included in in-text
citations. Theauthor's last name and the work's date of publication must always
appear, and these items must match exactly the corresponding entry in the
references list. The third kind of information, the page number, appears only in a
citation to a direct quotation.

(Crockatt, 1995).

Direct quote from the text

"The potentially contradictory nature of Moscow's priorities surfaced first in its

policies towards East Germany and Yugoslavia," (Crockatt, 1995, p. 1).

MLA (Modern Language Association) style for documentation is widely used in

the humanities, especially in writing on language and literature. MLA style
features brief parenthetical citations in the text keyed to an alphabetical list of
works cited that appears at the end of the work.

Core Elements

Each entry in the list of works cited is composed of facts common to most
works—the MLA core elements. They are assembled in a specific order.

Containers

The concept of containers is crucial to MLA style. When the source being
documented forms part of a larger whole, the larger whole can be thought of as a
container that holds the source. For example, a short story may be contained in an
anthology. The short story is the source, and the anthology is the container.
Rationale

The Modern Language Association, the authority on research and writing, takes a
fresh look at documenting sources in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook.
Works are published today in a dizzying range of formats. A book, for example,
may be read in print, online, or as an e-book--or perhaps listened to in an audio
version. On the Web, modes of publication are regularly invented, combined, and
modified. Previous editions of the MLA Handbook provided separate instructions
for each format, and additional instructions were required for new formats. In this
groundbreaking new edition of its best-selling handbook, the MLA recommends
instead one universal set of guidelines, which writers can apply to any type of
source. Shorter and redesigned for easy use, the eighth edition of the MLA
Handbook guides writers through the principles behind evaluating sources for their
research. It then shows them how to cite sources in their writing and create useful
entries for the works-cited list. More than just a new edition, this is a new MLA
style.

Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by the Chicago

University Press since 1906. This citation style incorporates rules of grammar and
punctuation common in American English. Typically, Chicago style presents two
basic documentation systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2) author-date.
Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature of
sources cited, as each system is favored by different groups of scholars.

The notes and bibliography style is preferred by many in the humanities,

including those in literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic
information in notes and, often, a bibliography.

Material Type Notes/Bibliography Style

A book in print Note Style: 1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New
York: Penguin, 2006), 99–100.

Duplicate Note: 2. Pollan, Omnivore's

Dilemma, 3.

Bibliography: Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's

Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New
York: Penguin, 2006.

An article in a Note Style: 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in

print journal Plato’s Republic," Classical Philology 104 (2009):
440.

Duplicate Note: 2. Weinstein, "Plato’s Republic,"

452–53.

Bibliography: Weinstein, Joshua I. "The Market in

Plato’s Republic." Classical Philology 104 (2009):
439–58.

An article in an Note Style: 1. Gueorgi Kossinets and Duncan J.

electronic journal Watts, “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving
Social Network,” American Journal of
Sociology 115 (2009): 411, accessed February 28,
2010, doi:10.1086/599247.

Duplicate Note: Kossinets and Watts, “Origins of

Homophily,” 439.

Bibliography: Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J.

 Watts. “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving
Social Network.” American Journal of
Sociology 115 (2009): 405–50. Accessed February
28, 2010. doi:10.1086/599247.

A website Note Style: 1.“Google Privacy Policy,” last

modified March 11, 2009,
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

Duplicate Note: “Google Privacy Policy.”

Bibliography: Google. “Google Privacy Policy.”

Last modified March 11, 2009.
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

The author-date style has long been used by those in the physical, natural, and
social sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in
parentheses, by author’s last name and date of publication. The short citations are
amplified in a list of references, where full bibliographic information is provided.

Author/Date In-text Bibliography

Style Citation

A book (Pollan 2006, Pollan, Michael. 2006. The Omnivore’s Dilemma:

99–100) A Natural History of Four Meals. New York:
Penguin.

An article in a (Weinstein Weinstein, Joshua I. 2009. “The Market in

print journal 2009, 440) Plato’s Republic.” Classical Philology 104:439–
58.

An article in an (Kossinets and Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. 2009.

electronic Watts 2009, “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
journal 411) Network.” American Journal of
Sociology115:405–50. Accessed February 28,
2010. doi:10.1086/599247.

A website (Google 2009) Google. 2009. “Google Privacy Policy.” Last

modified March 11.
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.

Citing-

Citations are the way in which you give credit to others for their work and
avoid committing plagiarism. They are also the way in which you join the
professional or scholarly conversation on a given topic.

When you are writing your report, you must document every quotation,
paraphrase, and summary. More simply put, you must reference any and all
sources you used to complete your report.

For referencing to be considered complete, you need both an in-text citation and a
complete reference in your bibliography. As a reader comes across an in-text
citation, they can then go to the bibliography to find all the information they need
to locate the cited document.

Think of a reference as the address of the document. All components must be

present in order for the reader to be able to find the item.

Paraphrasing-

Paraphrasing means expressing information or ideas from other sources in your

own words in a similar number of words as the source text. Paraphrasing is not
simply replacing words with synonyms or rearranging the structure of sentences. It
involves rephrasing a text substantially while retaining the original meaning.
Paraphrasing involves acknowledging the original source with proper referencing.

Paraphrase-

1. The first step in paraphrasing is to read the original text and get a full grasp
of it. You may need to read the original text a few times and check the
meaning of key words to fully understand it.
2. While you are reading, think about the overall meaning of each paragraph or
section - don’t just focus on the individual words and sentences.
3. After each paragraph or section, put the reading aside and state it in your
own words.
4. When you can do this, you are ready to write your paraphrase.
5. Finally, proofread, revise and edit your paraphrase as necessary.

Paraphrasing - Example A
Homelessness is complicated from both policy-making and service delivery points
of view. For this reason, there are many different opinions on what homelessness
means. Characterisations of homelessness are linked to culture and history. They
encompass both narrow objective views which define being homeless as being
roofless, and more personal definitions based on cultural and historical
understandings of 'home' (ABS, 2012).

Paraphrasing - Example B

A multi-faceted concept, homelessness can be defined in a variety of ways, most

simply as the basic lack of shelter. However, our understanding of what constitutes
a ‘home’ is also informed by our culture and history. This complexity impacts the
development of effective policy and services to address homelessness (ABS,
2012).

Presentation -

A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various

speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or
briefing a team.

A presentation can also be used as a broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking
engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding, or getting a point across in a
video conference.

To be effective, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting

the information should be carefully considered.
A presentation requires you to get a message across to the listeners and will often
contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about the positive
work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should
receive additional funding for a project.

Basic Statistical concepts : Process of statistical Enquiry and dealing with

Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods, Parametric and Non-
parametric Tests.-

Process of statistical Enquiry-

Here is a brief detail about the different process of a statistical inquiry:

Collecting Data-

The collection of statistical data is one of the most important aspects of a statistical
inquiry. In this stage, you collect relevant data from multiple sources – both primary
and secondary in nature. The source is primary if the data (either published or
unpublished) is originally collected by an investigator or an agency.

On the other hand, the source is secondary if the data (published or unpublished) is
taken from an agency or a person who have already used the data for their statistical
requirements. It is also important to note that the difference between primary and
secondary data is a matter of degree alone.

Organizing and Presenting Numerical Data-

While conducting a statistical inquiry, the second important stage is the collection
and presentation of numerical data. When you collect data, the secondary source
usually provides it in an organized form. However, data from the primary source is
“raw” and unorganized.

Therefore, you need to edit, classify, and tabulate the data in order to organize it.
Editing data involves the removal of omissions, inaccuracies, and inconsistencies
present in the data.

Further, classifying data involves bringing together the data items which have
common characteristics. Subsequently, you put the data in a tabular format and
present it well. The presentation is either in the form of a chart, diagram, graph, etc.

Analyzing the Numerical Data-

Once the data is collected, organized, and presented, it is important to analyze the
numerical data in order to get a better understanding of the subject matter. You can
use some popular measures to analyze numerical data like:

 Averages or measures of the central tendency

 Dispersion

 Correlation

 Skewness

 Regression

 Association and Attributes

  Interpolation and Extrapolation, etc.

Further, in order to simplify the data, you can use probability and distribution,
sampling, index numbers, variance analysis, and time series.

Interpreting the Numerical Data-

Once you have analyzed the numerical data, you must draw conclusions and
inferences from it. This is the interpretation of numerical data. It is a sensitive and
difficult task requiring a high degree of skill, experience, common sense, and also a
sense of balanced judgment of the investigator.

Further, if the investigator misinterprets the data, then he might draw conclusions
which lead to a waste of time and resources. This can eventually defeat the purpose
of the statistical inquiry.

Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods-

Descriptive Statistics-
Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study.
They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with
simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative
analysis of data.
Descriptive statistics are typically distinguished from inferential statistics. With
descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is or what the data shows.
With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond
the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer
from the sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential
statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between
groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this
study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more
general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on
in our data.

Typically, there are two general types of statistic that are used to describe data:

o Measures of central tendency: these are ways of describing the central

position of a frequency distribution for a group of data. In this case, the
frequency distribution is simply the distribution and pattern of marks scored
by the 100 students from the lowest to the highest. We can describe this
central position using a number of statistics, including the mode, median,
and mean. You can read about measures of central tendency here.

o Measures of spread: these are ways of summarizing a group of data by

describing how spread out the scores are. For example, the mean score of
our 100 students may be 65 out of 100. However, not all students will have
scored 65 marks. Rather, their scores will be spread out. Some will be lower
and others higher. Measures of spread help us to summarize how spread out
these scores are. To describe this spread, a number of statistics are available
 to us, including the range, quartiles, absolute deviation, variance
and standard deviation.

Descriptive statistics allow you to characterize your data based on its properties.
There are four major types of descriptive statistics:

1. Measures of Frequency:

* Count, Percent, Frequency

* Shows how often something occurs

* Use this when you want to show how often a response is given

2. Measures of Central Tendency

* Mean, Median, and Mode

* Locates the distribution by various points

* Use this when you want to show how an average or most commonly indicated
response

3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

* Range, Variance, Standard Deviation

* Identifies the spread of scores by stating intervals

* Range = High/Low points

* Variance or Standard Deviation = difference between observed score and mean

* Use this when you want to show how "spread out" the data are. It is helpful to
know when your data are so spread out that it affects the mean

4. Measures of Position

* Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks

* Describes how scores fall in relation to one another. Relies on standardized

scores

* Use this when you need to compare scores to a normalized score (e.g., a national
norm)

Inferential statistics-

Inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from
the sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to
make judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a
dependable one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we
use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general
conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our
data.

Most of the major inferential statistics come from a general family of statistical
models known as the General Linear Model. This includes the t-test, Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), regression analysis, and
many of the multivariate methods like factor analysis, multidimensional scaling,
cluster analysis, discriminant function analysis, and so on. Given the importance of
the General Linear Model, it's a good idea for any serious social researcher to
become familiar with its workings.

Types of Inferential Statistics Tests

There are many tests in this field, of which some of the most important are
mentioned below.

1. Linear Regression Analysis

In this test, a linear algorithm is used to understand the relationship between two
variables from the data set. One of those variables is the dependent variable, while
there can be one or more independent variables used. In simpler terms, we try to
predict the value of the dependent variable based on the available values of the
independent variables. This is usually represented by using a scatter plot, although
we can also use other types of graphs too.

2. Analysis of Variance
This is another statistical method which is extremely popular in data science. It is
used to test and analyse the differences between two or more means from the data
set. The significant differences between the means are obtained, using this test.
3. Analysis of Co-variance
This is only a development on the Analysis of Variance method and involves the
inclusion of a continuous co-variance in the calculations. A co-variate is an
independent variable which is continuous, and are used as regression variables.
This method is used extensively in statistical modelling, in order to study the
differences present between the average values of dependent variables.

4. Statistical Significance (T-Test)

A relatively simple test in inferential statistics, this is used to compare the means of
two groups and understand if they are different from each other. The order of
difference, or how significant the differences are can be obtained from this.

5. Correlation Analysis
Another extremely useful test, this is used to understand the extent to which two
variables are dependent on each other. The strength of any relationship, if they
exist, between the two variables can be obtained from this. You will be able to
understand whether the variables have a strong correlation or a weak one. The
correlation can also be negative or positive, depending upon the variables. A
negative correlation means that the value of one variable decreases while the value
of the other increases and positive correlation means that the value both variables
decrease or increase simultaneously.

Parametric and Non- parametric Tests-

Non- parametric Tests-

Nonparametric tests don’t require that your data follow the normal distribution.
They’re also known as distribution-free tests and can provide benefits in certain
situations. Typically, people who perform statistical hypothesis tests are more
comfortable with parametric tests than nonparametric tests.

You’ve probably heard it’s best to use nonparametric tests if your data are not
normally distributed—or something along these lines. That seems like an easy way
to choose, but there’s more to the decision than that.

Types of Nonparametric Tests

When the word “parametric” is used in stats, it usually means tests like ANOVA or
a t test. Those tests both assume that the population data has a normal distribution.
Non parametric do not assume that the data is normally distributed. The only non
parametric test you are likely to come across in elementary stats is the chi-
square test. However, there are several others. For example: the Kruskal Willis test
is the non parametric alternative to the One way ANOVA and the Mann
Whitney is the non parametric alternative to the two sample t test.
The main nonparamteric tests are:

 1-sample sign test. Use this test to estimate the median of a population and
compare it to a reference value or target value.
 1-sample Wilcoxon signed rank test. With this test, you also estimate the
population median and compare it to a reference/target value. However, the
test assumes your data comes from a symmetric distribution (like the Cauchy
distribution or uniform distribution).
 Friedman test. This test is used to test for differences between groups
with ordinal dependent variables. It can also be used for continuous data if the
 one-way ANOVA with repeated measures is inappropriate (i.e. some
assumption has been violated).
 Goodman Kruska’s Gamma: a test of association for ranked variables.
 Kruskal-Wallis test. Use this test instead of a one-way ANOVA to find out if
two or more medians are different. Ranks of the data points are used for the
calculations, rather than the data points themselves.
 The Mann-Kendall Trend Test looks for trends in time-series data.
 Mann-Whitney test. Use this test to compare differences between two
independent groups when dependent variables are either ordinal or continuous.
 Mood’s Median test. Use this test instead of the sign test when you have two
independent samples.
 Spearman Rank Correlation.Use when you want to find a correlation
between two sets of data.

Parametric Tests-

Parametric statistics are any statistical tests based on underlying assumptions about
data’s distribution. In other words, parametric statistics are based on the parameters
of the normal curve. Because parametric statistics are based on the normal curve,
data must meet certain assumptions, or parametric statistics cannot be calculated.
Prior to running any parametric statistics, you should always be sure to test the
assumptions for the tests that you are planning to run.

t-test-

A t-test is used to compare between the means of two data sets, when the data is
normally distributed. The two groups of data must be independent from one
another. The t statistic is equal to the difference between the group means divided
by the standard error of the difference between the group means.

Pearson-

A common parametric method of measuring correlation between two variables is

the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. The two variables, x and y, must each be
normally distributed. The means and variances of the variables is calculated. Then,
the correlation can be calculated as the covariance between the two variables
divided by the product of their standard deviations.

The z-Test-

The next test, which is very similar to the Student t-test, is the z-test. However,
with the z-test, the variance of the standard population, rather than the standard
deviation of the study groups, is used to obtain the z-test statistic. Using the z-
chart, like the t-table, we see what percentage of the standard population is outside
the mean of the sample population. If, like the t-test, greater than 95% of the
standard population is on one side of the mean, the pvalue is less than 0.05 and
statistical significance is achieved. As some assumption of sample size exists in the
calculation of the z-test, it should not be used if sample size is less than 30. If both
the n and the standard deviation of both groups are known, a two sample t-test is
best.

Chi-square-

A chi-square test can be used to test if the variance of a population is equal to a

specified value. This test can be either a two-sided test or a one-sided test. The
two-sided version tests against the alternative that the true variance is either less
than or greater than the specified value. The one-sided version only tests in one
direction. The choice of a two-sided or one-sided test is determined by the
problem. For example, if we are testing a new process, we may only be concerned
if its variability is greater than the variability of the current process.

ANOVA-

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical method used to test differences

between two or more means. It may seem odd that the technique is called
“Analysis of Variance” rather than “Analysis of Means.” As you will see, the name
is appropriate because inferences about means are made by analyzing variance.
Non-specific null hypothesis is sometimes called the omnibus null hypothesis.
When the omnibus null hypothesis is rejected, the conclusion is that at least one
population mean is different from at least one other mean. However, since the
ANOVA does not reveal which means are different from which, it offers less
specific information than the Tukey HSD test. The Tukey HSD is therefore
preferable to ANOVA in this situation.

Some textbooks introduce the Tukey test only as a follow-up to an ANOVA.

However, there is no logical or statistical reason why you should not use the Tukey
test even if you do not compute an ANOVA. You might be wondering why you
should learn about ANOVA when the Tukey test is better. One reason is that there
are complex types of analyses that can be done with ANOVA and not with the
Tukey test.

Section B : Qualitative Research-

Qualitative Research : Meaning, Basic tenets of Qualitative Research,

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Approach to Research in
social Work-
Qualitative Research : Meaning-

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth

understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the
"why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct
experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives.
Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use
multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including
biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography,
grounded theory and phenomenology.

The three major focus areas are individuals, societies and cultures, and language
and communication. Although there are many methods of inquiry in qualitative
research, the common assumptions are that knowledge is subjective rather than
objective and that the researcher learns from the participants in order to understand
the meaning of their lives. To ensure rigor and trustworthiness, the researcher
attempts to maintain a position of neutrality while engaged in the research process.

Basic tenets of Qualitative Research-

1. Research goal and methodological alignment-

At the most fundamental level, all research requires that the goals of the research
are congruent with the methods employed. This is only possible if the researcher is
aware of the philosophical underpinnings of the research paradigms and their
relationship to research methodology. A misalignment at this stage of the process
will ensure that the subsequent findings are unfounded and illogical. For example,
if the purpose of a qualitative study is to “stress the socially constructed nature of
reality” (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994), a method which quantifies the social constructs
is not appropriate. Occasionally, researchers may become fixated on a particular
method of data collection and have this guide their investigation when it is not
appropriate. Hence, because of the ability of this tenet to negatively impact upon
the entire study, it is a dominant criterion.

2. Comprehensive literature review-

The value of a sound literature review cannot be understated. It provides the

researcher with a framework on which to build ideas, can help support or repudiate
findings, and may demonstrate whether or not the study is warranted, hence,
preventing the researcher from endeavouring upon a futile undertaking. There is
some debate as to the timing of a literature review within qualitative research
though.

3. Transparent researcher-

Because one of the epistemological foundations for qualitative research is that

there is no objective truth, the researcher needs to be clear as to there bias or
subjectivity. It is believed that only through presenting your bias to the reader, will
you be able to accurately interpret the study. It is an attempt to remove the false
veil of objectivity that permeates throughout quantitative research. My mantra here
is to disclose your bias and beliefs to the reader and let them evaluate your
interpretations.

4. Reflexivity-
It has become very common to read of the reflective practitioner or researcher, but
it is not always clear as to what it means to be reflective. According to Wainwright
(1997), “reflexivity is a personal strategy by which the researcher can manage the
analytical oscillation between observation and theory in a way which is valid to
him or herself”

5. Adequate data collection or triangulation-

Within qualitative research, adequate data collection refers to the procedure

undertaken to obtain copious amounts of data that is required to describe a lived
experience. This is in direct contrast to quantitative research in which the
researcher may simply be getting a one time measured snapshot of a phenomena. I
believe that one of the criteria of adequate data collection is triangulation. To
restate, triangulation most often refers to multiple data collection methods that are
used to provide a more substantive and richer picture of reality (Berg, 2001).

Difference between Quantitative and Qualitative Approach to Research in

social Work-

Definition of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is one which provides insights and understanding of the

problem setting. It is an unstructured, exploratory research method that studies
highly complex phenomena that are impossible to elucidate with the quantitative
research. Although, it generates ideas or hypothesis for later quantitative research.
Qualitative research is used to gain an in-depth understanding of human behaviour,
experience, attitudes, intentions, and motivations, on the basis of observation and
interpretation, to find out the way people think and feel. It is a form of research in
which the researcher gives more weight to the views of the participants. Case
study, grounded theory, ethnography, historical and phenomenology are the types
of qualitative research.

Definition of Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a form of research that relies on the methods of natural

sciences, which produces numerical data and hard facts. It aims at establishing
cause and effect relationship between two variables by using mathematical,
computational and statistical methods. The research is also known as empirical
research as it can be accurately and precisely measured.

The data collected by the researcher can be divided into categories or put into rank,
or it can be measured in terms of units of measurement. Graphs and tables of raw
data can be constructed with the help quantitative research, making it easier for
the researcher to analyse the results.

Key Differences Between Qualitative And Quantitative Research

The differences between qualitative and quantitative research are provided can be
drawn clearly on the following grounds:

1. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on

human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. A
scientific and empirical research method that is used to generate numerical
 data, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique is called
quantitative research.

2. Qualitative research is holistic in nature while quantitative research is

particularistic.

3. Qualitative research is exploratory. As opposed to quantitative research

which is conclusive.

4. The reasoning used to synthesise data in qualitative research is inductive

whereas in the case of quantitative research the reasoning is deductive.

5. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample

size is selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target
concept. On the other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling;
wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the
results to the whole population.

6. Qualitative research is based on purposive sampling, where a small sample

size is selected with a view to get a thorough understanding of the target
concept. On the other hand, quantitative research relies on random sampling;
wherein a large representative sample is chosen in order to extrapolate the
results to the whole population.

7. Verbal data are collected in qualitative research. Conversely, in quantitative

research measurable data is gathered.

8. Inquiry in qualitative research is a process-oriented, which is not in the case

of quantitative research.

9. Elements used in the analysis of qualitative research are words, pictures, and
objects while that of quantitative research is numerical data.
 10. Qualitative Research is conducted with the aim of exploring and discovering
ideas used in the ongoing processes. As opposed to quantitative research the
purpose is to examine cause and effect relationship between variables.

11. Lastly, the methods used in qualitative research are in-depth interviews,
focus groups, etc. In contrast, the methods of conducting quantitative
research are structured interviews and observations.

12. Qualitative Research develops the initial understanding whereas quantitative

research recommends a final course of action.

Designing Qualitative Research: Steps, Methods of Qualitative Research

(Field study, Case Study, Focus Group Discussions, Narratives, Observation
and Theoretic Research)-

Steps of Qualitative Research

I. Identifying a research problem/stating the problem-

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of

concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing
practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a
vague or broad proposition, or present a value question.

II. Reviewing the literature-

 A literature review is a process of studying what others have written about your
research question and particular topic. You read widely on the larger field and
examine studies that relate to your topic. You then draw up an analytical report that
synthesizes and integrates the existing research (rather than simply presents a short
summary of each study in chronological order. In other words, you are
"researching the research."

 For example, if your research question focuses on how second career teachers
attribute meaning to their work, you would want to examine the literature on
second career teaching - what motivates people to turn to teaching as a second
career? How many teachers are in their second career? Where do most second
career teachers work? Doing this reading and review of existing literature and
research will help you refine your question and give you the base you need for
your own research. It will also give you a sense of the variables that might impact
your research (e.g., age, gender, class, etc.) and that you will need to take into
consideration in your own study.

III- Research question-

 Questions should be open-ended, nondirectional and start with terms such as

“how” or “what”.
 Start with the broadest possible question, what Creswell (1998) calls the
grand tour question (central question) and then follow with subquestions that
narrow your focus.
 Expect the research questions to evolve and to change during the study, as
data are collected.
  For example, the research question in a grounded theory study is a
statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. Grounded theory
questions tend to be oriented toward action and process.

IV. Collecting the data-

 Qualitative research
 Involves studying a small number of individuals or sites.
 Is conducted in a natural setting.
 Is focused on participant perspectives.
 Has the researcher as the primary instrument for data collection.
 Uses multiple methods of data collection in the form of words or pictures.
 Involves extended firsthand engagement.
 Focuses on the centrality of meaning for participants.
 Deals with dynamic systems.
 Deals with wholeness and complexity and assumes that change is constant.
 Is subjective.
 Uses an emergent design.

Data collection methods-

 Observations/field research
 Interviews
 Documents
 Audiovisual materials

V. Analyzing the data-

 Consists of describing information and developing themes

 Involves inductive data analysis-
 Theories and hypotheses evolve from the data
 Data analysis is ongoing begins with specific observations and builds
towards general Patterns.
 Involves immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover
important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships – not testing of
theoretically derived hypotheses.
 Could derive theory or provide insight on an existing theory
 Involves winnowing of data

Data analysis steps-

• Step 1: Organize and prepare the data for analysis.

• Step 2: Read through all the data to obtain a general sense of the information
and to reflect on its overall meaning.

• Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. Coding is the process
of taking text data or pictures, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs) or images
into categories, and labeling these categories with a term, often a term based on
the actual language of the participant.

• Step 4: Use the codes to generate a description of the setting or people as well
as categories or themes for analysis. Description involves a detailed rendering
of information about people, place, or events in a setting. Researchers can
generate codes for this description.

• Step 5: Advance how the descriptions and themes will be represented in the
qualitative narrative.
 • Step 6: Evaluate the lessons learned from the data and make interpretations (or
meaning) of data.

VI. Determining the quality of data-

Data quality refers to the condition of

a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables. There are many definitions
of data quality but data is generally considered high quality if it is "fit for [its]
intended uses in operations, decision making and planning". Alternatively, data is
deemed of high quality if it correctly represents the real-world construct to which it
refers. Furthermore, apart from these definitions, as data volume increases, the
question of internal data consistency becomes significant, regardless of fitness for
use for any particular external purpose. People's views on data quality can often be
in disagreement, even when discussing the same set of data used for the same
purpose. Data cleansing may be required in order to ensure data quality.

VII. Reporting the research-

1. Note patterns and themes

2. See plausibility – make initial, intuitive sense

3. Cluster by conceptual grouping – group things that seem similar

4. Make metaphors – a kind of figurative grouping of data and to achieve more

integration among diverse pieces of data

5. Count – see what’s there and keep oneself honest

6. Make contrasts and comparisons – by clustering and distinguishing observations

7. Partition variables – to unbundled variables that have been prematurely grouped

8. Subsume particulars into the general, shuttling back and forth between first-level
data and more general categories.

9. Factor – reduce the number of variables, similar to grouping variables by a

category or theme

10. Note relationships between variables

11. Find intervening variables

12. Build a logical change of evidence – integrating categories, subcategories,

themes into a logical, coherent whole

13. Make conceptual/theoretical coherence.

Methods of Qualitative Research-

Field study-

A field study refers to research that is undertaken in the real world, where the
confines of a laboratory setting are abandoned in favor of a natural setting. This
form of research generally prohibits the direct manipulation of the environment by
the researcher. However, sometimes, independent and dependent variables already
exist within the social structure under study, and inferences can then be drawn
about behaviors, social attitudes, values, and beliefs. It must be noted that a field
study is separate from the concept of a field experiment. Overall, field studies
belong to the category of nonexperimental designs where the researcher uses what
already exists in the environment.

Case Study-

A case study is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or

event to explore causation. in order to find underlying principles. It may involve
the collection of both qualitative and quantitative like documents, archival records,
interviews, direct observation, participant-observation, physical artifacts. Several
analytic strategies for case studies have been described like placing the evidence in
a matrix of categories, pattern matching, statistical procedures, and also coding has
been proposed as a way to approach analysis.

Focus Group Discussions-

A focus group is a form of group interview mainly used in marketing research. The
aim is to inquire about people’s perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards
a product, a service, a concept, an advertisement or packaging idea. The interview
form is called focus group because the participants are ‘focused’ on a given topic
and are selected based on whether they have something to say about the topic.

Narratives-
Narrative research is about stories of life experiences. Study participants are asked
in long interviews to give a detailed account of them and their story rather than to
answer a predetermined list of questions. Other forms of data include life histories,
journals, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies and biographies. The aim of the
analysis is to gain insights into a person’s understanding of the meaning ofevents
in their lives. After transcription, narratives may be coded according to categories
deemed theoretically important by the researcher (Riesman, 1993). Another
approach is a formal sequential analysis with the purpose of identifying recurrent
and regular forms which are then related to specific modes of biographical
experiences.

Observation-

A way to gather data by watching people, events, or noting physical characteristics

in their natural setting. Observations can be overt (subjects know they are being
observed) or covert (do not know they are being watched).

Participant Observation

 Researcher becomes a participant in the culture or context being observed.

 Requires researcher to be accepted as part of culture being observed in order
for success

Direct Observation

 Researcher strives to be as unobtrusive as possible so as not to bias the

observations; more detached.
 Technology can be useful (i.e video, audiorecording).
Indirect Observation

 Results of an interaction, process or behavior are observed (for example,

measuring the amount of plate waste left by students in a school cafeteria to
determine whether a new food is acceptable to them).

Theoretic Research-

Theoretical research enables you to explore and discuss a research object on the
basis of your use of abstract theoretical structures and philosophical concepts.

Phenomenological-

When you want to describe an event, activity, or phenomenon, the aptly named
phenomenological study is an appropriate qualitative method. In a
phenomenological study, you use a combination of methods, such as conducting
interviews, reading documents, watching videos, or visiting places and events, to
understand the meaning participants place on whatever’s being examined. You rely
on the participants’ own perspectives to provide insight into their motivations.

Grounded Theory-

Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence of an activity or

event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the
events. You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory
based on the data. You go through a series of open and axial coding techniques to
identify themes and build the theory. Sample sizes are often also larger—between
20 to 60—with these studies to better establish a theory. Grounded theory can help
inform design decisions by better understanding how a community of users
currently use a product or perform tasks.

Managing Qualitative Data: Procedures and Techniques of Analyzing

Qualitative Data and Report Writing.

Qualitative Data: Procedures-

Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information such as interview transcripts,

notes, video and audio recordings, images and text documents. Qualitative data
analysis can be divided into the following five categories:

1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or

behavioural data to classify, summarize and tabulate the data.
2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories presented
by respondents taking into account context of each case and different experiences
of each respondent. In other words, narrative analysis is the revision of primary
qualitative data by researcher.
3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all
types of written text.
4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of several
stages such as familiarization, identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting,
mapping and interpretation.
 5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an
analysis of a single case to formulate a theory. Then, additional cases are examined
to see if they contribute to the theory.

Qualitative data analysis can be conducted through the following three steps:

Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes-

Coding can be explained as categorization of data. A ‘code’ can be a word or a

short phrase that represents a theme or an idea. All codes need to be assigned
meaningful titles. A wide range of non-quantifiable elements such as events,
behaviours, activities, meanings etc. can be coded.

There are three types of coding:

1. Open coding. The initial organization of raw data to try to make sense of it.
2. Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the categories of codes.
3. Selective coding. Formulating the story through connecting the categories.
Coding can be done manually or using qualitative data analysis software such as

NVivo, Atlas ti 6.0, HyperRESEARCH 2.8, Max QDA and others.

When using manual coding you can use folders, filing cabinets, wallets etc. to
gather together materials that are examples of similar themes or analytic ideas.
Manual method of coding in qualitative data analysis is rightly considered as
labour-intensive, time-consuming and outdated.

Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and relationships-

 Unlike quantitative methods, in qualitative data analysis there are no universally
applicable techniques that can be applied to generate findings. Analytical and
critical thinking skills of researcher plays significant role in data analysis in
qualitative studies. Therefore, no qualitative study can be repeated to generate the
same results.
Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify common
themes, patterns and relationships within responses of sample group members in
relation to codes that have been specified in the previous stage.

Specifically, the most popular and effective methods of qualitative data

interpretation include the following:

 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and phrases most
commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and phrases used with unusual
emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of
interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data collection method
with the findings of literature review and discussing differences between them;
 Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the issue
was not mentioned by respondents, although you expected them to be mentioned;
 Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to phenomena
from a different area and discussing similarities and differences.

Step 3: Summarizing the data. At this last stage you need to link research
findings to hypotheses or research aim and objectives. When writing data analysis
chapter, you can use noteworthy quotations from the transcript in order to highlight
major themes within findings and possible contradictions.

Techniques of Analyzing Qualitative Data-

different techniques that are shared by most approaches to qualitative data analysis:

1. Documentation of the data and the process of data collection

2. Organization/categorization of the data into concepts

3. Connection of the data to show how one concept may influence another

4. Corroboration/legitimization, by evaluating alternative explanations,

disconfirming evidence, and searching for negative cases

5. Representing the account (reporting the findings)

The analysis of qualitative research notes begins in the field, at the time of
observation, interviewing, or both, as the researcher identifies problems and
concepts that appear likely to help in understanding the situation. Simply reading
the notes or transcripts is an important step in the analytic process. Researchers
should make frequent notes in the margins to identify important statements and to
propose ways of coding the data: “husband–wife conflict,” perhaps, or “tension-
reduction strategy.”

Documentation-
The data for a qualitative study most often are notes jotted down in the field or
during an interview—from which the original comments, observations, and
feelings are reconstructed—or text transcribed from audiotapes. “The basic data
are these observations and conversations, the actual words of people reproduced to
the best of my ability from the field notes”.

Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing-

Identifying and refining important concepts is a key part of the iterative process of
qualitative research. Sometimes, conceptualizing begins with a simple observation
that is interpreted directly, “pulled apart,” and then put back together more
meaningfully.

The focus in this conceptualization “on the fly” is to provide a detailed

description of what was observed and a sense of why that was important. More
often, analytic insights are tested against new observations, the initial statement of
problems and concepts is refined, the researcher then collects more data, interacts
with the data again, and the process continues.

Examining Relationships and Displaying Data-

Examining relationships is the centerpiece of the analytic process, because it

allows the researcher to move from simple description of the people and settings to
explanations of why things happened as they did with those people in that setting.
The process of examining relationships can be captured in a matrix that shows how
different concepts are connected, or perhaps what causes are linked with what
effects.

Authenticating Conclusions-
No set standards exist for evaluating the validity, or authenticity, of conclusions in
a qualitative study, but the need to carefully consider the evidence and methods on
which conclusions are based is just as great as with other types of research.

Reflexivity-

Confidence in the conclusions from a field research study is also strengthened by

an honest and informative account about how the researcher interacted with
subjects in the field, what problems he or she encountered, and how these problems
were or were not resolved. Such a “natural history” of the development of the
evidence enables others to evaluate the findings and reflects the interpretivist
philosophy that guides many qualitative researchers (see Chapter 3). Such an
account is important first and foremost because of the evolving and variable nature
of field research: To an important extent, the researcher “makes up” the method in
the context of a particular investigation rather than applying standard procedures
that are specified before the investigation begins.

Report Writing-

Report writing is the creation of a structured document that precisely describes,

and examines an event or occurrence. A report is a document that is short, sharp
and specially written for a particular audience and purpose. This article looks into
the various features of a report, reasons for writing a report, common mistakes to
avoid when writing a report and stages involved in writing a compelling report.

Features of a report-
Being that reports provide factual information based on decisions that were made,
various guidelines are followed to ensure that a report has the essentials of an
effective report. Here are the features of a satisfying report:

• Has an abstract or summary that provides a brief synopsis of the contents.

• Has a specific purpose and target audience.

• Has clearly labeled sections and headings.

• May contain data presented in for example graphs or tables.

• Often the text is broken up-bullet points, lists: is not always continuous prose.

• Written concisely and to the point.

• Written formally and objectively.

Why write a report?

There are various reasons behind writing a report. It may be assignments at school,
work or personal reasons. They include:

• To communicate a research process clearly and in a simple manner.

• To give a logical structure to the methods, results, and findings of research.

• To inform the target audience of the findings and viable recommendations of the
research.

• To provide a document that would be easy to read and navigate for the reader.

Common problems with reports-

When writing a report, there are various mistakes during the writing process that
you should be careful not to make. A good report should be free of:

• A weak or confusing structure of your work.

• Use of inappropriate writing style.

• Poor grammar and punctuation.

• Incorrect or inadequate referencing.

• Use of irrelevant information.

• Unnecessary use of jargon.

Section C-

Mixed Method Research: Components of Mixed Methods, Procedures of Combing

Quantitative and Qualitative research-

Mixed Method Research-

‘Mixed methods’ is a research approach whereby researchers collect and analyse

both quantitative and qualitative data within the same study. Growth of mixed
methods research in nursing and healthcare has occurred at a time of
internationally increasing complexity in healthcare delivery. Mixed methods
research draws on potential strengths of both qualitative and quantitative methods,
allowing researchers to explore diverse perspectives and uncover relationships that
exist between the intricate layers of our multifaceted research questions. As
providers and policy makers strive to ensure quality and safety for patients and
 families, researchers can use mixed methods to explore contemporary healthcare
trends and practices across increasingly diverse practice settings.

Components of Mixed Methods-

Six Mixed Methods Design Strategies (Creswell, 2003)

1. Sequential Explanatory

 Characterized by: Collection and analysis of quantitative data followed by a

collection and analysis of qualitative data.

 Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the

findings of a quantitative study.
2. Sequential Exploratory

 Characterized by: An initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis

followed by a phase of quantitative data collection and analysis.

 Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This strategy may also be useful when

developing and testing a new instrument
3. Sequential Transformative

 Characterized by: Collection and analysis of either quantitative or qualitative data

first. The results are integrated in the interpretation phase.

 Purpose: To employ the methods that best serve a theoretical perspective.

4. Concurrent Triangulation

 Characterized by: Two or more methods used to confirm, cross-validate, or

corroborate findings within a study. Data collection is concurrent.
 Purpose: Generally, both methods are used to overcome a weakness in using one
method with the strengths of another.
5. Concurrent Nested

 Characterized by: A nested approach that gives priority to one of the methods and
guides the project, while another is embedded or “nested.”

 Purpose: The purpose of the nested method is to address a different question than
the dominant or to seek information from different levels.
6. Concurrent Transformative

 Characterized by: The use of a theoretical perspective reflected in the purpose or

research questions of the study to guide all methodological choices.

 Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical perspective at different levels of analysis.

Procedures of Combing Quantitative and Qualitative research-

In practice, most researchers agree that combining quantitative and qualitative

techniques (sometimes called “mixed method” research) produces a richer and
more comprehensive understanding of a research area.

For example, an investigation into the relationship between the spread of cholera
and household water use would require that you use quantitative approaches to
identify both cholera cases and to measure water quantity in a cohort of an
appropriate size. However, when designing an intervention, it will be critical to
understand what influences water availability in the community and the choices
people make in times of water stress. This kind of in-depth understanding is well
suited to qualitative approaches. Together, this combined approach provides a
more comprehensive understanding of the risk relationship between water
availability and the spread of cholera in the community under study.

The table below summarizes the two types of approaches:

Qualitative Quantitative

The aim is to classify features, count

The aim is a complete, detailed them, and construct statistical models
description in an attempt to explain what is
observed

Researcher may only know roughly in Researcher knows clearly in advance

advance what he/she is looking for what he/she is looking for

Recommended during earlier phases of Recommended during latter phases of

research projects research projects

All aspects of the study are carefully

The design emerges as the study unfolds
designed before data is collected

Researcher uses tools, such as

Researcher is the data gathering
questionnaires or equipment to collect
instrument
numerical data
Data is in the form of words, pictures or Data is in the form of numbers and
objects statistics

Subjective – An individual’s
Objective – Seeks precise
interpretation of events is important
measurement & analysis of target
(e.g., uses participant observation, in-
concepts
depth interviews, etc.)

Qualitative data is more ‘rich’, time Quantitative data is more efficient,

consuming, and less able to be able to test hypotheses, but may miss
generalized contextual detail

Researcher tends to become subjectively Researcher tends to remain objectively

immersed in the subject matter separated from the subject matter

Collecting data

At the most basic level, data are considered quantitative if they are numbers and
qualitative if they are words. Qualitative data may also include photos, videos,
audio recordings and other non-text data. Those who favor quantitative data claim
that their data are hard, rigorous, credible and scientific. Those in the qualitative
camp counter that their data are sensitive, detailed, nuanced and contextual.
Quantitative data best explain the what, who and when of a phenomenon while
qualitative data best explain the why and how. Different techniques are used to
collect quantitative and qualitative data:
Quantitative methods How to Collect Data?

This most common method can either be self-

Surveys/Questionnaires administered or administered by someone else and can
be face-to-face, telephone, mail, or web-based.

Surveys or measures are collected prior to an

intervention among a target population and then an
intervention is implemented for a period of time before
Pre/post Tests recollecting the same survey or measurement data after
the intervention is complete. The before and after data is
compared to detect changes that may be attributed to the
intervention.

This kind of secondary data is often used in conjunction

with survey data. It includes census data,
Existing Databases knowledge/attitude/behavior (KAB) studies, criminal
justice statistics, performance data, non-confidential
client information, agency progress reports, etc.

Qualitative
How to Collect Data?
methods
  Looking at what is happening rather than directly questioning
participants
 Used to better understand behaviors, their social context and
Observations
meanings attached to them
 Useful for certain populations – children, infants
 Can identify unanticipated outcomes

 Can either be with, individual participants or key informants.

 Usually provide rich data, details, insights from community
In-Depth members, program participants and stakeholders about their
Interviews experiences, behaviors and opinions
 Particularly useful for complex or sensitive subjects
 Uses open-ended questions

 8-12 people selected by a non-random method who share

some characteristics or experience relevant to the research.
Ideally participants do not know each other and respond to
questions from a group facilitator
 Use group dynamics to generate data and insights
Focus Groups
 Useful for generating ideas and strategies, defining problems
in project implementation, assist with interpreting
quantitative findings
 Open-ended questions or topics designed to stimulate
discussion; topics usually broader than interview questions
Qualitative studies often utilise a mix of the above mentioned data collection
approaches in order to make results more reliable. The use of multiple data
collection approaches to improve reliability is known as data triangulation.

In general, researchers agree that qualitative and quantitative data and methods
have different strengths, weaknesses, and requirements that affect decisions about
which methodologies are appropriate for which purposes.

Now you know how to collect data, but how do you analyze it? Learn more about
this in the following.

Analysing data

Just as there are different methods for collecting quantitative data and qualitative
data, there are different ways of analysing the data collected.

Methods How to analyse data?

The type of statistical analysis you choose will depend on your

research objectives and the number of independent and dependent
variables under study. Typical types of analysis include:
Quantitative
Statistical  Chi-Square tests
Analysis  ANOVA tests
 T-tests
 Multiple regression analysis

The type of analysis you choose will depend on your research

Qualitative
objectives and your theoretical framework. Qualitative Data
Analysis Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby
we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into
some form of explanation, understanding or interpretation of the
people and situations being investigated. Finding themes is part
of the overwhelming majority of QDA carried out today and there
are several ways to identify and code data thematically, including:

 Domain analysis
 Template analysis
 Discourse analysis

Strengths and limitations

Quantitative method
Quantitive data are pieces of information that can be counted and which are usually
gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for
inclusion. Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, health system
metrics, etc. are often included in quantitative research. Quantitative data is
analysed using statistical methods. Quantitative approaches are best used to answer
what, when and who questions and are not well suited to how and why questions.

Strengths Limitations

Findings can be generalised if selection Related secondary data is sometimes not

process is well-designed and sample is available or accessing available data is
representative of study population difficult/impossible
 Difficult to understand context of a
Relatively easy to analyse
phenomenon

Data can be very consistent, precise Data may not be robust enough to
and reliable explain complex issues

Qualitative method
Qualitative data are usually gathered by observation, interviews or focus groups,
but may also be gathered from written documents and through case studies. In
qualitative research there is less emphasis on counting numbers of people who
think or behave in certain ways and more emphasis on explaining why people think
and behave in certain ways. Participants in qualitative studies often involve
smaller numbers of tools include and utilizes open-ended questionnaires interview
guides. This type of research is best used to answer how and why questions and is
not well suited to generalisable what, when and who questions.

Strengths Limitations

Complement and refine quantitative Findings usually cannot be generalised to

data the study population or community

Provide more detailed information More difficult to analyse; don’t fit neatly in
to explain complex issues standard categories
Multiple methods for gathering data
Data collection is usually time consuming
on sensitive subjects

Data collection is usually cost

efficient