Cognitive Psychology o Empiricism- experience and

 Study of people perceive, learn, remember, observation is key 

and think about information.  o Kantianism- experiences are structured
 The study of all mental abilities and process by necessary features of our minds
about knowing Early Dialects in the Psychology of
o Memory Cognitive 
o Attention o Structuralism:
o Language  Wilhem Wundt 
o Problem solving  Edwart Titchener 
o Decision making o Functionalism 
o Reading   John Dewey 
 Availability Heuristics: cognitive shortcut   William James
that occurs when we make judgements on  Structuralism- elements and components
the basis of how easily we can call to mind of the mind are important
what we perceive as relevant instances of  Functionalism- process of how and why
phenomenon.  the mind works are important 
o Misconception: with the advent of mass  Associationism- elements can be
media, you understand the world works associated with one another in the mind to
based on statistics and facts called from form learning
many examples.  From Associationism to Behaviorism
o The truth: you are far more likely to o Associationism:
believe something is commonplace if   Hermann Ebbinghaus 
you can find just one example of it, and  Edward Thorndike 
you are far less likely to believe in o Behaviorism: 
something you’ve never seen or heard  Ivan Pavlov
before.   Pavlov’s Dog 
History of Cognitive Psychology   Associationism- “satisfaction” is the key to
Hegelian Dialectics  learning
 An interpretive method of a developmental  Behaviorism- contingency is the key to
process which explains how ideas evolve learning
over time through a pattern of  Radical Behaviorism- science should
transformation. study environment and behaviors only 
o Thesis- statement of belief  From Behaviorism to Gestalt Psychology
o Antithesis- a statement that counters a o Radical behaviorism:
previous statement of belief   B.F. Skinner 
o Synthesis- integrates the most credible  John Watson
features of each two (or more) views  o Social Cognitive and Gestalt 
Philosophical Antecedents of  Albert Bandura 
Psychology   Edward Talman
 Philosophy seeks to understand the general  Radical behaviorism- study environment
nature of many aspects of the world, in part and behavior only
through introspection, the examination of  Social Cognitive and Gestalt- we observe
inner ideas and experiences.  and model our own behavior after behavior
 Physiological seeks a scientific study of life- of others, view mind and holistically
sustaining functions in living matter,  Cognitivism- much of human behavior can
primarily through empirical (observation- be understanding in terms of how people
based) methods.  think. 
o Rationalism- logical and reasoning is Early Role of Psychology
key Karl Spencer Lashley 
 Considered the brain to be an active, (lesson 1-video)
dynamic organizer of behavior The Scientific Method
 Sough to understand how the macro- 1. Devise a testable hypothesis or theory that
organization of the human brain made explains something.
possible such complex, planned activities as 2. Design an experiment or a method of
musical performance, game playing, and observation to test the hypothesis.
using language 3. Compare the results obtained with what was
Donald Hebb  predicted 
 Proposed the concept of cell assemblies as 4. Correct or extend the theory 
the basis for learning in the brain  Philosopher Carl Popper suggested that
 Cell assemblies are coordinated neutral science progresses faster when people
structures that develop through frequent devise tests to prove hypothesis wrong, this
stimulation.  is called falsification. 
Technology and Cognitive Psychology  After you prove all but one hypothesis
 1950’s development of computers. wrong about something you have to answer,
 Turing’s Test  this is called the sherlock holmes approach.
o a computer program would be judged as  If you exclude the impossible whatever
successful to the extent that its output remains must be true and this is called
was indistinguishable, by humans, from deductive reasoning.  
the output of humans  The scientific method has some clear and
 Artificial intelligence obvious limitations or well strength
o the attempt by humans to construct depending on the way you look at it.
systems that show intelligence and, o First, you can only hypothesize and
particularly, the intelligence processing test only observable things. For this
of information.  reason many cognitive psychologists do
Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive  not see sigmund freud or carl jung and
Psychology  others.
1. Empirical data and theories are both o Second, you must conduct experiments
important — data in cognitive psychology to test a theory. You can’t do research
can be fully understood only in the context just to find out something new.  
of an explanatory theory, and theories are  Cognitive psychology employs the
empty without empirical data.  scientific method vigorously.
2. Cognitive is generally adaptive, but not in all The Cognitive Renaissance 
specific instances.   Challenged behaviorism 
3. Cognitive processes interact with each other  Established cognitive science as the way
and with noncognitive processes. forward.
4. Cognitive needs to be studied through a The Structure of Cognition 
variety of scientific methods.   The information processing model. If life
5. All basic research in cognitive psychology imitates art, the brain imitates computers.
may lead to applications, and all applied  In 1958, Donald Broadbent, a British
research may lead to basic understandings.  psychologist argued that the majority of
Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology  cognition follows the information processing
 Nature vs Nurture  model in many ways, this approach to
 Rationalism vs Empiricism  cognition is based on the computer. The
 Structures vs Processes boxes in this model represent stages of
 Domain generality vs Domain specificity cognition and the arrows represent
 Validity of causal inferences vs Ecological processes within it. 
validity   All cognition fits within this framework,
 Applied vs Basic research cognitive psychologists research each box
 Biological vs Behavioral methods
 or stages and each arrows or process in
many different domains.
 Input of information. In this computer
analogy this would be a camera recording
information or the keyboard receiving pre-
process. Cognitive psychologists call the
input of information perception or how the
brain interprets the information from the
senses.  with patients and brain scanning helped
 Now we have to be clear that perception is
different from sensation which is exactly
what physical information your senses
record. Your brain then immediately
changes and interprets this information so
that it is easy to process.
 This process highlights a linear progression
from sensation to perception. Attention
follows information input and attention is the
first distinct process of information process
account and it’s what links perception with
higher level cognition. (without it people
simply react to the world in an involuntary
manner)
 After you attempt to get information, it
enters your brain storage system. The brain
has a number of mechanisms for storing
and using information collectively called
memory.   Connectionists' models are by far
 You also have stored knowledge and skills.
Although all this knowledge is highly useful,
we cannot forget to consider forgetting, as
well as how memory works in everyday life
 Short term memory is the ram, it has limited
capacity. Long term memory and knowledge
is the hard disk, a vast storage of
information.  o Analyzing the brain
 Now sensation and perception are quite low
level cognition functions. They are fairly
simple processes that many animals can
do. Memory is a slightly higher level
cognitive function but the highest level
functions are the ones that animals cannot
do.  shedding light on it. German
 According to some psychologists, language
and thought language is the first output
stage of information processing. Some
psychologists describe it as a human form
of communication and typically the vocal
form of exchanging ideas with other people.
Thought on the other hand is the second
output storage of information processing.
 Problem solving, reasoning, and decision
making are complex highly evolved abilities
that are an accumulation of extensive
experiences, knowledge, and skills. 
Research in Cognitive Psychology 
 Experiments, computational models, work
psychologists to understand how the
cognitive systems work. 
o Testing in the Laboratory
 The tightly controlled laboratory
experiment is one of the most
commonly used techniques for
researching cognitive psychology. 
o Modeling with computers 
 Researchers can employ computers
to mimic human cognition in what’s
called computational modeling. 
 A good computational model is
specific enough to predict human
behavior. These kinds of theories
are more precise than the often
vague verbal theories that earlier
cognitive psychologists used.
Computational models are based
around different types of structures.
the most common cognitive models. 
 Computational modeling can be
hugely successful at explaining
human behavior but the models
created often run the risk of being
incredibly complex and difficult to
understand.
 
 Cognitive neuroscience is where
researchers use expensive
equipment to measure the brain
when it’s doing something. 
 Researchers using neuroimaging
have done a wonderful job of
neurologist Arbenian Broadman was
the first to map the brain directly; he
named 52 different brain areas and
his descriptions are still used today.
 Electroencephalography, where
electrodes placed on the surface of
 the scalp, measures the electric on the task complexity and how you are
activity of the brain. learning it. 
Limitations of Cognitive Psychology  The ability to multitask, if two tasks use
 Task impurity different aspects of your working memory
 Lack of ecological validity you can do them both at the same time as
Using Cognitive Psychology to Improve long as they are simple enough. 
Academic Performance  Lastly, you have to avoid distractions
To enhance your perception and knowing what distracts you means that you
attention:  can learn how to avoid such distractions.  
1. Mass your practice.  Ergonomics and human factors have
2. Capture and focus your attention.  explored these issues and the resounding
3. Avoid distractions.  result is speech. Speech is the one thing
 One general rule is to be aware of above all else, in fact maybe the only thing
circadian rhythm, the natural cycle of that distracts people from working whether it
your body. Your body and brain works is speech from the tv, someone talking, the
better at different times of the day but radio, person on telephone or etc. — called
irrelevant speech effect. 
everyone is different, some people are
To improve your learning and memory:
best in the morning and some in the
1. Work with your memory.
evening. 
2. Distribute your practice.
 To ensure that you're in a suitable frame of
3. Test yourself.
mind for such exams you can shift your
4. Improve your access to cues. 
body clock in a similar manner to jet lag.
 First, work with your memories, most of
Basically what you have to do is wake up
the strategies that assist in learning
much earlier after you’ve been awake for
information connect to what we call as the
some time and fall within your optimum
working memory and involve combining new
attention time. 
knowledge with existing ones. 
 First, mass your attention or your practice,
 To improve your memory, first, you can do
some experts are able to perceive
chunking. This happens when you group
something typically an object such as a
incoming information that’s largely
chess board they have extensive
meaningless into small manageable chunks
experience in perceiving using one eye—
that are meaningful. 
looking only at the center of an image, from
 Using levels of processing framework, this
this scan they are able to remember,
technique comes from how you process
interpret, and process more than mere
information and suggests that information
novoices— where a great deal of learning
that is processed more deeply is more likely
occurs in a short space of time. 
to be stored.
 Mass practice, approximately 6 hours a
 You can also use mnemonic devices which
day for weeks, months or even years,
aid learning by forming links between the list
results consistently show that people who
of information to learn with something you
engage in mass practice perform better at
already know. Mnemonics make the
perceptual and more motor tasks than those
information more personally relevant and
who engage in other forms of practice.
meaningful and elaborate it during
 Second, to capture and focus your
processing. 
attention one way to help engage attention
 Second is to distribute your practice.
on work is to develop a script that ends with
Practice makes perfect, you can learn
you studying. A script is a chunk of behavior
information from a textbook by reading it
that always occurs together, you can create
multiple times but it’s not simple as that, you
one by coming up with a routine. The
can study the same thing for hours and
average person has an attention span of
hours and then stop or you can study in
around 40 mins though the figure depends
short bursts. Distributing the practice is
 beneficial for academic learning as you, if a passage is boring or technical, skim
compared to mass practice.  over it and come back to it later, if
 To remember more, test yourself on what necessary you can make use of context to
you have learned. Correct any errors and make sense of ideas.
then test again.   The first rule of good writing is to
 Lastly, improve your access to cues to understand the format, read any guidelines
get information from your head faster. You you are given and make sure that you know
can use techniques to improve your access the word limits. Writing has two basic stages
to cues — two specific skills, first, attempt to — (1) planning, this is when you decide
match the state and environment of learning what you are going to write and in what
to that of the test, evidence suggests that order and write the actual words.  
when you are retrieving information in the  Writing is an example of language
same conditions as when you learned it.  production and producing language involves
To polish your academic reading and your brain working through a sequence of
writing skills: stages, starting with semantic level (idea
1. Read strategically. then express then translate) 
2. Improve your writing.   (2) imagine that you are explaining your
 The best way to do this is to read as often ideas to a specific person or a group of
as possible. Sometimes adults can have people that you know, doing so enables you
problems with reading because they haven’t to bring into play your considerable existing
learned the rules of the language.  experience of using language. 
 After you have acquired the basic skills of  Additional factors into account is the
reading printed words you can further different style of language used in academic
improve your reading skills by using writing and another is that more specific
metacognitive strategies, this refers to what rules that you are required to follow. 
you read, what order created in, and how To use your thinking powers more
carefully revealed. effectively: 
 Metacognition refers to thinking about 1. Use rational logic.
thinking.  2. Plan systematically.
 First strategy, skim or preview the text, have 3. Create and use sub-goals.
a quick scan through the document, paying 4. Automate components.
particular attention to any summary at the 5. Work backwards.
beginning section and overall structure, 6. Develop a Growth Mindset. 
decide in advance, what parts of a  Executive functions, guide your overall
document are most important, what bits can behavior including higher level thinking
you skim over and what bits you can skills such as problem solving,
ignore.  reasoning, and decision making. Now
 Second strategy, read with purpose before
this higher level thinking is important in
you start reading, decide what you want to
planning your study and the work you
find out from the text, setting goals for your
reading helps you approach the text produce. You can optimize the use of your
strategically. You have to make your executive functioning by first, using rational
reading personal when reading an idea.  logic— improve your ability to see the flaw
 Similar strategy is to ask questions, what in other people’s arguments as well as
are you reading and attempt to anticipate enhance your ability to construct a rational
what you would follow on. You can also argument yourself. Which can help you
translate your lesson into your own improve the structure of your academic
language, you may also summarize ideas in writing. 
your own words.   Second, plan systematically, planning
 You can also make reading interesting, each stage of a project makes sense as
focus on the ideas in the text that interest does identifying the amount of work you
 need to do and what problems you are likely
to face before you embark on a project. This
technique can give you a good sense of
how you need to direct your attention and
spend your available time.  behavior. It denotes a biological approach to
 Third, create and use sub-goals. Students
sometimes panic because they see a piece
of work as a single indivisible whole that is
too big to get their hands around. What you
have to do is, divide the task into subgoals
using hierarchical decomposition. Here you
have to break the problem down into a few
smaller problems then repeat the process.
 Fourth, automate components, the more
you practice any skills the more you can
deal with problems. Automatically when you
repeat a series of actions the brain comes
to recognize the pattern and creates a new
procedure for carrying out the process w/o
thinking too much.  biopsychological inquiry.
 Fifth, work backwards. When asked how
he creates his new jokes the comedian Bill
Bailey replied, i start with a laugh and work
backwards. This process isn’t far from how
people often solve problems in a process
called means and analysis. People identify
the goal and work out what they can do to
achieve it.  change in response to the individual’s
 Having a positive goal in mind motivates
you and focuses your attention on the most
important aspect of the problem. Lastly,
develop a growth mindset, according to
psychologist Carol Dweck of Stanford
University, one of the most important factors
affecting student performance is what she
calls mindset.  key role in its mergence.
 A person’s mindset is another example of
metacognition. According to Dweck, in
general people have one of two main types
of mindsets (1) fixed mindset- individuals
tend to think that people are born with
certain abilities that remain relatively fixed
throughout their lives– likely to stick to their
goals. (2) growth mindset, people display
almost the exact opposite approach, so they
think that people can get better through
practice and value effort over achievement,
they often do much better at new problems
— they aren’t discouraged by their
mistakes.  o Neural Activity
Physiological Psychology
 Everything psychological  is biological.
Biopsychology 
 The scientific study of the biology of
the study of psychology rather than a
psychological approach to the study of
biology.
Major Themes 
 Clinical Implications
o Much of what biopsychologists learn
about the functioning of the normal brain
comes from studying the diseased or
damaged brain, and, conversely, much
of what biopsychologists discover has
relevance for the treatment of brain
disorder. 
 Evolutionary Approach 
o One of the cornerstones of modern
 
o Focuses on trying to understand
biological phenomena by comparing
them in different species. 
 Neuroplasticity
o In the past two decades, research has
clearly demonstrated that the adult brain
is not a static network of neurons. It is a
genes and experiences. 
Origin 
 Biopsychology did not develop into a major
neuroscientific discipline until the 20th
century. 
 The publication of The Organization of
Behavior in 1949 by D.O. Hebb played a
 
 Hebb discredited the view that
psychological functioning is too complex to
have its roots in the physiology and
chemistry of the brain. 
Relationship with other fields 
 Biopsychology is an integrative discipline.
Biopsychologists draw together knowledge
from the other neuroscientific disciplines
and apply it to the study of behavior. 
o Neuroanatomy. The study of the
structure of the nervous system.
o Neurochemistry. The study of chemical
bases of 
 
 o Neuroendocrinology. The study of experiments because participants are not
interactions between the nervous randomly selected and such, potential
system and the endocrine system  confounded variables have not been
o Neuropathology. The study of nervous controlled. 
system disorder  Case Study
o Neuropharmacology. The study of  Studies that focus on a single case or
effects of drugs on neural activity  subject
o Neurophysiology. The study of the  Often provide a more in-depth picture than
functions and activities of the nervous that provided by an experiment or a quasi
system.  experimental study, and they are an
 Biopsychologists study many different excellent source of testable hypotheses, but
phenomena, and they approach their have poor generalizability. 
research in many different ways.   Pure research is motivated primarily by the
Humans curiosity of the researcher– it is done solely
 They can follow instructions, they can report for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. 
their subjective experiences, and their  Applied research is intended to bring about
cages are easier to clean.  some direct benefit to humankind.
 Humans are often cheaper. Because only  One important difference between pure and
the highest standard of animal care are applied research is that pure research is
acceptable, the cost of maintaining an more vulnerable to the vagaries of political
animal laboratory can be prohibitive for all regulation because politicians and the
but the most well-funded researchers. voting public have difficulty understanding
 The greatest advantage humans have as why research of no immediate practical
subjects in a field aimed at understanding benefit should be supported.
the intricacies of human brain function is Biopsychology 
that they have human brains.   Physiological psychology. The division of
Non-humans  biopsychology that studies the neutral
 The brains and behavior of nonhuman mechanisms of behavior through the direct
subjects are simpler than those of human manipulation and recording of the brain in
subjects. Hence, the study of nonhuman controlled experiments— surgical and
species is more likely to reveal fundamental electrical methods are most common.
brain-behavior interactions.  Psychopharmacology. Similar to
 Insights frequently arise from the physiological psychology except that it
comparative approach, the study of focuses on the manipulation of neural
biological processes by comparing different activity and behavior with drugs. 
species. For example, behaviors of animals  Neuropsychology. The study of
with and without cerebral cortex.  psychological effects of brain damage in
 It is possible to conduct research and human patients. It deals almost exclusively
laboratory animals that, for ethical reasons, with case studies and quasi experimental
is not possible with human participants.  studies of patients with brain damage
Experiments  resulting from disease, accident, or
 The experiment is the method used by neurosurgery.  
scientists to study causation, that is, to find  Psychophysiology. The division of
out what causes what.  biopsychology that studies the relation
 Between subject design- a different group of between physiological activity and
study tested under each condition. psychological processes in human activity. 
 Within subject design- testing the same  Cognitive Neuroscience. The neural
group of subjects under each condition. bases of cognition, a term that generally
Quasiexperiements refers to higher intellectual processes such
 These studies have the appearance of as thought, memory, attention, and complex
experiments, but they are not true perceptual processes. 
 Comparative Psychology. The division of 8.  200 million years ago, mammals entered
biopsychology that deals generally with the the scene, further evolving the forebrain. 
biology of behavior, rather than specifically 9. 200,000 years ago, modern humans
with the neural mechanisms of behavior. It appeared, with even more complex brains
aims to compare the behavior of different and reasoning abilities. 
species in order to understand the The brain and (some parts of) the spinal
evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of cord
behavior.   The most basic nerve function is the spinal
What is the Brain cord, the tube of nerve fibers running the
What makes human beings special? length of the spine linking our body’s nerve
 They suggested that it’s our ability to tell fibers with the brain. 
stories, to work together, to store  The spinal cord is a tube, it has a hollow in
information, to laugh, to imagine, to use the middle and it is filled with a nutrient fluid.
language, to learn, or to solve problems.  That hollow is surrounded by what we call
 The very special brain that human beings gray matter which is mostly made up of
have evolved and the way that it allows us nerve cells bodies, and the gray matter is
to interact with our worlds. Our physical surrounded by white matter which is nerve
worlds, social worlds, and our imaginary fibers carrying information to and from the
worlds. The brain is something very special brain. 
and it allows human beings to be what we  The spinal cord also allows some of our
are. Our brain allows us to see things and reflexes, the rapid muscle movement that
make sense of what we are doing.  happens in a response to painful stimuli. 
 They allow us to take action to move Medulla
purposefully and do things when we need to  The top of the spinal cord thickens out to
or want to. They allow us to hear, to begin to be part of the brain itself, the part
interpret vibrations in the air.   where it thickens is also known as the
 Our brain also allow us to remember things medulla. 
and in more ways than one they store  The medulla is the part of the brain that
conscious memories like pin numbers and regulates basic bodily functions such as:
addresses— it also allows us to remember breathing, swallowing, and pass nutrients
things from the past.  around its body. 
Brain Evolution   But if an animal is to survive in an
1. Brains have their origin billions of years ago increasingly complex world, it also needs to
in simple single-celled organisms.  be alert and ready to move if something
2. 3.4 billion years ago, bacteria began to threatens it moving upwards from the
develop ion channels, membrane proteins medulla.  
that control the flow of ions, paving the way Midbrain
for nerve conduction.   We find the brain stem becomes even
3. 2 billion years ago, Eukaryote cells (cells thicker turning into what is known as the
with enclosed nuclei) developed the ability midbrain, which is really a collection of
to make electrical signals when they swam.  several different parts. One of them is the
4. 600 million years ago, around this time, reticular activating system (RAS), which
sponges and comb jellies developed further regulates different states of alertness, sleep,
features seen in modern nervous systems.  wakefulness, and attention. 
5. 550 million years ago, flatworms developed  In humans and complex mammals the RAS
primitive bilaterally symmetric nerve cords seems to be able to switch on large areas of
and light sensors (eyes), which led to… the cerebral cortex so when we are alert
6. Early fishes with complex brains inside a and paying attention to what is around us it
protected spinal-cord-like structure. has some sensory pathways. 
7. 350 million years ago, amphibians  The areas of the brain include the superior
developed a complex forebrain.  colliculi and the inferior colliculi, superior
 means above and inferior means below  The thalamus receives information from the
which tells you how they are placed. These sensory nerves and from our eyes and ears,
are oval structures which do very basic and thus a certain amount of decoding of
sensory processing.  those signals before passing the information
 Superior colliculi are particularly concerned onto the cerebrum. 
with vision and touch, while inferior colliculi  It also receives the instruction about
are mainly specialized for hearing; they movement passed down from the cerebrum
don't connect  directly with the higher levels and sends those instructions to our
of the brain; instead they have a direct muscles, like several or other subcortical
connection with our attention and moving structures. It is also involved in sleep and
system alerting us immediately.  wakefulness.  
Cerebellum   There are a number of other small
 Now the pawns are connected to structures around the thalamus, collectively
cerebellum which is the wrinkled bulge that these are the structures known as the
sticks out underneath the back of the limbic system. 
cerebrum, sometimes called the mini brain Hypothalamus
and capable of carrying out many more  A small lump immediately below the
complex functions than just keeping the thalamus is the hypothalamus, it is
animal alive.  especially important to mammals because it
 It plays an important role in skill learning. regulates body temperature and it has the
When we are first learning a new skill our ability to keep our internal temperature
movements are often jerky and a bit clumsy constant. 
because we have to think about each  Hypothalamus does more than just regulate
movement consciously, but as we practice temperature, it maintains homeostasis
those movements control of those throughout the body, maintaining
sequences of actions move to the homeostasis means keeping everything in
cerebellum and those movements become steady comfortable condition. 
smooth and automatic.  Hypothalamus allows it to have connections
 The folds mean that its surface comprises with all the early parts of the brain so it can
most of its structure but there are nerve send the relevant signals when they are
fibers underneath them and a small space needed. Hypothalamus sends its signals
filled with fluid known as a ventricle.  partly by nerve cell connections but partly
 Cerebellum also controls balance which is a also by releasing hormones. 
function that appears to be located in a  Now hormones are chemicals that either
small knob between its two halves, most stimulate body processes or cause other
drugs aiming to treat motion sickness have hormones to be released by other glands in
the effect of suppressing these areas of the the body. Hormone is particularly important
brain.  for maintaining states such as growth,
 Cerebellum is also included in some of the pregnancy, arousal, or anxiety. 
nerve pathways involved in processing  The hormones releasing glands from the
attention, language, fear, pleasure, and endocrine system of the body and the
reactions.  hypothalamus is the brain’s main route for
The Elements of the Limbic System connecting the brain with the endocrine
Thalamus system. 
 There is a large area of cells above the Hippocampus 
midbrain and below the cerebrum known as  Hippocampus is a small curved structure
the thalamus. underneath the cerebrum and its name
 It is separated into two halves and it acts as comes from the way it was thought to
a kind of relay station for sensory resemble the shape of a seahorse. It is
information and motor signals going to the important in memory in several ways, one is
muscles
 that it allows us to consolidate our  Like the hypothalamus and the amygdala, it
memories into long term memory storage.  is involved in emotion, memory, and
 People with damaged hippocampus, caused learning among other functions. 
by frequent drinking alcohol without eating Why are human brain has so many folds
can find that they become unable to store and grooves
new memories known as, korsakoff  Information is processed on the outer layer
syndrome and it can have tragic of the cerebrum, what we call the cerebral
consequences.  cortex. 
 Hippocampus is concerned with other forms  In some animals like birds or reptiles this
of memories as well our spatial memory, outer surface is relatively smooth and the
which is now we remember where we are in cerebrum itself is not particularly large. In
the location that we know.  mammals however the cerebrum is bigger
Amygdala with creases and grooves which increase its
 Another important part of the limbic system surface area. 
is the amygdala, this is the emotion center  Cerebrum is the largest part of the dog or
of the brain and it consists of two almost cat's brain and it has several deep folds.
shaped structures located deep in the right The Human cerebrum covers almost all of
and left temporal lobes. the rest of the brain and its surface has
 It helps the brain to identify and react to become even more convoluted with parts
threats and is active in our emotions too, which can’t even be seen from the outside
both positive and negative ones. Part of its because they are folded right underneath. 
role appeared to be working with the Cerebrum 
hippocampus to consolidate memories,  Cerebrum is the largest structure of all
especially emotionally charged ones. mammals and especially in humans. It is by
Basal ganglia far the most important part of the brain in
 Basal ganglia, which is the name given to a human beings. 
group of cells nested deep in the white  The cerebrum is what makes us human, it is
matter of the frontal lobes in these cells help the part of the brain that does thinking,
us organize our movements by choosing perceiving, of cognitive and social
appropriate actions and inhibiting our understanding that we use without even
actions until we know that they are suitable being aware of it. 
for the situation.   The surface of the cerebrum is composed of
 The basal ganglia also include caudate gray matter and it consists of cell bodies of
nuclei which are also involved in planning neurons and the other cells which support
actions and in coordinating the learning of them. 
habits and rule-based actions.   The cerebrum itself is divided into two
 The area that known as the globus pallidus, halves, a bit like a giant walnut if you think
which is also about regulating the liberate about it. The two halves are left and right
movements so that it is coordinated and cerebral hemispheres, they are largely
fluid.  separated but they have a crossover, a thick
 As you might have expected the basal band known as the corpus callosum,
ganglia have close links with the cerebellum connects these two separate halves. This is
and damage to any of these areas can a mass of nerve fibers which pass
produce problems with movements.  messages from one side of the brain to the
 The cingulate gyrus cortex is a large area other side of the brain to coordinate our
of the brain just above the corpus callosum, actions and cognitions. 
although it is continuous with the cerebrum  The two halves work together but have
itself it is often considered to belong to the slightly different functions, in general, the
limbic system partly because of its left cerebral hemisphere controls the right
connection and the way it works so closely side of the body, while the right cerebral
with the other parts of the system
 hemisphere controls the left side of the  Insula has a strong connection with our
body.  systems for control movement and cognition
 Deep grooves with rounded areas between that is thinking and memory. 
them are known as sulcus, and the mount
between the grooves is known as gyrus.
(plural is sulci and gyri)
 The deep sulcus which divides the two
halves of the cerebrum is known as the
medial sulcus, while the medial sulcus is the
dividing line between left and right cerebral
hemisphere.
 They are joined by the corpus callosum but
the joint is so deeply buried between the
two that it cannot be seen from the surface.
On each hemisphere are two particularly
long and deep sulci. This divide each
cerebral hemisphere into 4 lobes:
 (1) lateral fissure, runs along the side of the
brain and an area of the brain called
temporal lobe, processing the sound that we
hear. (2) major sulcus is the central sulcus
or central fissure, which runs across the top
of the brain and separates the front part
known as frontal lobe, from the area behind
it which is known as (3) parietal lobe.
Frontal lobe is concerned with decision
making, planning, and movement, while the
parietal lobe integrates various kinds of
sensory information. (4) occipital lobe is not
defined by sulcus as the other 3, but it is the
area at the very back of our brain and is
distinctively concerned with vision. 
 Some of the interesting parts of the
cerebrum are tucked right underneath the
lobes where they fold themselves for
example under the certain room but still part
of it is a thin but widespread layer of cells
that links together many different areas of
the cerebral cortex and connects them with
many of the structures in the limbic system
called colostrum, is crucial to
consciousness and what we experience as
our connected awareness. 
 Insula an area of the cortex folded deep
and inside the lateral fissure this too is
involved in consciousness and also with
social perception (empathy, compassion,
self-awareness, and emotions
experiences)  
 Rizal  them to go ahead so the state could then
Aralin 1: Pagpapakahulugan sa
Nasyonalismo Alinsunod sa Batas Rizal
at Konteksto ng Kapanahunan nito.
Bakit kailangan pag-aralan ang buhay ni
Rizal?
 Republic Act of 1425
 Naisabatas noong June 12, 1956 (panahon
ni President Magsaysay)
 Claro M. Recto and Jose P. Laurel  ideolohiyang politikal ng pagiging
 May orihinal na titulong “ An act to include in
the Curricula of al public and private,
colleges and universities courses on the
Life, Works and Writings of Jose Rizal,
particularly his novels Noli Me and El  Fili,
authorizing the printings and distribution
thereof, and for other purposes.”
 Sections 1-5  nangangailanagn ng mga kondisyong
Ang Kwento ng Batas Rizal
Ang kalagayan ng Pilipinas noong 1950’s
(post-war)
 Hukbalahap:
o Walang kasiguraduhan ang buhay sa
bansa.
o Paglaganap ng Hukbalahap Insurgency  
o Presensya ng Imperyalismo bunsod ng
patuloy na pakikialam ng Estados
Unidos sa mga usaping pampulitika at
pang-ekonomiya ng Pilipinas
 Bell Trade Act (1947); Parity Rights:
malayang paggamit ng EU sa likas na
yaman ng bansa.
 Laurel-Langley Agreement: malayang
kalakalan sa pagitan ng EU at Pilipinas
nagreresulta sa pagbaha ng American
goods sa Pilipinas.
 Talamak ang korapsyon at marumi ang
politika sa bansa.
Simbahan kontra batas Rizal
 “Going through the novels with a fine-tooth
comb, specific passages were deemed
offensive to the Catholic faith. Church
spokesmen argued that Catholics could
read selected passages from Rizal’s work,
but to compel Catholics to read Rizal’s
novels in its “unexpurgated” or uncensored
version was to force heresy on them and
violate their freedom of conscience.
Catholic schools put up a good fight and
even threatened to close down if the Rizal
bill was passed. Claro M. Recto calmly told
nationalize all the schools and teach what it
wanted. The Church retreated bu
threatened to “punish” erring legislators in
future elections. Recto was undaunted.” -A.
Ocampo (The Fight Over the Rizal Law)
Ang konsepto ng Nasyonalismo 
 Pagmamahal sa bayan/bansa 
 “Ito ay isang sistema ng paniniwala o
makabansa, ng katapatan sa interes ng
bansa, ng identipikasyon nang may
pagmamalaki sa kultura at tradisyon ng
bansa, at ng paglulunggating matama ang
pambansang pagsulong. Pinaniniwalaang
ang nasyonalismo ay pangyayari
kamakailan lamang naganap at
estruktural ng mga modernong lipunan. Ang
mga pambansang watawat, pambansang
awit, at iba pang simbolo ng mga
pagkakakilanlang pambansa ay itinuturing
na mahalagang sagisag ng pagkakabuklod-
buklod” (Almario, 2015)
3 theories about the roots of the nation:
o Primordialism- national identity has
always existed and nations have “ethic
cores” 
o Modernity- nation, national identity, and
nationalism are products of modern
condition and are shaped by modernity. 
o Constructivist- nationalism is socially
constructed by people who identify with
a group. Nations are “imagined
communities” (Anderson, 2003)
 Ang salitang nasyonalismo, mula sa
German na nationalismus, ay nilikha ni
Johann Gottfried Herder noong 1770s. Hindi
tiyak kung saan umusbong ang
nasyonalismo ngunit pinaniniwalaang ang
pag-unlad nito ay mahigpit na kaugnay ng
modernisasyon ng estado at ng pagtangkilik
sa soberanyang popular.  
 Ang sentimiyentong ito ay sumidhi at naging
politikal noong Rebolusyong French at
Rebolusyong Amerikano ng huling bahagi
ng siglo 18. Ang nasyonalismo ay naging
mahalagang puwersang politikal at sosyal
sa kasaysayan at naging impluwensya sa
naganap na Una at Ikalawang Digmaang
Pandaigdig. 
 Ang paniwala ng iskolar na si Benedict
Anderson, ang pagkalat ng mga limbag na
teksto at ang pag-unlad ng sistema ng
palimbagan sa kabuuan ng lumikha at
pumukaw ng kamalayang makabansa ng
mga tao.  Salazar
Nation vs Bayan
 Virgilio Enriquez- Sikolohiyang Pilipino
 Prospero Covar- Antropolohiyang Pilipino
 Zeus Salazar- Bagong Kasaysayan
Aralin 2: Si Rizal bilang National Hero ng
Pilipinas  sa kanyang sariling grupo at nakatuon
 “The Philippines has no official national hero
since there is “no law, executive order or
proclamation” enacted officially and
explicitly proclaiming any Filipino historical
figure as such.” -National Commission for
Culture and the Arts
Why Nations have their Heroes?
 They demonstrate bast of a what a person
can be.
 They work for the general good.
 They developed and manifested strong
conviction which aimed to save their country
from severe challenges.
 “A hero is not self-seeking, nor he seeks
reward for his heroism. Most individuals
who were considered heroes preferred
humility and anonymity. It is the people that
seek them and call them as heroes.”  –Dr.
Augusto V. de Viana
 “May kontekstong kultural ang bawat
kahulugan ng mga salita…” -Dr. Zeus
 The Western-inspired educational system
taught us this definition; that is why we see
heroes as larger than life characters with
extraordinary strength, extraordinary
courage and extraordinary intellect.
 Hero- In Greek tradition, a hero was a
human, male or female, of the remote past,
who was endowed with superhuman
abilities by virtue of being descended from
an immortal god (Harvard Press).
Kahulugan ng salitang “bayani”
 Ang mga ilustrado na katulad nina José
Rizal, Gregorio del Pilar, Emilio Aguinaldo
ay hindi maaaring maging bayani, kundi
mga kanluraning héroe hindi lang dahil sa
kanilang kaisipang kanluranin kundi dahil sa
kanilang astá na makikita sa kanilang mga
larawang potograpiko na nagpapakita ng
pagpapahalaga sa sariling persona.
 Si Andres Bonifacio at iba pang ordinaryong
miyembro ng Katipunan ang maituturing na
bayani sapagkat lumaban sila kasama ng
bayan at para sa bayan.
Bayani vs Heroe
 “Ang pinakabuod ng lahat ng pagkakaibang
ito ay makakatas sa indibidwalismo at pre-
okupasyon ng héroe sa sariling “persona,”
kung ihahambing sa bayani na nakapaloob
lamang at tangi sa pagpapaibayo ng interes
ng grupo. ...Ang kilos naman ng bayani ay
batay sa ugaling bayan, kung saan mas
pinahahalagahan ang pagpapakita ng
kababaang-loob at ang pagiging katulad
lamang ng ibang kasama.” (Salazar 1997,
3-4)
 Mahalaga ang pag-uuri ng heroé sa bayani
sapagkat dito na maaaring liwanagin, ano
ba talaga ang bayani sa konseptong Pilipino
at masasabi at madali na nating ilagay sa
isip ng bawat isa, hindi mo kailangang
maging ikaw si superman o Rizal, kailangan
lampasan natin sina Rizal, maaari tayong
maging bayani sa sarili nating paraan.
 Bayani si Rizal dahil kinikilala ng bayan ang  Dynastic Shift (Habsburg vs Bourbons)
kanyang pagiging ekstraordinaryo.  Gob. Hen. Jose Basco Y Vargas (1778-
 Hindi man bayani si Rizal bilang kasama ng 1787)- nagtaguyod ng mahahalagang
bayan sa pakikibaka, siya naman ay tila polisiyang pangkabuhayan sa Pilipinas sa
isang bayani tulad sa epiko. Hindi mga huling taon ng ika-18 siglo.
pangkaraniwan, ngunit bayani pa rin.  “Real Compania De Filipinas”
Makikitang iilan lamang ang elit na  Tobacco Monopoly 
itinatawid ng bayan sa ganitong pedestal.  Mexican War of Independence 
 Hindi mga akademiko at ang estado ang  End of Galleon Trade (1815) Pilipinas to
nagtatakda ng kung sino ang dapat Acappulco 
kilalaning bayani. Tanging ang bayan  Pagbubukas ng Pilipinas sa Pandaigdigang
lamang. Kalakalan
 Yakapin natin kapwa ang ating mga heroé  Ang mabilis na pag-unlad ng ekonomiya ay
at bayani at matuto tayo sa kanilang nagsimulang maranasan sa Pilipinas sa
nagawa at maging inspirasyon sila sa atin pamamagitan ng mga salaping nagmumula
na kahit mahirap man tayo o elitista, may sa pag-eexport ng mga pananim. Sa unang
maiaambag tayo sa pagbubuo at hati ng ika-19 na dantaon, karamihan sa
pagpapaunlad ng bansa. mga export na ito mula Pilipinas ay
Criteria for Recognizing Heroes  nanggagaling sa mga pananim gaya ng
1. The extent of a person’s sacrifices for the tabako, asukal, bulak, indigo, abaka, at
welfare of the country. (Teodoro Agoncillo) kape. 
2. The motive and methods employed in the  Hacenderos
attainment of the ideal (welfare of the  Inquilinos (nag rerenta ng lupa sa mga
country). (Teodoro Agoncillo) farmers) 
3. The moral character of the person  Kasama
concerned. (Teodoro Agoncillo) o “pacto de retroventa” 
4. The influence of the person concerned on
his age and/or the succeeding age.
(Teodoro Agoncillo)
5. Heroes are those who have a concept of
nation and thereafter aspire and struggle for
the nation’s freedom… (Onofre D. Corpuz)
6. Heroes are those who define and contribute
to a system or life of freedom and order for
a nation. (Onofre D. Corpuz)
7. Heroes are those who contribute to the
quality of life and destiny of a nation.
(Onofre D. Corpuz) 
8. A hero is part of people's expression.
(Alfredo Lagmay)
9. A hero thinks of the future, especially the
future generations. (Alfredo Lagmay)
10. The choice of a hero involves not only the
recounting of an episode or events in
history, but of the entire process that made
this particular person a hero. (Alfredo
Lagmay) 
Aralin 3: Si Rizal sa Konteksto ng Ika-19
na Dantaon
Ang Nagbabagong Kabuhayan at
Lipunan ng Pilipinas